DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION OF SOLAR FRIDGE

Submitted by

S.ASHOK KUMAR 812716114016

K.MANISANKAR 812716114054

S.MURUGAN 812716114058

P.RAJKUMAR 812716114306

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MEENAKSHI RAMASWAMY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

THATHANUR 621804

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2020

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

i
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION OF
SOLAR FRIDGE ” is the bonafide work of
S.ASHOK KUMAR(812716114016),K.MANISANKAR(812716114054),
S.MURUGAN(812716114158),P.RAJKUMAR(812716114066),who
carried out the project work under my supervision

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr.V.SATHISHKUMAR.M.E., Mr.T.THANGABALU.M.E.,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
MeenakshiRamaswamy Engineering MeenakshiRamaswamy Engineering
College,Thathanur-621 804. college,Thathanur-621 804.

Submitted for the University Examination Held on .....................

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is great opportunity to express our sincere thanks to all the people who
have contributed to the successful completion of our project work through their support,
encouragement and guidance.
With profoundness, We express our deep sense of thanks to
Ln.M.R.RAHUNAATHAN M.A, M.L., Correspondent & Secretary for providing me an
opportunity to take his valuable advice to our technical knowledge in planning and designing
independently and confidently.
We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to
Ln.M.R.KAMALBABU, M.B.A., Joint Secretary, M.R. Educational Institutions,Thathanur
who helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.
We are very much thankful to Dr.R.RAJAMANIKAM, M.A., M.Phil,.P.hD,.Director,
M.R.Educational Institutions,Thathanur for his valuable guidance to keep interest and
encouragement at various stages of our project.
We heartily thank to Dr.T.PICHAIAPPA, M.A,.M.PEd.M.Phil. P.hD,.Chief Advisor
M.R.Educational Institutions, Thathanur for giving a moral support to finish this confidently.
We heartily thank to Mr.N.RAMALINGAM, B.E., and Mr.N.GANESAN, M.E.,
Advisors, M.R.Educational Institutions, Thathanur for giving a moral support to finish this
confidently.
We express our honour thanks to Dr.G.SENTHIL KUMARAN,M.Tech., P.hD.,
Managing Director of M.R.E.C, Thathanur, for his support and encouragement for making
this project successfully.
We are sincerely graceful to Dr.N.MATHIAZHAGAN M.E, P.hD, Principal
M.R.E.C, Thathanur, for his valuable support and encouragement in carrying out the project.
We express our gratitude to Mr.V.SATHISHKUMAR, M.E., Head of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his unstinted support and the facilities made
available to do the project
We extend our special and sincere thanks to our guide, Mr,T.THANGABALU.M.E.,
Assistant professor in Mechanical engineering for his intellectual and inspiring guidance
during the project and helping in the successful completion of our project work.

iii
ABSTRACT:

The project investigated and evaluated the feasibility of an absorption

refrigeration unit on solar power. Its effectiveness as a viable refrigeration option
for use in household refrigerators or as an energy efficient and environmentally
friendly alternative to conventional refrigerated air conditioning units used in the
offices are evaluated. A prototype model that is capable of producing a temperature
change in the evaporator was designed, fabricated and tested. A parabolic solar
trough was used as a source of heat gain. The model utilized the technology of an
intermittent absorption refrigeration system. The performances and effectiveness of
the unit was studied by determining refrigeration effect (RE), coefficient of
performance (COP) and explaining operational issues of the unit. The ultimate goal
in the long term would ideally be to reduce the consumption of electricity used for
refrigeration and air conditioning, hence saving money and reducing the stress on
our electricity generation and distribution networks.

TABLE OF CONTENT
4
 INTRODUCTION
 DESIGN OF THE PROJECT
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
 COMPONENTS NEEDED
 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS
o PARABOLIC TROUGH
o HEATING COIL
o CONDENSER COIL
o EVAPORATOR
 ADVANTAGES
 APPLICATIONS
 CONCLUSION

5
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
As the world becomes more self aware of the changing climatic conditions
caused by global warming it is vital to reassess our dependence on the burning of
fossil fuels to gain energy. The alternatives for gaining this energy can be found in
the sources of renewable energy such as solar, wind, biomass, wave and tide, etc..
In particular, the solar energy alternative is now being more closely examined in an
attempt to utilize this as a source of energy for both domestic and commercial end
users such as refrigerators, air conditioners, hot water heaters, desalination for
water recycling, etc. In this study, the adoption of solar energy as the primary
source of power for an intermittent absorption refrigeration system is investigated.
The design, fabrication and testing of such a system is presented and discussed.
The performances and effectiveness of the unit as house hold refrigerators is
analyzed. Operational issues, suitability and problems of the unit are discussed.
1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

6
 Figure 1.1 block diagram
1.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE
The basic operating principals of continuously operating absorption
refrigerators are the same as the intermittent with the exception of the critical
components allowing the system to run on a continuous basis powered by a heat
source such as gas/solar/kerosene, etc. The configuration of a continuous system
involves the generator, condenser and evaporator the same as an intermittent
system but also incorporates an absorber positioned between the evaporator and
generator. This additional component allows the refrigerant to recombine with the
absorbent while the generator continues to operate. A bubble pump which
resembles a coffee percolator is also used in most designs to transport the weak
absorbent from the generator to the absorber to receive refrigerant which has
completed the circuit. This type of system also requires the use of hydrogen. This
element is located in the evaporator and helps the ammonia vaporize increasing the
efficiency of the system.
1.3 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
The basic operations of an absorption refrigeration unit involve freeing the
refrigerant from its bonds with the absorbent material and then condensing it under
pressure. This liquid refrigerant is then evaporated by reducing its pressure in turn
absorbing heat from its surroundings and creating cold. This cold is called
refrigeration effect (RE) which is achieved in the evaporator. There are two distinct
types of absorption refrigeration units these are the intermittent and continuously
operating systems.
In intermittent operating system, the heat is only applied to the generator of
the system once per day. The application of heat separates the refrigerant from the
absorbent, condenses it and then the liquid refrigerant is stored. These systems
operate at a single pressure which self regulates the condensation and evaporation
7
rates of the refrigerant. Once the internal pressure of the system drops below the
vapor pressure of the refrigerant it begins to evaporate. This in turn increases the
system pressure until the refrigerant combines again with the absorbent material.
The stored refrigerant usually produces a cooling effect for approximately 12 to 18
hours at which stage more heat is applied to the generating unit
The basic operating principals of continuously operating absorption
refrigerators are the same as the intermittent with the exception of the critical
components allowing the system to run on a continuous basis powered by a heat
source such as gas/solar/kerosene, etc. The configuration of a continuous system
involves the generator, condenser and evaporator the same as an intermittent
system but also incorporates an absorber positioned between the evaporator and
generator. This additional component allows the refrigerant to recombine with the
absorbent while the generator continues to operate. A bubble pump which
resembles a coffee percolator is also used in most designs to transport the weak
absorbent from the generator to the absorber to receive refrigerant which has
completed the circuit. This type of system also requires the use of hydrogen. This
element is located in the evaporator and helps the ammonia vaporize increasing the
efficiency of the system.
The absorption refrigeration systems have lower COP compared to that of a
vapour compression system. The COP of absorption refrigeration system can be
determined by

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

8
 The layout of the system was very simple involving only three main
components being the combination collector generator for heating the salt
ammonia mixture, condenser coil in water bath and an evaporator where distilled
ammonia collects during generation as shown in the line diagram. This system
used a parabolic trough collector to heat a tube at its focal point. This tube formed
the generator for the absorption system giving it direct heating from the sun.
1.5 COMPONENTS USED IN THE PROJECT
 PARABOLIC TROUGH
 HEATING COIL
 CONDENSER COIL
 EVAPORATOR

CHAPTER 2
9
 LITRATURE REVIEW
A small refrigerator (110 W) operated by a photovoltaic generator was used
in this study. The performance of the refrigerator was exhibited in several figs
where the power (P, in W), the capacity (cap, in W) and the coefficient of
performance (COP) were treated as the dependent parameters. The evaporating
temperature (T e, in °C) and the condensing temperature (T c, °C) were used as the
independent parameters. Experimental results showed that solar energy system
using deep discharge batteries with inverter is an attractive substitute for the mains
power; the performance curves indicated an acceptable performance of the unit.
Daily energy consumption by this refrigerator reaches about 0.5 kW h/day. For a
building of 50 offices a 25 kW h/day can be extracted from such systems. This will
reduce CO2 emission of around 15 kg/day (5.5 tons per year).
1]M.Surendra Reddy1 , G.Venkatesh2 , K.Jayasimha Reddy3 , B.Suresh4
1,2,3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Assistant Professor, G. Pulla
Reddy Engineering College, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, (India) 4Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Assistant Professor, RGM College Of Engineering
and Technology (India)
Thermal energy storage through phase change material has been used for
wide applications in the field of air conditioning and refrigeration. The specific use
of this thermal storage has been for energy storage during low demand and release
of this energy during peak loads with potential to provide energy savings due to
this. Lately through the application of this type of phase change materials in
refrigeration to save energy or operate during the power outage has been under
active consideration. The use of latent heat storage is especially suited to the
storage of energy to prolong food preservation time and also use the excessive
stored energy to improve the freezer cooling cycle by its release at appropriate

10
time. The principle of latent heat storage using phase change materials (PCMs) can
be incorporated into a thermal storage system suitable for using deep freezers. The
evaporator is covered with another box which has storage capacity or passage
through phase change material. The objective of this work is to prolong the food
preservation time. The energy stored in the PCM is yielded to the refrigerator cell
during the off cycle and allows several hours of continuous operation without
power supply. The main objective is to improve the performance , cooling time
period, storage capability, and to maintain the constant cooling effect for more
time during power off periods using the phase change material (KCl+H2O). The
results revealed that the performance is increased from 3.2 to 3.5 by using PCM
(KCl+H2O).
The use of a latent heat storage system using phase change materials (PCM)
is an effective storing thermal energy and has the advantages of high storage
density and the isothermal nature of the storage process .it has been demonstrated
that, for the development of a latent heat storage system, choice of the PCM plays
an important role Sharma et al
.[1], suggested various types of latent heat storage materials and advantages
of a latent heat storage system. This paper is a compilation of much of practical
information on various PCMs and latent heat storage system. Review will help to
find the suitable PCM for various purposes , suitable heat exchangers with ways to
enhance the heat transfer ,and it will also help to provide a variety of designs to
store heat using PCMs for different applications, that is space heating &cooling
,solar cooking, greenhouses ,solar water heating and waste heat recovery systems.
Thermo-physical property measurement techniques, thermal cycles testing for
stability and enhancement of heat transfer in PCMs are discussed in this paper.
This paper contains a list of about 250 PCMs and more than 250 references. B.
Zalba et al.
11
 [2], studied the performance of a latent heat storage system with solid,
liquid phase change . This paper also provides a review of studies dealing with
thermal energy storage (TES) using phase change materials . This paper contains a
complete review of the types of material which have been used as latent heat
storage materials, their classification. Characteristics, advantages and
disadvantages and the various experimental techniques used to determine the
behaviour of these materials in melting and solidification. The paper contains listed
over 150 materials used in research as PCMs ,and about 45 commercially available
PCMs. M.Cheralathan et al.
investigated the transient behaviour of a phase change material based cool
thermalenergy storage (CTES) system comprised of a cylindrical storage tank
filled with encapsulated phase change materials (PCMs) in spherical container
integrated with an ethylene glycol chiller plant. A simulation program was
developed to evaluate the temperature histories of the heat transfer fluid (HTF) and
the phase change material at any axial location during the charging period. The
results of the model were validated by comparison with experimental results of
temperature profiles of HTF and PCM. The results showed that increase in porosity
contributes to a higher rate of energy storage.
K.Azzouz et al
studied the effect of adding a phase change material (PCM) slab on the
outside face of a refrigerator evaporator. A dynamic model of the vapour
compression cycle including the presence of the phase change material and its
experimental validation is presented. The simulation results of the system with
PCM show that the addition of thermal inertia globally enhances heat transfer from
the evaporator and allows a higher evaporating temperature, which increases the
energy efficiency of the system. The energy stored in the PCM is yielded to the
refrigerator cell during the off cycle and allows for several hours of continuous
12
operation without power supply. The phase change material considered in this
study is a eutectic aqueous solution whose phase change temperature may be
chosen in the range from -9°c to 0°c. The PCM slab is located on the back side of
the evaporator, between the insulation and the evaporator, and the surface of the
PCM slab is about 0.48m
S. Kalaiselvam et zal
analyzes the behaviour of three paraffins, 60% ntetradecane+40% n-
hexadecane, ntetradecane, and n- pentadecane as latent heat storage materials.
J.P.Bedecarrats et al.
analyzed an industrial process of energy storage usable for air conditioning or
refrigeration. Investigating a test plant which is a tank with a reduced size. Filled
with randomly dispersed commercial nodules, placed in a refrigeration loop. The
nodules are spherical capsules in which phase change materials (PCM) are
encapsulated. This test plant permits the study at length of the behaviour of the
tank with, in particular, the charge mode taking into account the under cooling and
the discharge mode . A simulation program that considers aspects of both the
surrounding heat transfer fluid and the phase-change material packed inside the
nodules is developed here in the cases of the charge and the discharge processes,
The simulation results are then compared with experimental observations

CHAPTER 3
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION
3.1 PARABOLIC TROUGH
13
 A parabolic trough is a type of collector that is straight in one dimension and
curved as a parabola in the other two, lined with a polished metal mirror. The
energy of sunlight which enters the mirror parallel to its plane of symmetry is
focused along the focal line, where objects are positioned that are intended to be
heated. For example, food may be placed at the focal line of a trough, which causes
the food to be cooked when the trough is aimed so the Sun is in its plane of
symmetry. Further information on the use of parabolic troughs for cooking can be
found in the article about solar cookers.
For other purposes, there is often a tube, frequently a Dewar, which runs the
length of the trough at its focal line. The mirror is oriented so that sunlight which it
reflects is concentrated on the tube, which contains a fluid which is heated to a
high temperature by the energy of the sunlight. The hot fluid can be used for many
purposes. Often, it is piped to a heat engine, which uses the heat energy to drive
machinery or to generate electricity. This solar energy collector is the most
common and best known type of parabolic trough. The paragraphs below therefore
concentrate on this type.

Figure 3.1:Parabolic Trough

3.2 EFFICIENCY
The trough is usually aligned on a north-south axis, and rotated to track the
sun as it moves across the sky each day. Alternatively, the trough can be aligned on
an east-west axis; this reduces the overall efficiency of the collector due to cosine
14
loss but only requires the trough to be aligned with the change in seasons, avoiding
the need for tracking motors. This tracking method approaches theoretical
efficiencies at the spring and fall equinoxes with less accurate focusing of the light
at other times during the year. The daily motion of the sun across the sky also
introduces errors, greatest at the sunrise and sunset and smallest at solar noon. Due
to these sources of error, seasonally adjusted parabolic troughs are generally
designed with a lower concentration acceptance product.
Parabolic trough concentrators have a simple geometry, but their
concentration is about 1/3 of the theoretical maximum for the same acceptance
angle, that is, for the same overall tolerances of the system to all kinds of errors,
including those referenced above. The theoretical maximum is better achieved with
more elaborate concentrators based on primary-secondary designs
usingnonimaging optics which may nearly double the concentration of
conventional parabolic troughs and are used to improve practical designs such as
those with fixed receivers.
3.3 DESIGN
Heat transfer fluid (usually thermal oil) runs through the tube to absorb the
concentrated sunlight. This increases the temperature of the fluid to some
400°C. The heat transfer fluid is then used to heat steam in a standard turbine
generator. The process is economical and, for heating the pipe, thermal efficiency
ranges from 60-80%. The overall efficiency from collector to grid, i.e. (Electrical
Output Power)/(Total Impinging Solar Power) is about 15%, similar to PV
(Photovoltaic Cells) but less than Stirling dish concentrators.

15
 Figure 3.2:solar panel
Most mirrors used are parabolic and single-piece. In addition, V-type
parabolic troughs exist which are made from 2 mirrors and placed at an angle
towards each other.
In 2009, scientists at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
and Sky Fuel teamed to develop large curved sheets of metal that have the
potential to be 30% less expensive than today's best collectors of concentrated
solar power by replacing glass-based models with a silver polymer sheet that has
the same performance as the heavy glass mirrors, but at a much lower cost and
much lower weight. It also is much easier to deploy and install. The glossy film
uses several layers of polymers, with an inner layer of pure silver.

16
 As this renewable source of energy is inconsistent by nature, methods for
energy storage have been studied, for instance the single-tank (thermocline)
storage technology for large-scale solar thermal power plants. The thermocline
tank approach uses a mixture of silica sand and quartzite rock to displace a
significant portion of the volume in the tank. Then it is filled with the heat transfer
fluid, typically a molten nitrate salt.
Enclosed trough
Enclosed trough systems are used to produce process heat. The design
encapsulates the solar thermal system within a greenhouse-like glasshouse. The
glasshouse creates a protected environment to withstand the elements that can
negatively impact reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system.
[9]
 Lightweight curved solar-reflecting mirrors are suspended from the ceiling of the
glasshouse by wires. A single-axis tracking system positions the mirrors to retrieve
the optimal amount of sunlight. The mirrors concentrate the sunlight and focus it
on a network of stationary steel pipes, also suspended from the glasshouse
structure. Water is carried throughout the length of the pipe, which is boiled to
generate steam when intense sun radiation is applied. Sheltering the mirrors from
the wind allows them to achieve higher temperature rates and prevents dust from
building up on the mirrors
3.4 HEATING ELEMENT
 A heating element converts electricity into heat through the process of Joule
heating. Electric current through the element encounters resistance, resulting
in heating of the element.
 Most heating elements use Nichrome 80/20 (80% nickel, 20% chromium)
wire, ribbon, or strip. Nichrome 80/20 is an ideal material, because it has
relatively high resistance and forms an adherent layer of chromium oxide

17
 when it is heated for the first time. Material beneath this layer will not
oxidize, preventing the wire from breaking or burning out.

Figure 3.4 heating coil

 Resistance wire: may be wire or ribbon, straight or coiled. Used in common
items such as toasters and hair dryers, furnaces for industrial heating, floor
heating, roof heating, pathway heating to melt snow, dryers, etc. Most
common wires are from the following classes
 Kanthal (FeCrAl) wires
 Nichrome 80/20 wire and strip
 Cupronickel (CuNi) alloys for low temperature heating
 Molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2, molybdenum silicide), an intermetallic
compound, a silicide of molybdenum, is a refractory ceramic with primary
use in heating elements. It has moderate density, melting point 2030 °C, and
is electrically conductive. At high temperatures it forms a passivation layer
of silicon dioxide, protecting it from further oxidation. The application area
includes glass industry, ceramic sintering, heat treatment furnaces and
semiconductor diffusion furnaces.
 Molybdenum disilicide doped with Al or Mo(Si,Al)2, an intermetallic
compound and a silicide of molybdenum, is a refractory ceramic with
primary use in heating elements. At high temperatures it forms a passivation
layer of alumina (Al2O3) protecting it from corrosion or further oxidation.
18
 The application area includes glass industry, ceramic sintering, heat
treatment furnaces and semiconductor diffusion furnaces. This doped
material works at temperatures 300 °C higher in reducing atmospheres than
MoSi2.
 Screen-printed metal–ceramic tracks deposited on ceramic insulated metal
(generally steel) plates. These elements have found widespread application
for kettles and other domestic appliances since the mid 1990s.
 Etched foil: elements are generally made from the same alloys as Resistance
wire elements, but are produced with a subtractive photo-etching process
that starts with a continuous sheet of metal foil and ends with a complex
resistance pattern. These elements are commonly found in precision heating
applications such as medical diagnostics and aerospace.
 Tubular (sealed element): a fine coil of Nichrome wire in a ceramic
insulating binder (MgO, alumina powder), sealed inside a tube made of
stainless steel or brass. These can be a straight rod (as in toaster ovens) or
curved to span an area to be heated (such as in electric stoves, ovens, and
coffee makers).
 Heat lamp: a high-powered incandescent lamp usually run at less than
maximum power to radiate mostly infrared instead of visible light. These are
usually found in radiant space heaters and food warmers, taking either a
long, tubular form or an R40 reflector-lamp form. The reflector lamp style is
often tinted red to minimize the visible light produced; the tubular form is
always clear.
 PTC ceramic: this material is named for its positive thermal coefficient of
resistance (i.e., resistance increases upon heating). Most ceramics have a
negative coefficient, whereas most metals have positive values. While
metals do become slightly more resistant at higher temperatures, this class of
19
 ceramics (often barium titanate and lead titanate composites) has a highly
nonlinear thermal response, so that it becomes extremely resistant above a
composition-dependent threshold temperature. This behavior causes the
material to act as its own thermostat, since current passes when it is cool,
and does not when it is hot. Thin films of this material are used in
automotive rear-window defrost heaters, and honeycomb-shaped elements
are used in more expensive hair dryers and space heaters.
 Thick film technology:
 Heating elements for high-temperature furnaces are often made of exotic
materials, including platinum, molybdenum disilicide, molybdenum
(vacuum furnaces) and silicon carbide. Silicon carbide igniters are common
in gas ovens.
3.5 THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT
 The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences
to electric voltage and vice-versa. A thermoelectric device creates voltage
when there is a different temperature on each side. Conversely, when a
voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature difference. At the atomic
scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in the material
to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side.
 This effect can be used to generate electricity, measure temperature or
change the temperature of objects. Because the direction of heating and
cooling is determined by the polarity of the applied voltage, thermoelectric
devices are efficient temperature controllers.
 The term "thermoelectric effect" encompasses three separately identified
effects: the Seebeck effect, Peltier effect and Thomson effect. Textbooks
may refer to it as the Peltier–Seebeck effect. This separation derives from
the independent discoveries of French physicist Jean Charles Athanase
20
 Peltier and Baltic German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck. Joule heating,
the heat that is generated whenever a voltage is applied across a resistive
material, is related though it is not generally termed a thermoelectric effect.
 The Peltier–Seebeck and Thomson effects are thermodynamically reversible,
whereas Joule heating is not.
3.6 SEEBACK EFFECT
 The Seebeck effect is the conversion of temperature differences directly into
electricity and is named for the Baltic German physicist Thomas Johann
Seebeck, who, in 1821 discovered that a compass needle would be deflected
by a closed loop formed by two metals joined in two places, with a
temperature difference between the junctions.
 This was because the metals responded differently to the temperature
difference, creating a current loop and a magnetic field. Seebeck did not
recognize there was an electric current involved, so he called the
phenomenon the thermomagnetic effect. Danish physicist Hans Christian
Ørsted rectified the mistake and coined the term "thermoelectricity". The
voltage created by this effect is of the order of several microvolts per kelvin
difference. One such combination, copper-constantan, has a Seebeck
coefficient of 41 microvolts per kelvin at room temperature.
 The voltage V developed can be derived from:

 where and are the thermopowers (Seebeck coefficient) of metals A and

B as a function of temperature and and are the temperatures of the two
junctions. The Seebeck coefficients are non-linear as a function of
temperature, and depend on the conductors' absolute temperature, material,
and molecular structure. If the Seebeck coefficients are effectively constant
21
 for the measured temperature range, the above formula can be approximated
as:


 The Seebeck effect is used in the thermocouple to measure a temperature

difference; absolute temperature may be found by setting one end to a
known temperature. A metal of unknown composition can be classified by
its thermoelectric effect if a metallic probe of known composition, kept at a
constant temperature, is held in contact with it. Industrial quality control
instruments use this as thermoelectric alloy sorting to identify metal alloys.
Thermocouples in series form a thermopile, sometimes constructed in order
to increase the output voltage, since the voltage induced over each individual
couple is small. Thermoelectric generators are used for creating power from
heat differentials and exploit this effect.
 The Seebeck effect is present in a single conductor, but in practice cannot be
measured due to the net loop voltage in a similar metal junction circuit being
zero.
Thermopower
 The thermo power or Seebeck coefficient, represented by S, of a material
measures the magnitude of an induced thermoelectric voltage in response to
a temperature difference across that material, and the entropy per charge
carrier in the material. S has units of V/K, though μV/K is more common.
Values in the hundreds of μV/K, regardless of sign, are typical of good
thermoelectric materials.

 The term "thermopower" is a misnomer since it does not measure power, but
measures the voltage induced in response to a temperature difference. An
applied temperature difference causes charged carriers in the material to
22
 diffuse from the hot side to the cold side. Mobile charged carriers migrating
to the cold side leave behind their oppositely charged nuclei at the hot side
thus giving rise to a thermoelectric voltage.
 Since a separation of charges creates an electric potential, the buildup of
charged carriers onto the cold side eventually ceases at some maximum
value since the electric field is at equilibrium. An increase in the temperature
difference resumes a buildup of charge carriers on the cold side, leading to
an increase in the thermoelectric voltage, and vice versa.
 The material's temperature and crystal structure influence S; typically metals
have small thermo powers because of half-filled bands caused by equal
negative and positive charges cancelling each other's contribution to the
induced thermoelectric voltage. In contrast, semiconductors can be doped
with excess electrons or electron holes, causing the magnitude of S to be
large. The sign of the thermopower determines which charged carriers
dominate the electric transport.
 If the temperature difference between the two ends of a material is small,
then the thermopower of a material is defined approximately[5] as:

and a thermoelectric voltage of ΔV is seen at the terminals.

 This can be written in relation to the electric field and the temperature
gradient by the approximate equation:

 The absolute thermo power of the material of interest is rarely practically

measured because electrodes attached to a voltmeter must be placed onto the
material in order to measure the thermoelectric voltage, inducing a

23
 thermoelectric voltage across one leg of the measurement electrodes. The
measured thermo power then includes the thermo power of the material of
interest and the material of the measurement electrodes and is written as:

 Superconductors have S = 0 since the charged carriers produce no entropy.

This allows a direct measurement of the absolute thermo power of the
material of interest, since it is the thermo power of the entire thermocouple.
In addition, a measurement of the Thomson coefficient , of a material

yields the thermo power through the relation

 S is an important material parameter that determines the efficiency of a
thermoelectric material; a larger induced thermoelectric voltage and a higher
S mean a higher efficiency

3.7 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT

 The temperature coefficient is the relative change of a physical property
when the temperature is changed by 1 Kelvin.
 In the following formula, let R be the physical property to be measured and
T be the temperature at which the property is measured. T0 is the reference
temperature, and ΔT is the difference between T and T0. Finally, α is the
(linear) temperature coefficient. Given these definitions, the physical
property is:


 Here α has the dimensions of an inverse temperature (1/K or K−1).

 This equation is linear with respect to temperature. For quantities that vary
polynomially or logarithmically with temperature, it may be possible to
24
 calculate a temperature coefficient that is a useful approximation for a
certain range of temperatures.
 For quantities that vary exponentially with temperature, such as the rate of a
chemical reaction, any temperature coefficient would be valid only over a
very small temperature range.
 Different temperature coefficients are specified for various applications,
including nuclear, electrical and magnetic
 A negative temperature coefficient (NTC) occurs when a physical property
(such as thermal conductivity or electrical resistivity) of a material lowers
with increasing temperature, typically in a defined temperature range. For
most materials, electrical resistivity will increase with increasing
temperature.
 Materials with a negative temperature coefficient have been used in floor
heating since 1971. The negative temperature coefficient avoids excessive
local heating beneath carpets, bean bag chairs, mattresses etc., which can
damage wooden floors, and may infrequently cause fires.
 Most ceramics exhibit NTC behaviour, which is governed by an Arrhenius
equation over a wide range of temperatures:


 where R is resistance, A and B are constants, and T is absolute temperature

(K). The constant B is related to the energies required to form and move the
charge carriers responsible for electrical conduction – hence, as the value of
B decreases, the material becomes insulating. Practical and commercial NTC
resistors aim to combine modest resistance with a value of B that provides
good sensitivity to temperature. Such is the importance of the B constant

25
 value, that it is possible to characterize NTC thermistors using the B
parameter equation:

 where is resistance at temperature . Therefore, many materials that

produce acceptable values of include materials that have been alloyed or
possess variable cation valence states and thus contain a high natural defect
center concentration. The value of B strongly depends on the energy
required to dissociate the charge carriers that are used for the electrical
conduction from these defect centers.
 Reversible temperature coefficient: Residual magnetic flux density or Br
changes with temperature and it is one of the important characteristics of
magnet performance. Some applications, such as interial gyroscopes and
traveling-wave tubes (TWTs), need to have constant field over a wide
temperature range. The reversible temperature coefficient (RTC) of Br is
defined as:

 To address these requirements, temperature compensated magnets were

developed in the late 1970s. For conventional SmCo magnets, Br decreases
as temperature increases. Conversely, for GdCo magnets, Br increases as
temperature increases within certain temperature ranges. By combining
samarium and gadolinium in the alloy, the temperature coefficient can be
reduced to nearly zero.
Temperature coefficient of electrical resistance
 The temperature dependence of electrical resistance and thus of electronic
devices (wires, resistors) has to be taken into account when constructing

26
 devices and circuits. The temperature dependence of conductors is to a great
degree linear and can be described by the approximation below.


where

 just corresponds to the specific resistance temperature coefficient at a

specified reference value (normally T = 0 °C)[2]
 That of a semiconductor is however exponential:

 where is defined as the cross sectional area and and are coefficients
determining the shape of the function and the value of resistivity at a given
temperature.
 For both, is referred to as the resistance temperature coefficient.
 This property is used in devices such as thermistors.
 Positive temperature coefficient of resistance
 A positive temperature coefficient (PTC) refers to materials that experience
an increase in electrical resistance when their temperature is raised.
Materials which have useful engineering applications usually show a
relatively rapid increase with temperature, i.e. a higher coefficient. The
higher the coefficient, the greater an increase in electrical resistance for a
given temperature increase.
3.8 HEATED HOSES
 Heated hoses are used in bonding technology, filling and dosing systems,
medical technology, chemical, pharmaceutical and food industry, extruder
applications, and research & development. The heated hoses are used

27
 wherever a liquid, viscous or melted medium has to be transported from one
place to another, e.g. chocolate, jelly or hot melt. In most applications, the
temperature of the medium needs to remain constant at a specified value
irrespective of variations in ambient temperature.
 Heated hoses are suitable for environments from -40°C to 80°C and can be
used in explosion-proof zones 1/21 and 2/22, if required.
 A heated hose consists of a flexible hose, through which the media is
pumped. This hose determines the resistance against temperature and
chemicals. A heating element is wrapped on the hose and then it is covered
with insulation material. Possible insulation materials are Polyamid, steel
wire, ore silicone. The heating element contains a heat sensor. Fittings and
fixtures can vary with the application.

Figure 3.5 heat house assembly

 Heated hose are generally specified by required inside diameter, working
pressure, operating conditions, voltage, temperature sensor and hose fitting.
 Heated hoses are now available for use around the home and farm.
Commonly used on farms to get water to livestock in northern climates
during the winter.

28
3.9 HEATING MANDLE
 Heating mantle or isomantle is a term for certain pieces of laboratory
equipment used to apply heat to containers, as an alternative to other forms
of heated bath. In contrast to other heating devices, such as hotplates or
bunsen burners, glassware containers may be placed in direct contact with
the heating mantle without substantially increasing the risk of the glassware
shattering, because the heating element of a heating mantle is insulated from
the container so as to prevent excessive temperature gradients.
 Heating mantles may have various forms. In a common arrangement,
electric wires are embedded within a strip of fabric that can be wrapped
around a flask. The current supplied to the device, and hence the temperature
achieved, is regulated by a rheostat. This type of heating mantle is quite
useful for maintaining an intended temperature within a separatory funnel,
for example, after the contents of a reaction have been removed from a
primary heat source.
 Another variety of heating mantle may resemble a paint can, and is
constructed as a "basket" within a cylindrical canister (often made of plastic
or metal such as aluminum).
 The rigid metal exterior supports a "basket" made of fabric, and includes
heating elements within the body of the heating mantle. To heat an object, it
is placed within the basket of the heating mantle.

29
 

 In further contrast to other methods of applying heat to a flask, such as an oil

bath or water bath, using a heating mantle generates no liquid residue to drip
off of the flask. Also, heating mantles generally distribute heat evenly over
the surface of the flask and exhibit less tendency to generate harmful
hotspots.
MOLYBDENUM DISILICIDE

 Molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2, or molybdenum silicide), an intermetallic

compound, a silicide of molybdenum, is a refractory ceramic with primary
use in heating elements. It has moderate density, melting point 2030 °C, and
is electrically conductive. At high temperatures it forms a passivation layer
of silicon dioxide, protecting it from further oxidation. It is a gray metallic-
looking material with tetragonal crystal structure (alpha-modification); its
beta-modification is hexagonal and unstable. It is insoluble in most acids but
soluble in nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid.
 While MoSi2 has excellent resistance to oxidation and high Young's
modulus at temperatures above 1000 °C, it is brittle in lower temperatures.
30
 Also, at above 1200 °C it loses creep resistance. These properties limits its
use as a structural material, but may be offset by using it together with
another material as a composite material.
 Molybdenum disilicide and MoSi2-based materials are usually made by
sintering. Plasma spraying can be used for producing its dense monolithic
and composite forms; material produced this way may contain a proportion
of β-MoSi2 due to its rapid cooling.
 Molybdenum disilicide heating elements can be used for temperatures up to
1800 °C, in electric furnaces used in laboratory and production environment
in production of glass, steel, electronics, ceramics, and in heat treatment of
materials. While the elements are brittle, they can operate at high power
without aging, and their electrical resistivity does not increase with operation
time. Their maximum operating temperature has to be lowered in
atmospheres with low oxygen content due to breakdown of the passivation
layer.
 Other ceramic materials used for heating elements are e.g. silicon carbide,
barium titanate, and lead titanate composite materials.
 Molybdenum disilicide is used in microelectronics as a contact material. It is
often used as a shunt over poly silicon lines to increase their conductivity
and increase signal speed.

31
 CHAPTER 4
CONDENSER
4.1 CONDENSER COIL
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used
to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it.
In so doing, the latent heat is given up by the substance, and will transfer to the
condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat exchangers which have various
designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather small (hand-held) to very
large industrial-scale units used in plant processes. For example, a refrigerator uses
a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the outside
air. Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes such as

32
distillation, steam power plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling
water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers.

Figure 4.1 condenser

4.2 TYPES OF CONDENSER
 A surface condenser is an example of such a heat-exchange system. It is
a exchanger installed at the outlet of every steam turbine in thermal power
stations. Commonly, the water flows through the tube side and the steam
enters the shell side where the condensation occurs on the outside of the heat
transfer tubes. The condensate drips down and collects at the bottom, often
in a built-in pan called a hot well. The shell side often operates at
a vacuum or partial vacuum, often produced by attached air ejectors.
Conversely, the vapor can be fed through the tubes with the coolant water or
air flowing around the outside.
 In chemistry, a condenser is the apparatus which cools hot vapors, causing
them to condense into aliquid. See "Condenser (laboratory)" for laboratory-
33
 scale condensers, as opposed to industrial-scale condensers. Examples
include the Liebig condenser, Graham condenser, and Allihn condenser.
This is not to be confused with a condensation reaction which links two
fragments into a single molecule by an addition reaction and an elimination
reaction.
 In laboratory distillation, reflux, and rotary evaporators, several types of
condensers are commonly used. The Liebig condenser is simply a straight
tube within a cooling water jacket, and is the simplest (and relatively least
expensive) form of condenser. The Graham condenser is a spiral tube within
a water jacket, and the Allihn condenser has a series of large and small
constrictions on the inside tube, each increasing the surface area upon which
the vapor constituents may condense.

 Being more complex shapes to manufacture, these latter types are also more
expensive to purchase. These three types of condensers are laboratory
glassware items since they are typically made of glass. Commercially
available condensers usually are fitted with ground glass joints and come in
standard lengths of 100, 200, and 400 mm. Air-cooled condensers are
unjacketed, while water-cooled condensers contain a jacket for the water.
 Larger condensers are also used in industrial-scale distillation processes to
cool distilled vapor into liquid distillate. Commonly, the coolant flows
through the tube side and distilled vapor through the shell side with distillate
collecting at or flowing out the bottom.
 A condenser unit used in central air conditioning systems typically has a
heat exchanger section to cool down and condense
incoming refrigerant vapor into liquid, a compressor to raise the pressure of
the refrigerant and move it along, and a fan for blowing outside air through
34
 the heat exchanger section to cool the refrigerant inside. A typical
configuration of such a condenser unit is as follows:
 The heat exchanger section wraps around the sides of the unit with the
compressor inside. In this heat exchanger section, the refrigerant goes
through multiple tube passes, which are surrounded by heat transfer fins
through which cooling air can move from outside to inside the unit.
 There is a motorized fan inside the condenser unit near the top, which is
covered by some grating to keep any objects from accidentally falling inside
on the fan. The fan is used to blow the outside cooling air in through the heat
exchange section at the sides and out the top through the grating.
 These condenser units are located on the outside of the building they are
trying to cool, with tubing between the unit and building, one for vapor
refrigerant entering and another for liquid refrigerant leaving the unit. Of
course, an electric power supply is needed for the compressor and fan inside
the unit.
 Direct contact condenser
In this type of condenser, vapors are poured into the liquid directly.
The vapors lose their latent heat of vaporization; hence, vapors transfer their
heat into liquid and the liquid becomes hot. In this type of condensation, the
vapor and liquid are of same type of substance. In another type of direct
contact condenser, cold water is sprayed into the vapour to be condensed.
4.3 EVAPORATOR
An evaporator is a device used to turn the liquid form of a chemical into its
gaseous form. The liquid is evaporated, or vaporized, into a gas.
An evaporator is used in an air-conditioning system to allow a compressed
cooling chemical, such as R-22 (a.k.a Freon) or R-410A, to evaporate from liquid
to gas while absorbing heat in the process. It can also be used to remove water or
35
other liquids from mixtures. The process of evaporation is widely used to
concentrate foods and chemicals as well as salvage solvents. In the concentration
process, the goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution
which contains the desired product. In the case of desalination of sea water or
in Zero Liquid Discharge plants, the reverse purpose applies; evaporation removes
the desirable drinking water from the undesired product, salt.
One of the most important applications of evaporation is in the food and
beverage industry. Foods or beverages that need to last for a considerable amount
of time or need to have certain consistency, like coffee, go through an evaporation
step during processing.
In the pharmaceutical industry, the evaporation process is used to eliminate
excess moisture, providing an easily handled product and improving product
stability. Preservation of long-term activity or stabilization of enzymes in
laboratories are greatly assisted by the evaporation process
Another example of evaporation is in the recovery of sodium hydroxide
in kraft pulping. Cutting down waste-handling cost is another major reason for
large companies to use evaporation applications. Legally, all producers of waste
must dispose of waste using methods compatible with environmental guidelines;
these methods are costly. By removing moisture through vaporization, industry can
greatly reduce the amount of waste product that must be processed.
4.4 ENERGETICS
Water can be removed from solutions in ways other than evaporation,
including membrane processes, liquid, crystallization, and precipitation.
Evaporation can be distinguished from some other drying methods in that the final
product of evaporation is a concentrated liquid, not a solid. It is also relatively
simple to use and understand since it has been widely used on a large scale, and
many techniques are generally well known.
36
 In order to concentrate a product by water removal, an auxiliary phase is
used which allows for easy transport of the solvent (water) rather than the solute.
Water vapor is used as the auxiliary phase when concentrating non-
volatile components, such as proteins and sugars. Heat is added to the solution, and
part of the solvent is converted into vapor. Heat is the main tool in evaporation,
and the process occurs more readily at high temperature and low pressures.
Heat is needed to provide enough energy for the molecules of the solvent to
leave the solution and move into the air surrounding the solution. The energy
needed can be expressed as an excess thermodynamic potential of the water in the
solution.
Leading to one of the biggest problems in industrial evaporation, the
process requires enough energy to remove the water from the solution and to
supply the heat of evaporation. When removing the water, more than 99% of the
energy needed goes towards supplying the heat of evaporation. The need to
overcome the surface tension of the solution also requires energy. The energy
requirement of this process is very high because a phase transition must be caused;
the water must go from a liquid to a vapor.
When designing evaporators, engineers must quantify the amount of steam
needed for every mass unit of water removed when a concentration is given. An
energy balance must be used based on an assumption that a negligible amount of
heat is lost to the system's surroundings. The heat that needs to be supplied by the
condensing steam will approximately equal the heat needed to vaporize the water.
Another consideration is the size of the heat exchanger which affects the heat
transfer rate.
Some common terms: A = heat transfer area, and q = overall heat transfer
rate.
4.5 WORKING OF EVAPORATOR
37
 The solution containing the desired product is fed into the evaporator and
passes across a heat source. The applied heat converts the water in the solution into
vapor. The vapor is removed from the rest of the solution and is condensed while
the now-concentrated solution is either fed into a second evaporator or is removed.
The evaporator, as a machine, generally consists of four sections. The heating
section contains the heating medium, which can vary. Steam is fed into this
section. The most common medium consists of parallel tubes but others have plates
or coils typically made from copper or aluminium. The concentrating and
separating section removes the vapor being produced from the solution. The
condenser condenses the separated vapor, then the vacuum or pump provides
pressure to increase circulation.
4.6 TYPES OF EVAPORATOR
Natural/forced circulation evaporator
Natural circulation evaporators are based on the natural circulation of the
product caused by the density differences that arise from heating. In an evaporator
using tubing, after the water begins to boil, bubbles will rise and cause circulation,
facilitating the separation of the liquid and the vapor at the top of the heating tubes.
The amount of evaporation that takes place depends on the temperature difference
between the steam and the solution. Problems can arise if the tubes are not well-
immersed in the solution.
If this occurs, the system will be dried out and circulation compromised. In
order to avoid this, forced circulation can be used by inserting a pump to increase
pressure and circulation. Forced circulation occurs when hydrostatic head prevents
boiling at the heating surface. A pump can also be used to avoid fouling that is
caused by the boiling of liquid on the tubes; the pump suppresses bubble
formation. Other problems are that the residing time is undefined and the

38
consumption of steam is very high, but at high temperatures, good circulation is
easily achieved.
Falling film evaporator
This type of evaporator is generally made of long tubes (4–8 m or 13–26 ft
in length) which are surrounded by steam jackets. The uniform distribution of the
solution is important when using this type of evaporator. The solution enters and
gains velocity as it flows downward. This gain in velocity is attributed to the vapor
being evolved against the heating medium, which flows downward as well. This
evaporator is usually applied to highly viscous solutions, so it is frequently used in
the chemical, food, and fermentation industries.
Rising film (Long Tube Vertical) evaporator

Figure 4.2 A rising film evaporator

In this type of evaporator, boiling takes place inside the tubes, due to heating
made (usually by steam) outside the same. Submergence is therefore not desired;
the creation of water vapor bubbles inside the tube creates an ascensional flow
enhancing the heat transfer coefficient. This type of evaporator is therefore quite
39
efficient, the disadvantage being to be prone to quick scaling of the internal surface
of the tubes. This design is then usually applied to clear, non-salting solutions.
Tubes are usually quite long, typically 4+ meters (13+ ft). Sometimes a small
recycle is provided. Sizing this type of evaporator is usually a delicate task, since it
requires a precise evaluation of the actual level of the process liquor inside the
tubes. Recent applications tend to favor the falling-film pattern rather than rising-
film.
Climbing and falling-film plate evaporator
Climbing and falling-film plate evaporators have a relatively large surface
area. The plates are usually corrugated and are supported by frame. During
evaporation, steam flows through the channels formed by the free spaces between
the plates. The steam alternately climbs and falls parallel to the concentrated
liquid. The steam follows a co-current, counter-current path in relation to the
liquid. The concentrate and the vapor are both fed into the separation stage where
the vapor is sent to a condenser. This type of plate evaporator is frequently applied
in the dairy and fermentation industries since they have spatial flexibility. A
negative point of this type of evaporator is that it is limited in its ability to treat
viscous or solid-containing products. There are other types of plate evaporators,
which work with only climbing film.
Multiple-effect evaporators
Unlike single-stage evaporators, these evaporators can be made of up to
seven evaporator stages or effects. The energy consumption for single-effect
evaporators is very high and makes up most of the cost for an evaporation system.
Putting together evaporators saves heat and thus requires less energy. Adding one
evaporator to the original decreases the energy consumption to 50% of the original
amount. Adding another effect reduces it to 33% and so on. A heat-saving-percent

40
equation can be used to estimate how much one will save by adding a certain
amount of effects.
The number of effects in a multiple-effect evaporator is usually restricted to
seven because after that, the equipment cost starts catching up to the money saved
from the energy-requirement drop.
There are two types of feeding that can be used when dealing with multiple-
effect evaporators. Forward feeding takes place when the product enters the system
through the first effect, which is at the highest temperature. The product is then
partially concentrated as some of the water is transformed into vapor and carried
away. It is then fed into the second effect which is a little lower in temperature.
The second effect uses the heated vapor created in the first stage as its heating
source (hence the saving in energy expenditure).
The combination of lower temperatures and higher viscosities in subsequent
effects provides good conditions for treating heat-sensitive products, such as
enzymes and proteins. In using this system, an increase in the heating surface area
of subsequent effects is required. Another way to proceed is by using backward
feeding. In this process, the dilute products are fed into the last effect which has the
lowest temperature and are transferred from effect to effect, with the temperature
increasing.
The final concentrate is collected in the hottest effect, which provides an
advantage in that the product is highly viscous in the last stages, and so the heat
transfer is considerably better. Since some years there are also in operation
multiple-effect vacuum evaporators with heat pump, well known to be
energetically and technically more effective than systems with mechanical vapor
recompression (MVR) because due to the lower boiling temperature they can
handle highly corrosive liquids or which may form incrustations. 

41
 Technical problems can arise during evaporations, especially when the
process is applied to the food industry. Some evaporators are sensitive to
differences in viscosity and consistency of the dilute solution. These evaporators
could work inefficiently because of a loss of circulation. The pump of an
evaporator may need to be changed if the evaporator needs to be used to
concentrate a highly viscous solution. Fouling also occurs when hard deposits form
on the surfaces of the heating mediums in the evaporators. In foods, proteins and
polysaccharides can create such deposits that reduce the efficiency of heat transfer.
Foaming can also create a problem since dealing with the excess foam can be
costly in time and efficiency. Antifoam agents are to be used, but only a few can be
used when food is being processed. Corrosion can also occur when acidic solutions
such as citrus juices are concentrated. The surface damage caused can shorten the
long-life of evaporators. Quality and flavor of food can also suffer during
evaporation. Overall, when choosing an evaporator, the qualities of the product
solution need to be taken into heavy consideration.
Evaporator (marine).
Large ships usually carry evaporating plants to produce fresh water, thus
reducing their reliance on shore-based supplies. Steam ships must be able to
produce high-quality distillate in order to maintain boiler-water levels. Diesel-
engined ships often utilize waste heat as an energy source for producing fresh
water.
In this system, the engine-cooling water is passed through a heat exchanger,
where it is cooled by concentrated seawater (brine). Because the cooling water
(which is chemically treated fresh water) is at a temperature of 70–80 °C (158–
176 °F), it would not be possible to flash off any water vapour unless the pressure
in the heat exchanger vessel was dropped.

42
 To alleviate this problem, a brine-air ejector venturi pump is used to create a
vacuum inside the vessel. Partial evaporation is achieved, and the vapour passes
through a demister before reaching the condenser section. Seawater is pumped
through the condenser section to cool the vapour sufficiently to precipitate it. The
distillate gathers in a tray, from where it is pumped to the storage tanks.
A salinometer monitors salt content and diverts the flow of distillate from the
storage tanks if the salt content exceeds the alarm limit. Sterilisation is carried out
after the evaporator.
Evaporators are usually of the shell-and-tube type (known as an Atlas Plant)
or of the plate type (such as the type designed by Alfa Laval). Temperature,
production and vacuum are controlled by regulating the system valves. Seawater
temperature can interfere with production, as can fluctuations in engine load. For
this reason, the evaporator is adjusted as seawater temperature changes, and shut
down altogether when the ship is maneuvering. An alternative in some vessels,
such as naval ships and passenger ships, is the use of the reverse osmosis principle
for fresh-water production, instead of using evaporators.

43
 CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES
5.1 ADVANTAGES
 Solar based power
 Automatic cooling
 It's good for preventing sunstroke and lowering the temperature and they
make great gifts

5.2 APPLICATIONS
 Temperature based maintenance of product industries

44
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
The prototype system tested in this study performed fairly in order to
achieve the goals of the study. However, modification and further testing would be
necessary before the system is capable of performing a worthwhile duty. In order
to improve the system it is recommended that the re-absorption process be studied
further so that a lower evaporation pressure and therefore temperature may be
reached. This will involve increasing the absorbent surface area and possibly also
investigating alternative dry and wet absorbent materials

45
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storage with phase change materials, heat transfer analysis and applications, Applied Thermal
Engineering, 23 (2003) 251-283. [3] M. Cheralathan, R.Velraj, S. Renganarayanan, Heat transfer and
parametric studies of an encapsulated phase change material based cool thermal energy storage
system, journal of Zhejiang university 7 (2006) 1886- 1895. [4] K. Azzouza, D. Leducqa, D. Gobinb,
performance enhancement of a household refrigerator by addition of latent heat storage, international
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cylindrical encapsulation, International journal of Thermal sciences 47 (2008) 858-874.
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Francoise Strub, Jean-pierreBedecarrats, Thermodynamics of phase change energy storage and the
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3(2000) 32 -61.

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