Claus Kuhnel BASCOM Programming of Microcontrollers with Ease An Introduction by Program ExamplesBASCOM Programming of Microcontrollers with Ease: An Introduction by Program Examples Copyright © 2001 Claus Kuhnel All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form except by written permission of the author. All rights of translation reserved. Publisher and author assume no responsibility for any errors that may arise from the use of devices and software described in this book. Universal Publishers/uPUBLISH.com USA + 2001 ISBN: 1-58112-671-9 www.upublish.com/books/kuhnel.htmPreface The microcontroller market knows some well introduced 8-bit micro- controller families like Intel's 8051 with its many derivatives from different manufacturers, Motorola's 6805 and 68HC11, Microchip's PiCmicros and Atmel's AVR. The 8051 microcontroller family has been well-known over many years. The development of new derivatives is not finished yet. From time to time new powerful derivatives are announced. You will find derivatives from Philips, Dallas, Analog Devices and Cygnal and others with the known 8051 core but enhanced clock and peripherals. For example, complete analog-to-digital and digital-to- analog subsystems were integrated in some chips. Atmel developed the AVR microcontroller family which is well suited for high-level language programming and in-system programming. For all those microcontrollers there is development software ranging from simple assemblers for DOS to integrated development envi- ronments for Windows95/98/NT on the market. Apart from programming environments as they are offered, for ex- ample, by KEIL, IAR or E-LAB Computer for professional applica- tions, also the more economical and nonetheless sufficiently equipped development environments can maintain ground. BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR are development environments built around a powerful BASIC compiler which is suited for project handling and program development for the 8051 family and its de- rivatives as well as for the AVR microcontrollers from Atmel. The programming of microcontrollers using BASCOM-8051 (version 2.0.4.0) and BASCOM-AVR (version 1.11.3.0) will be described in this book. Some applications help understand the usage of BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR.Acknowledgement | should like to thank the following: in the first place, Mark Alberts of MCS Electronics, who developed the BASCOM programming environment at an outstanding price- performance ratio, Atmel for the development of the AVR RISC microcontrollers which introduced new capabilities into the microcontroller families, Christer Johansson of High Tech Horizon, who supports safe communication of microcontrollers and PC by the development and free distribution of the S.N.A.P. protocol and the necessary tools effectively and Lars Wictorsson of LAWICEL for the development of the CANDIPs, microcontroller modules with CAN interface.Contents 1 Supported Microcontrollers 1.1 8051 Family 1.2 AVR Family. 2 BASCOM 2.1 BASCOM Demos.... 2.2 BASCOM Commercial Versions..... 2.3 Update of BASCOM Commercial Versions ............:0ceeenes 25 2.4 BASCOM Projects 2.4.1 Working ON Projects ........ccccesessseseseerestesesesteensseeteeetseens 20 2.4.2 BASCOM Options 2.5 BASCOM Tools 2.5.1 Simulation 2.5.2 Terminal Emulator 2.5.3 LCD Designer .. 2.5.4 Library Manager 2.5.5 Programming Devices .. aoe sesteesesertestsestseeeeeseeess OO. 2.6 Hardware for AVR RISC Microcontroller .............csseeeeees OD 2.6.1 DTO06 AVR Development Board... 2.6.2 AVR-ALPHA with AT90S2313 2.7 Instead Of "Hello World" ..........ceceseeseeeesesteseeteeteeeeseeneeee 2.7.1 AVR.. 2.7.2 8051. 2.7.3 Things in Commo 2.7.4 Simulation 2.8 BASCOM Help System 3 Some BASCOM Internals 3.1 Building new instructions3.2 Parameters for Subroutines in BASCOM-AVR 3.3 BASIC & Assembler. 3.3.2 8051 .eeeeecseseceesesseeeseseeeeees 4 Applications ........... 4.1 Programmable Logic.. 4.2 Timer and Counter. 4.2.1 AVR... 4.2.2 8051 ooeeeccsceseceesesseeeeeseseeeee 4.3 LED Control ........cceceeceeseeeeeteenes 4.3.1 Single LED .. 4.3.2 Seven-Segment Displays.... 4.3.3 Dot-Matrix Displays ............. 4.4 LCD ComtiOl ........cceeeceeseeteeeeseeees 4.4.1 Direct Control 4.4.2 LCD with Serial Interface .... 4.5 Connecting Keys and Keyboard: 4.5.1 Single Keys .... 4.5.2 Matrix Keypad ..... +132 4.5.3 PC-AT Keyboard .............00 -- 136 4.6 Data Input by IR Remote Control...... 140 4.7 Asynchronous Serial Communication..... 2 143 4.8 1-WIRE Interface 151 4.9 SPI Interface -- 161 4.10 °C Bus.. 4.11 Scalable Network Protocol S.N.A.P 4.11.1 S.N.A-P. Features 167 173 4.11.2 Description of S.N.A.P. Protocol .... 2175 4.11.3 S.N.A.P. Monitor............0.. 179 4.11.4 Digital VO... «1834.12 CANDIP - Interface to CAN 4.13 Random NUMDETS ..........ccceeeceeeseeseeseeteseeteeteeteneeneeee 4.14 Moving Average .......... cece seseeeteeseeeeseseteeereeseeneees 5 Appendix ... Saesendonsraush 5.1 Decimal-Hex-ASCII Converter. 5.2 DT006 Circuit Diagram..... 5.3 Characters in Seven-Segment Display...............ceeeee 222 5.4 BASIC Stamp II 5.5 Literature eee cece cence eeseeseeteeneseesesteeeeseenseneaees1 Supported Microcontrollers BASCOM is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that sup- ports the 8051 family of microcontrollers and some derivatives as well as Atmel's AVR microcontrollers. Two products are available for the various microcontrollers - BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR. In a microcontroller project one needs to know the hardware base, i.e. the microcontroller with internal and connected peripherals, and the software used, i.e. IDE handling, programming and debugging. In this first chapter, let's have a look at the supported microcontrol- lers. A general overview will be given only; the various parts are documented by the manufacturers in more detail. You may also search the web for more information and documentation on all the microcontrollers dealt with here. 1.1 8051 Family The 8051 is an accumulator-based microcontroller featuring 255 instructions. A basic instruction cycle takes 12 clocks; however, some manufacturers redesigned the instruction-execution circuitry to reduce the instruction cycle. The CPU has four banks of eight 8-bit registers in on-chip RAM for context switching. These registers reside within the 8051's lower 128 bytes of RAM along with a bit-operation area and scratchpad RAM. These lower bytes can be addressed directly or indirectly by using an 8-bit value. The upper 128 bytes of on-chip data RAM encompass two overlapping address spaces. One space is for directly addressed special-function registers (SFRs); the other space is for indirectly addressed RAM or stack. The SFRs define peripheral operations and configurations. The 8051 also has 16 bit-addressable bytes of on- chip RAM for flags or variables. Without external circuitry, the maximum address range of all 8051 processors is 64 Kbytes of program memory and 64 Kbytes of data memory. External means can be made use of to increase this ad- dress space. Register indirection uses an 8-bit register for an on-chip RAM ad- dress; an off-chip address requires an 8- or 16-bit data-pointer reg- ister (DPTR). The original 8051 has only one DPTR. Derivatives from Atmel, Dallas, and Philips have two DPTRs. Siemens microcontrol- 9lers have eight DPTRs. The 8051 microcontroller has bidirectional and individually addressable I/O lines. The 8051 performs extensive bit manipulation via instructions, such as set, clear, complement, and jump on bit set or jump on bit clear, only for a 16-byte area of RAM and some SFRs. It can also handle AND or OR bits with a carry bit. The Dallas versions have variable- length move-external-data instructions. Math functions include add, subtract, increment, decrement, multiply, divide, complement, rotate, and swap nibbles. Some of the Siemens devices have a hardware multiplier/divider for 16-bit multiply and 32-bit divide. Figure 1 shows the block diagram of an 8051 [1]. Figure 1 Block diagram 8051 10To elucidate the differences in the derivatives, Figure 2 shows the block diagram of the C8051F0000 microcontroller from Cygnal [2]. Figure 2 Block diagram C8051F0000 This is not the place to discuss the hardware aspects of the different derivatives of the 8051 family. The examples are meant to show that not all parts named 8051 are alike; the core is the same but the in- ternal peripherals differ significantly. Once you know the used hardware, you can organize the access to the resources of the chosen microcontroller. 1.2 AVR Family Since Atmel's AVR microcontrollers were introduced to the market only a few years ago, they are not so well known as the 8051 con- trollers. Therefore, this interesting microcontroller family should be described in more detail. 11Atmel's AVR microcontrollers use a new RISC architecture which has been developed to take advantage of the semiconductor integration and software capabilities of the 1990's. The resulting microcontrollers offer the highest MIPS/mW capability available in the 8-bit microcon- trollers market today. The architecture of the AVR microcontrollers was designed together with C-language experts to ensure that the hardware and software work hand-in-hand to develop a highly efficient, high-performance code. To optimize the code size, performance and power consumption, AVR microcontrollers have big register files and fast one-cycle in- structions. The family of AVR microcontrollers includes differently equipped controllers - from a simple 8-pin microcontroller up to a high-end microcontroller with a large internal memory. The Harvard architec- ture addresses memories up to 8 MB directly. The register file is "dual mapped" and can be addressed as part of the on-chip SRAM, whereby fast context switches are possible. All AVR microcontrollers are based on Atmel's low-power nonvolatile CMOS technology. The on-chip in-system programmable (ISP), downloadable flash memory permits devices on the user's circuit board to be reprogrammed via SPI or with the help of a conventional programming device. By combining the efficient architecture with the downloadable flash memory on the same chip, the AVR microcontrollers represent an efficient approach to applications in the "Embedded Controller" mar- ket. Table 1 shows an overview of the devices available today, including the configuration of the internal memory and I/O. Further information can be found on Atmel's web site [http://www.atmel.com] and in the literature [3]. 12Device Flash [KB] EEPROM SRAM | //O Pins ATtiny11 1 0 0 6 ATtiny12 1 64 0 6 ATtiny22 2 128 90 5 AT90S1200 1 64 0 15 AT90S2313 2 128 128 15 AT90S2323 2 128 128 3 AT90S2343 2 128 128 5 AT90S2333 2 128 128 20 AT90S4414 4 256 256 32 AT90S4433 4 256 128 20 AT90S4434 4 256 256 32 AT90S8515 8 512 512 32 AT90S8534 8 512 256 15 AT90S8535 8 512 512 32 ATmega603 64 2K 4k 48 ATmega103 128 4k 4k 48 Table 1 AVR microcontrollers and their resources The internal resources of the AVR microcontrollers will be considered with AT90S8515 used as an example. Figure 3 shows the block dia- gram of an AT90S8515. 13PAD-PAT Pooper 7 ce fT HHfTE ti yy yy : TET TET «TREE TET: S 7 > 7 ae ‘OSCILLATOR 1 I i 1 ni Proce | PT cram feo} feof POUCONTROL > Ae "se ] Lae jodie K= EF] FES [ae — tt contro. au lof ccpnon EE 2s 4 ¥ Procrumancte sor Jeol feof arr —— = » | aT t Fy t AN Passe”) (2s. me") [Boe Ra(7..4) 1 BSET s Flag Set SREG(s) <1 1 BCLR s Flag Clear SREG(s) <0 1 SBIP,b Set bit in /O Register VO(P, b) — 4 2 CBIP, b Clear bit in /O Register VO(P, b) — 0 2 BST Rr, b bit Store from Register toT | T — Rr(b) 1 BLD Rd, b bit load from T to Register. | Rd(b) — T 1 SEC Set Carry cet 1 cLC Clear Carry ceo 1 SEN Set Negative Flag Ne1 1 CLN Clear Negative Flag Neo 1 20SEZ Set Zero Flag Ze1 1 cLz Clear Zero Flag Zoo 1 SEI Global Interrupt Enable 1e4 1 CLI Global Interrupt Disable 10 1 SES Set Signed Test Flag Sei 1 cLS Clear Signed Test Flag seo 1 SEV Set Two's Complement vel 1 Overflow cLv Clear Two's Complement |v —0 1 Overflow SET Set T in SREG Te1 1 CLT Clear T in SREG TEO 1 SEH Set Half Carry Flag in SREG |H <1 1 CLH Clear Half Carry Flag in Heo 1 SREG NOP No Operation None 1 SLEEP Sleep 1 WOR Watchdog Reset 1 Table 2 Instruction Set of AVR microcontrollers These introducing remarks on the AVR microcontrollers cannot of course replace a detailed study of the technical documentation of the manufacturer. Descriptions of the individual microcontrollers as well as application notes and program examples can be found on Atmel's web site [http:/www.atmel.com]. The manufacturer's documentation is complemented by further publications [3][4]. 21222 BASCOM BASCOM-AVR is not only a BASIC Compiler, but also a comfortable Integrated Development Environment (IDE) running under Windows 95 and Windows NT. Such a development environment supports the whole process from coding and testing a program to programming the used micro- controller. In this book the term BASCOM is used when no distinction must be made between BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR. In all cases where a distinction is necessary, a few changes only are required to make the program work with the other family of microcontrollers. This is one important advantage of high-level languages. So as to prevent that work with BASCOM and the program examples in this book are mere dry homework, a demo of BASCOM-8051 or BASCOM-AVR can be used for first tests. These BASCOM demos can be downloaded free of charge from different URLs. For proper installation of the required BASCOM IDE, make sure a printer is installed - the printer need not necessarily be used or con- nected. The licence agreement must be accepted before one of the BASCOM IDEs is installed 2.1 BASCOM Demos Over a link to the download area of the BASCOM developer MCS Electronics [http://www.mcselec.com] some files are available for download. For download the BASCOM-8051 demo use this URL http://www.mcselec.com/download_8051.htm and for downloading the BASCOM-AVR demo use http://www.mcselec.com/download_avr.htm . On these download sites you will find the manuals as PDF and all information required for an upgrade to the commercial versions. After extracting all downloaded files to a separate directory, there is a setup program for installation. 23Installation starts as usual under Windows when this setup program is called. After completion of the installation, the following files need to be in- stalled on the PC. Figure 6 shows the files installed for BASCOM- AVR as an example. Inspecting the directory with the Explorer will show some more files there. These files will be explained later. Datei Bearbeiten Ancicht 2 e @ BASCOM av BASCOM-AVR Help LICENSE README DEMO, fe) 133KB Figure 6 BASCOM-AVR Demo Files As is common for most demo programs, some restrictions must be expected. The only restriction of both BASCOM demos is a reduced code size of 2 KB. If the code size exceeds this limit after compilation, the compiler will generate error messages as shown in Figure 7. 24LSE: CEs Fie Edt Progam Tools Options Window Hel _Dlelielsia) sellers al visio) sale | a Dslelk Alias Porth 6 c onnect ty 41 | of ferro’ 10000 Line 235 DEMO/BETA only supports 1024 bytes of code . m File E \BASCOMAVA DEMO\PHOGRAM\SAMPLE Err: 10000 Line: 235 DEMO/BETA only supports 1024 bytes of code . in Fie : E|\BASCOM-AVA DEMO\PROGRAM\SAMPLE Eric: 10000 Line: 235 DEMO/BETA only supports 1024 bytes of code . in File E:\BASCOM-AVR DEMO\PROGRAM\SAMPLE a4 Insert Figure 7 Error messages due to exceeding the restricted code size 2.2 BASCOM Commercial Versions If you decide to buy the commercial version of the used BASCOM IDE, you may order it from http:/Awww.mcselec.com or one of the local distributors. Downloading the files and ordering the license is done in next to no time. The license will be sent immediately by e- mail. The installation of the commercial version does not differ from the procedure for the BASCOM demo. Start SetUp and follow the in- structions of the SetUp program. 2.3 Update of BASCOM Commercial Versions When a commercial version of BASCOM is installed, it can be up- dated when a new version is ready for downloading from MCS Elec- tronic's web site. In the download area you will find a link to an Aut- oUpdate program. Install this AutoUpdate program in your BASCOM-8051 or BASCOM- AVR subdirectory as you installed BASCOM-8051 or BASCOM-AVR before. 25Figure 8 shows the downloading and extracting of updated files in an existing installation of BASCOM-AVR. A eee Extiacting LIBDEMO.BAS ~ Extiacting SINCOS.B: Extiacting BASMON.BAS Extacting FORMAT BAS Extracting MAGCARD BAS Extacting BINZBD~1 BAS Extiacting MEGACL™1.BAS Downloading avride.zip _ Auto Update Setup Number of files Oe Exit Bytes Figure 8 Update of BASCOM-AVR If your installation is up-to-date then there is no need for an update. The AutoUpdate program detects this state automatically (Figure 9). 26Cvrk Log messages Downloading info Received info 4 ~ No newer version available New or open an existing file by selecting File>Open. In the next step, check such BASCOM Options like device selection, baud rate, clock frequency and other relating options. A detailed ex- planation of these options will be given in the next chapter. Now you may edit the BASIC source and compile it afterwards. As a rule, the compiler detects here the first errors and the program must be debugged. The BASIC source must be edited as long as the compilation is with- out any errors. Normally, the process of editing, compiling and de- bugging needs to be repeated several times. It makes no sense to debug all errors in one step. Editing several typing errors in one step is no problem. But for more difficult errors, a separate compiler run checks the validity of the changes carried out. It is always easier to debug a localized error. 27With the help of the internal BASCOM Simulator the program opera- tion can be checked without any hardware. The probably last task in a project is programming the device that is used in the application hardware, followed by an excessive test of the program on the target. The project proves to be successful if these tests document a proper function in the target hardware. Otherwise, some steps must be re- peated. Before working with the BASCOM-AVR, the development environ- ment will be described by means of a small program example; the next chapter describes the BASCOM options important to the BASCOM environment used and the target hardware. 2.4.2 BASCOM Options Each BASCOM offers a lot of options that must be defined by selec- tion in the Option menu. The options should be selected at the be- ginning of a project and saved. Later changes of this setup will then only be required for details. The following description applies to BASCOM-AVR. In BASCOM- 8051, selecting the various options is quite similar. In the first step, the used microcontroller is defined by selecting Op- tions>Compiler>Chip. Let us use here an AT90S8515 without ex- ternal RAM. Figure 10 shows the parameters. On the right side you can see the available memory of the selected microcontroller. Each parameter in a function needs two bytes of stack. the stack size shows the number of reserved bytes for the stack. The value 32 is default and remains unchanged here. Local variables are saved in a frame. The default value is 50 and remains unchanged, too. 28CRSeIP Nk eced Compiler | Communication| Environment | Simulator | Programmes | Monitor | Printer | Chip | Output] Communication | 12c.SPLIWIRE | LCD | Chip S0S8515 a FlashAOM = (6 KB xRaM [None z= SRAM 52 Stacksize |S2 EEPROM = 4512S Framesize |50 T SRAM waitstate Jf Ok % Cancel Figure 10 Selection of a device and external memory The compiler generates many files selectable by Options> Com- piler>Output. Figure 11 shows the possibilities for selection. In dependence of the used programmer, Bin files and/or Hex files will be generated. The compiler itself needs the debug file. The report file reports all parameters and memory allocations. The error file docu- ments all errors occurring during compilation. 29Peek [x] Compiler | Communication | Enviorment | Simulater | Programmer | Monitor Printer | Chip Output | Communication | 120, SPI, 1WIRE | LOD. | IM Binary file ¥ AVR Studio Object file ¥ Debug File I HEX file 1 Swap words Report tile IM Enor file Lancel Figure 11 Selection of files to be generated To simplify matters, all files on the left side should be selected. For simulations with AVR Studio (AVR only), the related object file is required. Activating Size warning reports an exceeding of the avail- able program memory. The last option can be very helpful. Some programmers require Bin or Hex files with swapped LSB and MSB. In this case, activate the Swap Words option. The baud rate of serial communication (RS232) depends on the clock frequency of the microcontroller. The clock frequency and de- sired baud rate can be selected from menu Options> Com- piler>Communication. Figure 12 shows the parameter input. The error field shows the deviation of the generated baud rate. It is very important to keep this deviation within defined limits as oth- erwise communication errors may occur. 30EE =] Compiler | Communication| Environment | Simulator | Programmes | Monitor | Printer | Chip | Output Communication ]i2c. SPL 1wiRE | LCD | Baudrate = °° °° «+d Frequency 4000000 =| He Enor O16 Sf Ok | % Cancel Figure 12 Selection of baud rate and oscillator frequency In addition to serial communication according to RS232, BASCOM supports | C, SPI and 1-Wire data transfer. As Figure 13 shows, the menu Options>Compiler>I2C, SPI, 1WIRE allows the allocation of pins to the respective lines. At this time at the latest, a wiring diagram or schematic of the target hardware is required. 31tas Leak LM Oe Compile: | Communication | Environment | Simulator | Programmer | Moritor | Printer | Chip | Output] Communication 120. SPL 1WIRE |LcD | plac SPI SCL port PORTA O x Clock PORTB.5 xz SDA pot Tan IAT =] mos! fPORTB6 =] 1 ae miso. [PORTR? =| wire [ronts.o Hi 88 PORTBS x T™ Use Hardware SPI X cored Figure 13 Selection of pins for serial communication From menu Options>Compiler>LCD an LCD can be connected to the selected pins. Figure 14 shows the input of the required pa- rameters. For BASCOM-AVR there are different methods for controlling an LCD. If the microcontroller has an external RAM, then the LCD can be connected to the data bus. The address bus controls lines E and RS. The following connections are required in the bus mode. AT90Sxxxx] A15 A14] D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 BO 8-bit Mode} E RS | db7 db6 dbS5 db4 db3 db2 db1 dbO 4-bit Mode] E RS | db7 db6 = db5 db4 - - - For BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR it is possible to assign any pin of the microcontroller to the LCD pins. Usually, the 4-bit mode will be used (four data lines). When defining user-specific characters, bit-maps are assigned to printable characters. This process is very simple and is supported by the LCD designer. Using the option "Make upper 3 bit 1 in LCD De- signer" the bit-maps can be influenced as shown. 32ox Rd Compiler | Commurication | Environment | Simulator | Programmer | Monitor | Pinter | Chip | Ouiput] Commuricalion | 120, SPL 1wIRE LCD | LCD type [18°12 2 Enable = BUS mode Data mode RS ad & Abt bin z C Bhi | DB7 J DBE 4 LCD-addess [000 DBS a RS-addiess fapgg De4 a4 I Make upper 3 bits 1 in LCD designer % Cancel Figure 14 BASCOM-AVR LCD SetUp When communicating from the PC with the target hardware, the pa- rameters of the terminal emulator must be coordinated with the in- terface parameters of the target hardware. As is shown in Figure 15, these parameters can be input via the menu Options> Communica- tion. 33LJ ta Opti Compiler Communicetion | Ervionment | Simulator | Programmer | Moritor | Printer | COM port Handshake [None = Baudate —[ap00 | Emulation [agg aNsI = Paity None =] Font Font Databits [fg = Backco [EE New a Stopbits 7 z X cored Figure 15 Parameter selection for terminal emulator The editor features can be adapted as preferred. Figure 16 shows the setup options; they are selectable via menu Options> Environ- ment. As experience shows, the setup can be used as default for the first time. Any changes can be made later when you are more familiar with the editing of source text. 34CRSEIPN ik eced Compiler | Communication Environment | Simulator | Progtammet | Monitor | Printer | I Butoindent ~ Dont change case EditorFont Font I¥ Reformat BAS fies ee 17 Reformat code Comment positon (O49 TAB-size [¢ 1 Smart TAB ow, ground cok White 7 1 suntan raeaget Background color [__] 1 Show margin Keymapping [Default = 1¥ Tooltips = 1¥ Shows Toolbar File location I Save file ac. for new files Size of new editor window: ® Normal © Mavimized DAT Sf Ok | % Cancel Figure 16 Selection of editor options No reformat extension In BASCOM-AVR you can choose the internal simulator or AVR Stu- dio for simulation. In menu Options>Simulator the AVR Studio can be linked to BASCOM-AVR. Figure 17 shows the link to AVRStu- dio.exe in path D:\Programme\AVRSTUD\, which is specific to the author's system. 35Erevan) Compiler | Communication | Environment [ Simulator] Programmer | Monitor | Printer | I¥ Use integrated Simulator [~ Run Simulator af compilation Program —[D.\Programme\AVASTUDVAVAStudinene a. Parameter [[FILE).OB) Jf ok % Cancet Figure 17 Selection of a simulator The last important step is the selection of a programmer via menu Options>Programmer . Figure 18 shows this selection. In this case, the AVR ISP Programmer was selected because most BASCOM-AVR program examples described here used the MCU00100 evaluation board as a hardware platform. Basically, the use of an external programmer is possible. 36EE =] Compiler | Communication| Environment | Simulator Programme: | Monitor | Printer | Programmer [~ Erase waming [~ AutoFlash [~ AulcVerly f¥ Upload Code and Dato Parallel Setial | Other | COMpat fF] Sf Ok | % Cancel Figure 18 Selection of a programmer 2.5 BASCOM Tools BASCOM IDE includes some important tools. The simulator and programmer have already been mentioned. Further tools are * a Terminal Emulator for communication with the serial interface of the target hardware, e an LCD Designer supporting the design of customer-specific characters for a connected character LCD e a library manager supporting the management of libraries and * for BASCOM-805,1, a Graphic BMP Converter intended to con- vert BMP files into BASCOM Graphic Files (BGF) for display by a Graphic LCD. 2.5.1 Simulation BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM-AVR have their own internal simula- tor. A simple program example describes the use of the simulator in both BASCOM IDEs. 37The program to be simulated controls an alphanumeric LCD of two lines of 16 characters each. Listing 1 shows the source text. $sim ' for simulation only otherwise comment Dim A As Byte Mi: A = Waitkey() If A = 27 Then Goto M2 cls Upperline Iced A Lowerline Lcd Hex(a) Print Chr(a) Goto ML M2: End Listing 1 LCD Test (LCD.BAS) Clicking Program>Simulate or F2 starts the Simulator and the simulation window opens up. Figure 19 shows the simulation window of BASCOM-8051 and Figure 20 that of BASCOM-AVR. 38POSE fr ifm 5 [a | delelols — “nto [ints [to | 11 sen wend cro | cri | cre | cra | ape] cwo| om Variables | Break | Variable [Value PY | a LCD oa Ports Digit Pal CG vw CG Ey ¥ CG py i CG pal i CG Del CG | OP A= Vaitkey a] 8 val [-| ° If & = 27 Then Goto M2 fhe ° Upper line a 00 ° Led A iE oo 5 Fomprtae HE. foo ° Print Chr(a) [a 09 9 Goto Mi xi foo ‘ 21 [Po ‘00 x Flunring — 29828(32.3654513888889n Max stacie3C Figure 19 BASCOM-8051 Simulator HAVAVA Simulal Lob) [> nfm] ealcz |m%| [ro Bl r sintinns | Variables | Locals | 42" watch | % uP] irvempts| Vainis [Vdue [Hex (Bm | 2 UL eee ico file's 4.3/2 10) __f. 5.143.121 19 PA 19 O98 0008@ | 1606606066 Pp |@@6CC066 Bp 1000000080 Pc |@@@O@e@8@ Cc 99900906 . po |@@4e864966@ p 08000086 [> [6 A= Waitke 7 a 8 If A= 27 Then Goto MZ ~ 2 9 cis o 10 Upperline : Gi | a Po=0 Cycles =0 “Running j Figure 20 BASCOM-AVR Simulator 39The program instructions can be seen at the bottom of the window. A terminal window is placed in the middle, and a watch window pre- senting the contents of the variables on top. In the example, the control of an LCD is simulated. For the purpose, the LCD windows were opened. As can be seen, the LCD windows differ. After program start the program runs until instruction a = Wait- key (), and waits for a character to be received on the serial input. Key in a character from the terminal window and this character will be read by the program. If the received character is not ESC, its ASCII code will be displayed in the upper row of the LCD and its hex value in the lower row of the simulated LCD. In the example, the received character was "a". The ASCII code dis- played in the upper line is 92. The hex value displayed in the lower line is 61. During the simulation there is the possibility for a single-step chang- ing of the contents of the variables and the simulation of interrupts. 2.5.2 Terminal Emulator The Terminal Emulator is used for communication with the serial interfaces of the target hardware. Listing 2 shows a simple test program. The program waits until it receives one character, echoes this character, and adds some char- acters for commentary purposes. 40Dim A As Byte Do A = Inkey() 'get value from serial port If A > 0 Then "we got. something Print "Received fron serial port:" Print "ASCII Code"; A; Print " = Character " ; Chr(a) End If Loop Until A = 27 End Listing 2 Test of serial communication (SERIAL.BAS) To start the Terminal Emulator, click Tools>Terminal emulator or press Ctrl+T. Figure 21 shows the open terminal window. The pa- rameters for communication can be selected via menu Op- tions>Communications; they are shown in the status line. ig BASCOM-AVR Terminal emulal File Terminal Received from serial port: ASCII Code 43 = Character + Received from serial port: SCIl Code 97 = Character a fcoM:9600.N 2.1 Figure 21 BASCOM-AVR Terminal Emulator If a character is sent to the target hardware by typing this character in the PC's keyboard, then the program checks the received character (A = inkey()) and sends back a comment and the results of some operations (Print ... ) until the ESC key is pressed and the pro- gram stops. “1The Terminal Emulator can be used for testing all communication tasks of the serial interface of the used microcontroller. 2.5.3 LCD Designer The LCD Designer is useful for defining customer-specific characters displayed on an alphanumeric LCD. All alphanumeric LCDs, working with Hitachi's LCD controller HD 44780 or a compatible, allow cus- tom-specific characters to be defined. Figure 22 shows three characters which are defined as custom- specific characters and tested. Figure 22 The first character is used to demonstrate custom-specific character definition with the help of the LCD Designer. By Tools>LCD Designer or Ctrl+L, the LCD designer is started (Figure 23). Cee Clear all Setall ¥ Ok % Cancel Figure 23 Custom-specific character definition in LCD Designer 42The pixels in the 8x5 matrix can be set or cleared. The lowest pixel line, though reserved for the display of the LCD cursor, can be used. By pressing OK the character is defined and the respective instruc- tion is written in the source text window. For the time being, the designation of the character is provided with a question mark which must be replaced by a character (or a variable) within the range from 0 to 7. Figure 24 shows the entry in the source text completed by a constant of 1 as the name for this first user-specific character. Fie Edit Program Tools Options Window Help ‘Dlelelraigic Si loll Peficdchar 1 238 255. 252 249 252 255 4] id ae 1 1 Modified — Insert Figure 24 Instruction generated by the LCD designer A small program (Listing 3) supports the test of these user-specific character indications. 43Deflodchar 1, 238 , 255 , 252 , 248 , 252 , 255 , 238 , 224 Deflodchar 2 , 238 , 255 , 255 , 248 , 255, 255 , 238 , 224 Deflodchar 3, 238 , 255 , 255, 255 , 255, 255, 238 , 224 Cls Config Led = 16 * 1 Lcd "Hello " Home Led Chr (1) Home led" " ; Chr(2) Home Led " "> Chr(3) Listing 3 Customer-specific characters (LCD1.BAS) At the beginning of the program there are three character definitions created by using LCD Designer as described. It is important that the defined instructions are followed by instruction CLS which activates the data memory of the LCD. The first thing displayed on the LCD is the word "Hello". The charac- ters of the word "Hello" will later be eaten by the customer-specific characters. Figure 25 shows the LCD output as it appears during a single-step simulation one after another. Several hardcopies of the Simulator's LCD window were cascaded one below the other so that the various steps taken can be seen very clearly. 44(alert (are eRe simulation (anon psi Figure 25 LCD output in Simulator 452.5.4 Library Manager A library contains assembler routines which can be accessed from a program. The Library Manager supports the administration and modification of such a library. Figure 26 shows routines of the library MCS.LIB for BASCOM-8051. Pra Ez] ‘Libraries Routines ADJUSTBIT_ADDRESS LICIOST.UE giT_2c BIT_2 BYTE GETADCADUCS12 TIME_OUT READ _MAGCARD SHOWPICTURE Figure 26 BASCOM-8051 LIB Manager Figure 27 shows routines of the library MCS.LIB for BASCOM-AVR. 46os Libraries Routines |-ADJUST_PIN ADJUST_BIT_ADDRESS PULSE_OUT BIT_STR COUNT_ONES CHECKSUM Add FORMAT_STR WIRE Delete | READ_MAGCARD PULSE_IN RAMPZ BYTE2STR STR2BYTE MAKE_DT SET_DATE SET_TIME — SOFT_CLOCK = MYLIB LIB Compile Figure 27 BASCOM-8051 LIB Manager The libraries will be searched when a used routine is declared with the directive $EXTERNAL. The library search order is the same as the order of the names of the libraries. Library MCS.LIB included in both BASCOM IDEs is always the last library searched. There is no need to specify MCS.LIB by the directive $LIB. Since MCS.LIB is always the last library searched, routines with the same name but a different function can be included in private librar- ies. Because of the search order, that routine is found first and thus redefines the definition in MCS.LIB. To change the predefined routines in MCS.LIB, copy and rename MCS.LIB and edit the routines to be changed. It is als possible to create private libraries. Listing 4 shows a BlockMove routine for BASCOM-AVR in library CK.LIB. 47Copyright = Claus Kuehnel WWW = http: //www.ckuehnel .ch Email = avr@ckuehnel.ch Conment. = Avr Compiler Library Libversion = 1.00 Date = 19.01.2000 Statement = No Source Code From The Library May Be Distributed In Any Form Statement = Of Course This Does Not Applie For The Compiled Code When You Have A Bascom - Avr License History = No Known Bugs. History [_blockmove] _Blockmove: 1d _templ,Z+ iget data from BLOCKL st X+,_templ ;store data to BLOCK2 dec _temp2 ; bre _blockmove ;if not done, loop more ret jretum [end] Listing 4 Library CK.LIB A library is a simple text file. Each editor can be used for making changes. By means of the BASCOM internal editor, a library can be edited in the same way as a BASIC source file. The header contains some useful information. Each routine begins with its name in angular brackets and end with an end tag. In this example it begins with [_blockmove]. The end is always [END] . Listing 5 shows the access to a library function in a sample program. Const Bl = 40 ' Defines a block length Dim Blocklength As Byte Blocklength = Bl Dim Blocki(bl) As Byte ' ‘Two blocks of 40 bytes each Dim Block2 (bl) As Byte Dim I As Byte ' Index variable $lib "CK.LIB" ' Use _blockmove from CK.LIB $external _blockmove 48Declare Sub Blockmove (source As Byte , Dest As Byte , Byval Length As Byte) For I = 1 To BL ' Initialize Block Blockl(i) =I * 2 Next ' Call Blockmove subroutine Call Blockmove (block1(1) , Block2(1) , Blocklength) For I = 1 To 40 " clear Block1 Blockl (i) = 0 Next ' copy Block2 to Blockl back ' Blockmove is the entry for blockmove assembler routine Sub Blockmove (source As byte , Dest As byte , Length As Byte) Sasm loadadr Length , Z 1d _temp2, Z Loadadr Source , Z Loadadr Dest , X xeall _blockmove ' copy from source to dest ' length bytes $end Asm Returm Listing 5 Copying a memory area (TEST_LIB.BAS) At the beginning of the program two memory blocks of a length of 40 bytes each are declared. Block’ is (arbitrariy) initialized before the assembler routine _blockmove copies block1 to block2. The BASIC subroutine handles the parameter for the assembler routine only. The copying process takes place exclusively at assem- bler level. To compare the runtime of such an assembler routine with a com- mon BASIC subroutine, block1 is cleared for the purpose of copying block2 back to block1 at BASIC level (thereafter). A runtime measurement is possible in AVR Studio and delivers the following results for the 4 MHz clock frequency: 49For I = 1 To 40 Routine |Blockmove (...) Block1(i) = Block2(i) Next Runtime 89,6 us 474,0 us 2.5.5 Programming Devices 2.5.5.1 AVR As AVR microcontrollers are in-system programmable (ISP), pro- gramming equipment is not required. Rather, the evaluation boards can be used to program and test the first AVR programs. If evaluation board MCU00100 is used, the AVR ICP910 Program- mer needs to be activated. Figure 28 shows the user interface in- cluding memory dumps for Flash memory and EEPROM. EGET eed [jo] File Butter Chip 4|e|A| S| olSls) wl B) Crefsosesis a Manufactor Atmel Size 8KB rist Chip 9058515 r ip2 FlashROM | EEPROM | 00 [or [o2 [os [o* [os Jos [07 [os Tos [oa [oe [oc [oo Tor [or ~ ‘9000 OC 95 18 95 18 95 19 95 18 95 19 95 18 CO 20 ALLLLA al 0010 [95 16 95 18 95 18 95 18 95 18 £1 OF BD Bl El GF qeeeépeap 0020 [BD 81 E5 8F BF 8D E4 CO EO ED 26 4E EO 82 BF SE Malas Nak! 0030 |E0 D2 EO F2 26 SF 2? 88 2E 68 EF SF BB G7 EF OF 20a0_‘hiblil 0040 [BB 88 EO 65 BF 83 B7 89 60 62 BF 89 94 76 CF FF oper Telli 0050 |92 OF 92 1F $2 2F 92 GF 92 4F 92 SF 92 17001 92 aq 2 8 2 S 3 = 0050 92 OF 92 9F 93 2F 93 3F TELL? bs » (9) MCS Electronics 262 bytes read Figure 28 Programming with AVR ICP910 If there is no evaluation board or programmer available, one of the proposals published in the Web are a good choice to consider. 50Figure 29 shows the circuit diagram of Jerry Meng's FBPRG Pro- grammer driven from the parallel port of the PC [http:/www.qsl.net/fatfb/]. A lot of people use Jerry's design with success. Heed T ex te 2] | Figure 29 FBPRG Programmer Figure 30 shows the user interface of the programmer software in a DOS window. 51Load HEX file to Flash buffer Load HEX file to EEPROM buffer Display Flash butter Display EEPROM buffer Program Read Device code Read Flash ¢ EEPROM to buffer Save Flash buffer to HEX file Save EEPROM buffer to HEX £ile Generate AVR Studio DEBUG. OBJ Show schematic Toggle Reset to high(Current low) Figure 30 FBPRG in a DOS window Programmer software and circuit diagram of Jerry Meng's FBPRG Programmer are available for downloading from the author's web site assigned to this book [www.ckuehnel.ch/bascom_buch.htm]. BASCOM-AVR does not support this programmer directly. The pro- grammer software FBPRG.EXE must be linked in menu Op- tions>Programmer>Other to BASCOM-AVR. This is the way to include unknown programmers in both BASCOM IDEs. 2.5.5.2 8051 BASCOM-8051 supports the whole 8051 family of microcontrollers with many memory types and programming needs. It is becessary to choose the right programmer for the microcontroller in use. The Micro-Pro 51 from Equinox Technologies was used for pro- gramming the 8051 derivatives (mostly the AT89C2051) [http://www.equinox-tech.com]. 52After installing the link to the external programmer, the latter can be run directly from BASCOM-8051. Figure 31 shows the installation of an external programmer. BASCOM-8051 Opi Comper | Communication | Environment | Hardware simulator Programmer | Monitor | Printer | Programmer Extemal programmer x pone wutoVerify WAM file jE ce Paralle!| Serial Other | Program = [D:\MicroProWMicropioeve Paametes ["st=~=—“C~SstsSsSSS:S:.. Us HEX le Mode Run from current directory | wv Ok x Cance! | Figure 31 Link to external programmer This programmer has no special features. Figure 32 shows a loaded hex file in the internal buffer. After programming the result should be comparable with Figure 33. 53[Spal] at || 2 | Pee 2051 ES Figure 32 Buffer view Checking Signature = Pass Code Program = Done (1.2 Sec} Programming Done Programming Done Figure 33 Programming result After programming the device, the microcontroller must be placed in the target board. For the small AT89C2051 | used the X051 Demo Module from the same manufacturer.There are many other programming and evaluation devices on the market. Frequently, the manufacturers of microcontrollers offer such devices for first tests or prototyping. 2.6 Hardware for AVR RISC Microcontroller 2.6.1 DT006 AVR Development Board Dontronics [http://www.dontronics.com] is the producer of the so called SimmSticks. This is a standard that makes use of the well know Simm connectors. There are motherboards and application boards. For BASCOM-AVR Dontronics designed the DT006. This is a moth- erboard with integrated Sample Electronics programmer, LEDs, switches and RS-232 serial interface. So with this PCB you can create a programmer and you can use it as a development board too. The DTO006 board will program the 8, 20, and 28 pin DIP chips on board, and will also program the DT107 (8515 and 4433 footprint), DT104 (2313 footprint) and SIMM100 (8535 footprint) AVR SimmSticks, as well as any AVR target board that has a Kanda type header. Current burning software is achieved with the programmer software built into Bascom-AVR. This means, after you have this programmer unit up and running as a development platform, all you need to duplicate the procedure with a stand alone micro, is a single AT90S2313-10-PC micro, and a DT104 PCB and a handful of simple components. Or you can use your own circuit design on a proto board, vero board, your own art- work, whatever. Figure 34 shows the DT006 AVR Development Board with two Simm expansions slots on the right side (J2, J3). Chapter 5.2 shows the DTO006 circuit diagram. 55| q | | oO RI eCaz = ° ° ol ° ° ° 2 2 ° ° 2 6 es ° ° o ° ° ° 2 s 2 ° ° 2 = ° Figure 34 DTO06 Board 2.6.2 AVR-ALPHA with AT90S2313 We [http:/Awww.ckuehnel.ch/ask.htm] support starting with the 2313 by the small AVR-ALPHA mini module. Figure 35 shows this module. All I/O lines are connected to the pins of that module. Prototyping without soldering is possible using a simple breadboard. All AVR micros are in-circuit programmable and a simple program- ming adapter fulfills all needs for programming the AVR-ALPHA. This programming adapter can be linked to BASCOM-AVR as an external programmer. 56Figure 35 AVR-ALPHA Mini Module 2.7 Instead of "Hello World" After the introduction of the basic programming procedure as well as the BASCOM Options and Tools, a first and very simple program example will describe the working with BASCOM. Usually, programs of the "Hello World" class fulfill this exercise. But, the example here is a program controlled by a timer interrupt which | think is a more typical microcontroller program than "Hello World". Due to the different hardware base of the 8051 and AVR family, the timer example will be explained for both microcontroller families separately. 2.7.1 AVR Timer0 is an 8-bit timer with a 10-bit prescaler. The timer period can be calculated using the following expression: prescaler T =256- OSC For a clock frequency of 4 MHz and a prescaler of 1024 a timer pe- riod of 0.065536 s is obtained. That means the timer overflows each 0.065536 s and generates an interrupt. 57In our program example the assigned interrupt service routine (ISR) increments a byte variable and toggles an I/O pin. Listing 6 shows the source text of program SIM_TIMER.BAS. ' SIM TIMER.BAS for AVR Dim A As Byte ' ‘Temporary Variable Ddrb = 255 ' PortB is output Porth = 255 ' All outputs Hi ' Configure the timer to use the clock divided by 1024 Config TimerO = Timer , Prescale = 1024 Qn Timer0 TimerO_isr dump to Timer0 ISR Enable Timer0 Enable Interrupts Enable the timer interrupt Enable Global Interrupt Do ' Do nothing Loop Timer0_isr: Interrupt Service Routine Incr A ' Increment Variable A Portb.0 = Not Portb.0 ' Toggle Portb.0 Retum Listing 6 Timer program for AVR (SIM_TIMER.BAS) 2.7.2 8051 TimerO operates in Mode 2 as a 16-bit timer. The timer period can be calculated using the following expression: 12 T = 65536:—— OSC For a clock frequency of 11.059 MHz and a fixed prescaler of 12, a timer period of 0.07111 s is obtained. That means the timer over- flows each 71 ms and generates an interrupt. In our program example the assigned interrupt service routine (ISR) increments a byte variable and toggles an I/O pin. Listing 7 shows the source text of program SIM_TIMER.BAS. 58' SIM TIMER.BAS for AT89C2051 Dim A As Byte ' ‘Temporary Variable Pl = 255 ' All outputs Hi ' Configure timerd as 16-bit timer Config Timer0 = Timer , Mode = 1 Start Timerd Qn TimerO TimerO_isr dump to Timer0 ISR Enable Timerd Enable Interrupts Enable the timer interrupt Enable Global Interrupt Do "Do nothing Loop TimerO_isr: ' Interrupt Service Routine Incr A ' Increment Variable A P1.0 = Not P1.0 ' Toggle P1.0 Returm Listing 7 Timer program for 8051 (SIM_TIMER.BAS) 2.7.3. Things in Common When comparing Listing 6 with Listing 7, only a few differences can be seen to exist; the major part does not differ from eachother. At first, a variable A is declared as byte. The format (here byte) de- fines the memory allocation to the variable. The timer overflow interrupt toggles an I/O pin. For AVR we use PinO of PortB (PortB.0) and for 8051 PinO of Port1 (P1.0). For the AVR, a data direction register initializes a pin as input or out- put. Therefore, at least the pin toggled must be an output. To simplify matters all pins of PortB are declared as outputs (DDRB = 255) and set to Hi afterwards (PORTB = 255). For 8051, all Pins of Port1 are set to Hi(P1 = 255) only. The timer configurations of the microcontroller family differ from each other; see the description in the previous two chapters. Finally, the interrupts must be enabled. Enable Timer0O enables the timer interrupt and Enable Interrupts enables the global interrupts in the last initialization step. 59Following this initialization the program enters its main loop (Do. . Loop) where nothing is to be done in this example. The declaration of an interrupt service (ISR) routine in BASCOM is performed in the same way as the declaration of a normal sub- routine. The compiler replaces Return by the required Ret i (Return from Interrupt) and supports the Push and Pop of all registers. Inside the ISR Timer0_isr variable A is incremented (Incr A) and PinO of PortB (AVR) and Port1 (8051), respectively, will be toggled afterwards. That means reading Pin0, inverting the value and writing back (Portb.0 = Not Portb.0 and P1.0 = Not P1.0, re- spectively). Next, input this program or open it after downloading from our web site. Compiling and debugging is explained for BASCOM-AVR only but do not differ for BASCOM-8051. Figure 36 shows the source text of program SIM_TIMER.BAS opened in the BASCOM-AVR Editor. 60File Edit Progiam Toole Options Window Help | oleltaleslalal slel<| al isle) siele| | al ESE L- [os] | [od a 0: \D okumente\M ani Dim A as Byte Ddrb = 255 PortB is ou Porth = 255 All output: Config TimerO = Timer Prescale - 1024 gure lock @ On Timer0 Tiner_isr to Tine Enable Tiaer0 Enable Interrupts Do ' Do nothing Loop TinerO_isr Incr & a Portb 0 = Wot Porth 0 Return . Le “8:40 | “Insert Ir Figure 36 Source text in BASCOM-AVR Editor Before the first compilation the options must be set. The parameters for the serial interfaces (I°C, SPI and 1-wire) and LCD are not rele- vant here and can be set as desired. Before a complete compilation, it may help to check the syntax. Start the syntax check from menu Program>Syntax Check or Ctrl+F7. 61Figure 37 shows a syntax check with errors. By double-clicking the error line the last "e" is seen to be missing in instruction Enable. Ps [ord file Edt Program Tools Options Window Help KAPRLSI| & [Ma|t[2= [<=] ga) [4 [cS] Aw Dim a As Byte Ddrb = 255 Porth = 255 Config Timer0 « Timer . Prescale « 1024 On TimerO TinerO_isr Enabl Timerd Enable Interrupts 431 Insert Double click to jump to enor fine Figure 37 Result of syntax check When the missing character is entered, the syntax check will show no error anymore, and the compilation will be faultless as well. Start the compilation from menu Program>Compile or F7. As expected there is no error after compilation. Look for the result by clicking Program>Show Result or Ctrl+W. Listing 8 shows the re- port file SIM_TIMER.RPT generated for BASCOM-AVR. 62Date Time compiler Processor SRAM EEPROM ROMSIZE ROMIMAGE, BAUD XTAL BAUD error Stackstart S-Stacksize S-Stackstart : : 32 hex : 20D hex Framesize Framestart LCD DB7 LCD DBE LCD DBS LcD DB4 LOE LCD RS LCD mode : SIM_TIMER : 10-31-1999 : 19:07:06 : BASCOM-AVR LIBRARY V 1.05, Standard Edition : 9088515 : 200 hex : 200 hex : 2000 hex : FA hex -> Will fit into RM : 9600 Baud : 4000000 Hz 0.16% : 25F hex : 20 hex 240 hex : PORTB.7 : PORTB.6 : PORTB.5S Listing 8 Report file for BASCOM-AVR (SIM_TIMER.RPT) 63Listing 9 shows the report file generated for BASCOM-8051. Compiler : BASCOM 8051 LIBRARY V 2.04 Processor : AT89C2051 Report : SIM_TIMER Date : 12-27-2000 Time : 15:20:03 Baud Timer : 1 Baudrate : 0 Frequency : 11059200 ROM start : sHO RAM start : SHO LD mode =: 4-bit StackStart : 22 Used ROM =: SHAD —-173 (dec) > Ok Listing 9 Report file SIM_TIMER.RPT for BASCOM-8051 2.7.4 Simulation In the next step, the simulator can be started from menu Program>Simulate or by pressing F2. The simulator of the BASCOM IDE has been referred to already. So let's use here the simulator of the AVR Studio for the BASCOM-AVR example. Caution: If you have to go deep into the compiled code, using the AVR Studio has some advantages. When a functional simulation is sufficient, using the internal simulator will be simpler. Load the generated Obj-File from menu File>Open or press Ctri+O. Figure 38 shows the simulator with three open windows. 64SEE ee ier) File Edt Debug Breakpoinls Watch Oplione View Window Help S| 2) 2) B=Sja/0) ele) allele -[8) 8] Aa To [SiOcumeaeitenaicae=]) fi a ee—_—rss :t—| 76543210 Pot [FE Vil VVRVWI ore On TimerO TimerO_isr ms a peeshe eileen bor [FO WR Eneble Interrupts [/) Ce be [bas =] raJ[a ae] ' Do nothing ‘Address Data Loop ‘900020 00 00 00 00 G0 00 00 00 00 00 00 G0 00 00 00 00 00030 «00 00 G0 00 00 00 FE FF FE 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00040 ©0017 GO 40 G0 00 O0 00 OD 00 90 an OO 00 00 OO —- 00050 00 00 O0 O5 00 00 00 00 00 O2 OO 00 OO SD O2 00 Porth. = Not) goons A 00 00 00 00 00 OD CO GO oO OO 00 OO OO OO oO 4 = For Help, press F1 Simulator Figure 38 Simulation von SIM_TIMER.BAS in AVR Studio The source text can be seen on the left side. We placed a break point to the ISR. The top right window shows all bits of PortB. The bottom right window shows a memory dump of data memory. These windows can be opened from menu View>Peripheral>Port>PortB or View>New Memory View. Simulation can start when the AT90S8515 is selected in the simula- tion option (Options>Simulation Options). Start the simulation from menu Debug>Go or F5. The simulation stops at the break point. All changes at PinO of PortB and in memory location 60, are visible. The timer period in simulation depends on the fastness of the PC used. With the author's PC a timer period of about five seconds was achieved. However, a simulation is not all in life. Therefore the program is burnt into the microcontroller and the program checked in the target hard- ware. 65Evaluation board MCU00100 must be connected to COM1 of the PC before starting the programmer from menu Program>Send to Chip or F4. Figure 39 shows the user interface of the programmer. The AT90S8515 used in evaluation board MCU00100 has already Baa File Buffer Chip 2\elH| 2/2) olSle| a] B) — “efsosests “le Manufactor Atmel Sie 8KB Ex Chip 9058515 r ~FlashROM | EEPROM 100 | 01 [02 [03 [04 |05 [05 |O7 |08 [09 |G |OB |OC }0D [OE |OF eS ‘000 OC 95 18 95 18 95 18 95 18 95 18 95 18 CO 20 AILLILIA 0010 |95 18 95 18 95 18 95 18 35 18 E1 SF BD 81 El 87 IiutLapadl O20 [BD & ES 8F BF 8D E4 CO ED ED 2E 4E EO 82 BF BE 0030 |EO D2 0 F2 26 5F 27 88 2E 6B EF GF BB GF EF SF abad_Thilolil 0040 _|BB 88 EO 85 BF 63 B7 89 60 B2 BF 89 94 a 0050 |92 OF 92 1F 92 2F 92 3F 92 4F 92 5F 92 a 0060 [92 8 92 9F 92 BF 93 OF 93 1F 93 2F 99 3F ‘WW “ULLIMI? x Lt 2A () MCS Electronics zx 252 bytes read Figure 39 BASCOM-AVR ICP910 Programmer been identified already. The generated code is visible in FlashROM. Load the program into the flash memory of AT90S8515 from menu Chip>Autoprogram. Immediately after Verify, the program starts and the LED connected to PinO of PortB blinks at the programmed rate. This first example should explain the fundamental project work with BASCOM. It should be clear that planning the resources like the allo- cation of I/O pins and so on is independent of the used programming language or environment. This step must be finished before coding. Later, any resulting collisions can be repaired at greater expenses only. 662.8 BASCOM Help System If you need help for any BASCOM instruction, place the cursor to the respective key word and press function key F1. Figure 40 shows the opening help window with explanations. Eero Sc Fle Est Progam Tcok Oplons Window Helo lax) _Dieimleslelal + {al gaivetian Lecszechen Qptionen 2? Todor [Zune [Dpken I Dimension a variable. Syntax Do. DIM var AS [XRAMARAM] type [AT location] Remarks i Figure 40 Press F1 for Help Just as important as the explaining text are additional program ex- amples which describe the use of instructions and/or functions. Furthermore, the help system has a very comfortable index and search system. Figure 41 shows a search for "interrupt" information and resulting hints. 67lfethemen: BASCOM-AVR linden Suchen | 1. Geben Sie die geniinschten Suchbegrife ein interupt Lischen 2, Maikioren Sie einige Wortenteprechungen ale Serer inschrankende Suchkiterien ene ey Aktualsieren.. 2. Klicken Sie auf ein Thema und dann aut “Anzeigen”. a ‘AVE intemal Hardware Port D AVR Intemal Hardware TIMERO AVR Intemal Hardware TIMER Changes compared to BASCOM-G051 CONFIG INTs CONFIG TIMERO as 25 Themen gefunden Alle Wiiter, Anfang, Auto, Pause arecigen | & Abbiechen Figure 41 Search Function in the BASCOM Help System 683 Some BASCOM Internals This chapter describes some BASCOM details which caused some responses and queries in the past. Caution: Since BASCOM has a very powerful help system, there is no list of compiler directives and instructions in this book. Please use the Help System first. A lot of newsgroup queries can be answered this way. 3.1 Building new instructions BASCOM's subroutine construct is a powerful means for generating new instructions. A simple example will demonstrate it. In the example we generate an instruction that toggles some pins of port P1 of an 8051 microcontroller. The instruction shall have one parameter - the toggle mask. We define subroutine Toggle_p1(x) that reads, masks and writes back port P1(P1 = Pl Xor X). If this subroutine is declared at the beginning of the program, there are two ways for calling it at a later time. Call Toggle_p1(mask) and Toggle_p1 mask are two equiva- lent subroutine calls. The second kind of call is marked bold in the program example. It looks like a new instruction. Dim Mask As Byte , X As Byte Mask = §B11000011 ' Toggle mask ' Declaration of instruction toggle _pl Declare Sub Toggle _pl(x As Byte) Do Call Toggle pl (mask) ' Subroutine call Toggle pl Mask ' Usage of new instruction Loop End ' Defintion of subroutine Sub Toggle pl (x As Byte) 1 = Pl Xor X End Sub 69We can go into the simulator and see the equality again. In the single-step mode, we set port P1 to &HAS, for example, and see P1 toggling from &HAS5 to &H66 and vice versa. Pl &HAS 1010 0101 Mask 1100 0011 Pl &HE6 0110 0110 Figure 42 shows the simulator window with port P1 toggled. (PES Lox] ofr a| sls | Sls] alelmlolS — _into| int: |_to_| 1 | sen Vaiables | Break | Variable [Value |Hex Bin 102 opo006s © go00000001100110 Declare Sub Tosgle_pl(= As Byte} [Ace 66 Do a ca ° Call Toggle_pi (mask) + Wie 00 3 Toggle_pi Hask Wie. 0 i? 2 O End P3 FF Sub Toggle_pi(x As Byte) fl ub Toggle _pi(x As Byte Tee Om Pi = Fi vor ¥ ao O End Sub et oo ~l/sp 25 a toe 00 al Pauzed — 468[0.5078125ms] [Max stack 25 Figure 42 Subroutine call in simulator of BASCOM-8051 There are minor differences between BASCOM-8051 and BASCOM- AVR as regards the declaration of subroutines. The next chapter 70describes in detail the parameter passing by reference or by value in BASCOM-AVR only. 3.2 Parameters for Subroutines in BASCOM-AVR A wrong parameter handling BYREF or BYVAL is a frequent reason for errors in application programs. A simple example will give more clarity. In the next example, a mask function cutting the high nibble of a value multiplied by four is defined. Value A and mask B are parameters of a function to be defined. The result is saved in variable Z. The binary representation of this task is as follows: A 10101010 for example Shift A, Left , 2 10101000 2*A B 00001111 mask Zz 00001000 result The program reads as follows: * Subroutine in BASCOM-AVR Dim X As Byte , Y As Byte , Z As Byte X = 6810101010 Y = 6800001111 Declare Function Mask (byval a As Byte , B As Byte) As Byte Z = Mask(x , Y) End Function Mask (byval A As Byte , B As Byte) As Byte Shift A, Left , 2 Mask = A And B End Function 71Running the program in the single-step mode reveals that variable x is unchanged after access to the function. Figure 43 shows the un- changed variable x after access to function mask (). Sa a SEE ofa «| alt as ffm] Bi] 7 sin Tiers aj Vatiables | Locals | du* watch | @ uP | intemupts | Variable Valve Hex 170 AA To1oT010 y 15 F oot 111 2 0 0 ooono000 a 11 4 12 Function Mask (byval A As Byte , B As Byte) As Byte 2 18 gnitt A, Left , 2 © 14 ask = A And B > 15 End Function ¥] < | oe ei PC=0062 | Cyol = 002 Pause Figure 43 Parameter passing BYVAL When cutting keyword BYVAL, the default parameter passing BYREF is active. In this case the variable changes from &HAA to &HAS after access to the function mask (Shift A , Left , 2); see Figure 44. 72A —T= T=] rum] caica| Ss] | o[m| GQ] Pr sintines | Vatiables | Locals | 6° Watch | % uP | Irtenupis | Variable Value Hew Bin 168 48 voror000 y 5 F oogt111 2 8 8 00001000 Tr 12 Function Mask (A As Byte , B As Byte) As Byte ° 13 Shift A, Left , 2 ° 14 Mask = A& And B > 15 End Function Lf PC = 0040, Cyel = 3160 Pause: Figure 44 Parameter passing BYREF (default) 3.3 BASIC & Assembler In some cases a direct effect on the code is needed. If a desired function is not in the instruction set, it can be defined as a BASIC or Assembler subroutine. Of importance is that BASCOM supports the mixing of BASIC and Assembler. The compiler recognizes most assembler mnemonics automatically. Exceptions are SWAP and, additionally, SUB and ouT for BASCOM- AVR. These mnemonics are reserved words of BASIC and therefore have a higher priority as the assembler mnemonics. However, using prefix ! makes the compiler recognize that word as assembler mnemonics, too. Short examples for both microcontroller families demonstrate the use of the assembler in a BASIC source file. 733.3.1 AVR The assembler is based on the standard AVR mnemonics. In the following program examples, the assembler instructions are marked in bold. Dim A As Byte ' Bytevariable A = GHSA ' Initialize Variable Lloadadr A, X ' Load Address of A into X Id R1, X ' Load R1 with contents where ' X is pointing to ISWAP RL ' Swap nibbles Byte variable A holds the value &H5A. Instruction Loadadr A , X places the address of this variable into register X. Register R1 is then loaded with the value of variable A and, finally, the content of register R1 is swapped. Without prefix ! before swap, the compiler would have recognized swap as a BASIC instruction. Another possibility is the use of the compiler directives $asm and $Sasm end. Normal assembler mnemonics can be placed between these two directives. Dim A As Byte ' Bytevariable A= GHA ' Initialize Variable loadadr A, X ' Load Address of A into X Sasm Id Rl, X ' Load R1 with contents where ' X is pointing to Swap RL ' Swap nibbles Send Asm Run these examples in the simulator to see how such includes work. It is a matter of taste what kind of notation one prefers. Functionally, both examples are equivalent. Take care when manipulating registers directly! BASCOM-AVR uses some registers. R4/R5 serve as a pointer to the stack frame. R8/RO 74serve as data pointer for the READ instruction. R6 contains a few bit variables: R6.0 Flag for integer-word conversion R6.1 Temporary bit for bit swap R6.2 — Error bit (ERR) R6.3. Show/Noshow bit of INPUT instruction Caution: Do not change these registers in any assembler included. Other registers will be used independence of the BASIC instruction referred to. 3.3.2 8051 The assembler is based on the standard Intel mnemonics. In the following program examples, the assembler instructions are marked in bold. Bytevariable Initialize Variable Dim A As Byte A= &5A Load RO with address from variable A Placeadres A , RO ‘MOV A,@RO ' Load ACC with contents of variable A ISWAP A Swap nibbles Byte variable A holds the value &H5A. Instruction Placeadres A , RO places the address of this variable into register RO. The accumulator is then loaded indirectly with the value of variable A and, finally, the content of the accumulator is swapped. Without prefix ! before swap, the compiler would have recognized swap as a BASIC instruction. Another possibility is the use of compiler directives $asm and $asm end. Normal assembler mnemonics can be placed between these two directives. 75Dim A As Byte ' Bytevariable A= GSA Initialize Variable Load RO with address from variable A Placeadres A , RO Sasm MOV A,@RO ' Load ACC with contents ' of variable A Swap A ' Swap nibbles Send Asm A third way simplifies access to the variable by a different notation. Dim A As Byte ' Bytevariable A= GHSA ' Initialize Variable Sasm wv A, {a} ' Load ACC with contents ' of variable A Swap A ' Swap nibbles $end Asm Run these examples in the simulator to see how such assembler includes work. It is a matter of taste what kind of notation one prefers. Functionally, all three examples are equivalent. Caution: Take care when directly manipulating registers! BASCOM- 8051 uses the registers ACC, B and SP. Do not change these regis- ters in any assembler included. 764 Applications This chapter describes the applications both microcontroller families can be used for. It is the underlying hardware of the microcontroller concerned that is responsible for any differences in the programs. The program examples were first set up with BASCOM-AVR. Hints for porting the AVR examples to 8051 are included. In some cases we discuss the solutions which are dependent on the microcontroller used. In other cases the differences are insignificant. 4.1 Programmable Logic Logical devices query input lines (input pattern) and assign a defined bit pattern to the output lines. The logical relations can be expressed by way of a table. In the example the following relations are intended to be implemented: AT A6 AS A4 AZ A2 AT AD|Q7 Q6 QS Q4 Q3 Q2 QI QO 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 Off 1 4 4 4 0 0 0 0 1 1°14 4 1 4 0 4170 0 0 04 4 4 «4 x x x x x x 4 T4171 1 41 1 1 «4 «14 «2 The logical devices should have eight inputs A7..A0 and eight out- puts Q7..Q0. Each bit pattern at an input has a corresponding bit pattern at an output. For eight input lines we obtain 256 different bit patterns, and the table would be very long. In the table we use, there are only three different bit patterns at the output. Therefore, the table poses no problem. Interpreting the table, we find the following results: ¢ IfA=&B11111110 then set Q = &B11110000. e IfA=&B11111101 then set Q = &B00001111. ¢ Inall other cases set Q=&B11111111. Shown in Fig. 43 is the whole circuit including clock generation and reset circuitry for an application using an AVR microcontroller. 77/RESET AT AG AS Ad A3 AQ Al AO ld er 6 5 O4 € O03 Q2 <1 Qo CLK >— PRESET XTAL2 XTALI PO7 GRO) PDB GWR) PDS (OC1A) PD D3 (NTI) D2 (INTO) PDI (TxD) POO (RXD) P87 (SCK) P86 (MISO) PBS (MOS!) P84 USS) PBS (AINT) PB2 (AINO) Pat (Tt) BO (TO) (ADT) PAT (AD8) PAB (ADS) PAS (D4) Pag (D3) PAB (D2) PAD (AD1) PAT (AD0) PAD (15) PCT (ata) PCO (A13) PCS (12) PCS (att) Pcs (Ato) PC2 (ag) Pct (a8) PCO Figure 45 AT90S8515 as a logical device The clock and reset components are always the same and will be omitted in the next circuit diagrams. Supply voltage and ground are normally not drawn, either. The eight input lines A7..A0 go to PortD. PortB drives the eight output lines. Keys on the evaluation board used are connected to PortD. PortB is connected to LEDs with resistors in series. Program LOGIC.BAS waits for a pulse (rising edge followed by a falling edge) at input CLK and, thereafter reads the input lines at 78PortD. In a case structure the bit pattern is evaluated and the result forces the pins on PortB. The BITWAIT instructions query PinO of PortA and block the pro- gram until the mentioned pulse is detected. The bit pattern of the input is saved in variable A. Variable Q contains the bit pattern of the output. The pins have an internal pull-up resistor, which is activated by set- ting the port line. PORTD.x = 1 activates the pull-up resistor on the respective I/O line. In this program example, the whole port will be set (Listing 10). ' Logic with AT90S8515 Dim A As Byte , Q As Byte Config Porta = Input Porta = 255 ' pull-up active Config Portb = Output Config Portd = Input Portd = 255 * pull-up active Do bitwait Pina.0 , Set bitwait Pina.0 , Reset A = Pind Select Case A Case &B11111110 : &B11110000 Case &B11111101 : = &B00001111 Case Else Q = &B11111111 End Select Portb = Q Loop End Listing 10 Logical device with AT90S8515 (LOGIC.BAS) Input CLK triggers the data input of the input lines at PortD. So as to get periodic queries of the input lines, a timer can be used for trig- gering. The circuit remains unchanged. Input CLK has no function now. Timer applications will be discussed in the next chapter. 79Listing 11 shows the timer controlled logic device. The complete I/O. handling is here accommodated in the interrupt handler. ' Logic with AT90S8515 Dim A As Byte , Q As Byte Config Portb = Output Portb = 255 ' All outputs Hi Config Portd = Input ' Configure the timer to use the clock divided by 1024 Config TimerO = Timer , Prescale = 1024 On Timer0 Timer0_isr ' Jump to Timer0 ISR Enable Timer0 ' Enable the timer interrupt Enable Internpts ' Enable Global Interrupt Do Nop Loop End Timer0_isr: A = Pind Select Case A Case &B11111110 : Q = 6B11110000 Case §B11111101 : Q = &B00001111 Case Else Q = 8811111111 End Select Porth = Q Retum Listing 11 Timer controlled logic devices (LOGIC1.BAS) When deciding to use an 8051 microcontroller a device with enough V/O lines is required. The next program examples are based on the AT89S8252. Listing 12 shows the slightly modified program. A com- parison with Listing 10 shows modifications only for port I/O. P1 is the input and P3 the output for the logical signals. P2.0 serves as clock input here. 80' Logic with AT89S8252 Dim A As Byte , Q As Byte Pl = 255 ' pull-up active P2 = 255 ' P2.0 is CLK input Do Bitwait P2.0 , Set Bitwait P2.0 , Reset A=PL ' Read Pl Case &B11111110 : Q = 6B11110000 Case 6B11111101 : Q = 8800001111 Case Else Q = sB11111111 End Select P3=Q ' Write B3 Loop End Listing 12 Logical device with AT89S8252 (LOGIC.BAS) 4.2 Timer and Counter As the timers/counters of the 8051 and AVR microcontrollers differ from each other, the timers will be described separately. Timer and counter denote different modes of the same hardware. To simplify description, the term timer will be used in all general expla- nations. Caution: Please read the documentation of the manufacturer very carefully. The correct setup of some registers is the key to a correct implementation of the required functions. In case of a wrong setup debugging can be very difficult. 4.2.1 AVR The AVR microcontrollers have different internal timers. The 8-bit timer has already been used for simple timer functions. Since the 16-bit timer offers far more flexibility than the 8-bit timer, it will be primarily dealt with here. Caution: The pinout for the alternative functions such as clock in- puts TO and 11, differs for the various types of the AVR family. All timer program examples given below refer to the AT90S8515. 814.2.1.1 Timer Timer0 is an 8-bit timer and Timer1 a 16-bit timer. Each timer has a 10-bit prescaler. The maximum timer period can be calculated using the following equation: par’. prescaler Sos N = 8 for TimerO and N = 16 for Timer1. The prescaler may have a value of 1, 8, 64, 256 or 1024. The next tables show the resolution and maximum timer period for TimerO and Timer1 for a clock fre- quency of 4 MHz. Timing for Timer0 at 4 MHz Prescaler 1 8 64 256 1024 max. Timer Period in ms 0,064 0,512 4,096 16,384 65,536 Resolution in ms 0,00025, 0,002 0,016 0,064 0,256 Timing for Timer at 4 MHz Prescaler 1 8 64 256 1024 max. Timer Period in s 0,016 0,131 1,049 4,194 16,777 Resolution ins 0,00025, 0,002 0,016 0,064 0,256 The next example is a clock generator blinking an LED once per second. The maximum period for Timer1 with a prescaler of 64 is 1.049 sec- onds. To get the period of one second exactly we have to shorten this time by 49 ms. The Output Compare Mode of Timer1 can reduce the timer period. Derived from the equation above we find the following formula fox OutputCompare = prescaler Soll and with the known parameters we get an output compare value of 62500. This value must be saved in the Output Compare Register. Listing 13 shows the configuration of Timer1 as timer with a pres- caler of 64. 82Dim New time As Byte Dim Temp As Byte Dim Seconds As Byte Dim Minutes As Byte Dim Hours As Byte Dim Key As Byte Const True = 1 Const Reload = 62500 Config Timerl = Timer , Prescale = 64 Ocrlah Ocrlal. Tecrla = 0 Set Tecrlb.3 High (reload) Low (reload) Reload Timerl for Period of 1 sec Disconnect OC1A from T/CL Reset T/Cl after Compare Config Portb = Output Portb = 255 ' All outputs Hi On Comparela Timerl_isr Enable Comparela Enable Interrupts Do Jump to Timerl ISR Enable the timer interrupt Enable Global Interrupt Key = Pind If Key = SH7F Then Seconds = 0 Minutes = 0 Hours = 0 End If While New time = True I£ Seconds = 60 Then Seconds = 0 : Incr Mimites End If If Minutes = 60 Then Minutes = 0 : Incr Hours End If If Hours = 24 Then Hours = 0 ‘Temp = Makebcd (seconds) Tf Key = &HFE Then Temp = Makebcd (minutes) If Key = &HFD Then Temp = Makebcd (hours) Porth = Not Temp New time = Not True Wend 83Timerl_isr: New_time = True Incr Seconds Retum Listing 13 Second-Timer with Timer1 (TIMER3.BAS) Timer1 operates as an up-counter. When the timer count is equal to the content of Output Compare RegisterA, a compare interrupt oc- curs. To start a new timer period, bit CTC1 of control register TCCR1B must be set. To avoid unintentional changes in timer control registers TCCR1A and/or TCCR1B, instruction CONFIG TIMER1... should be used at program start before any other timer configurations. From instruction Config Timerl = Timer , Prescale = 64 BASCOM-AVR generates the following assembler code: LDI R24, 0x00 ; 0x00 = 0b00000000 = 0 our Ox2F, R24 IDI R24, 0x03 ; 0x03 = Ob00000011 = 3 our Ox2E, R24 Register TCCR1A is reset to &HOO. Outputs OC1A and OC1B are disconnected from Timer1. PWM is deactivated. Register TCC1B is set to &HO3 switching the prescaler 64. The CTC1 bit in register TCCR1B must be set separately. Instruction Set Tccrlb.3 can do the job without exerting any influence on other bits in TCCR1B. From instruction Set Tecrlb.3 BASCOM-AVR generates the following assembler code: IN R24, 0x2E ORT R24, 0x08 ; 0x08 = 0b00001000 = 8 our Ox2E, R24 After enabling the compare interrupt, the program enters an endless loop showing the time in the BCD format. Seconds, minutes or hours can be displayed by striking the respective keys. 84The Output Compare Function of Timer1 generates a compare inter- rupt when the timer is equal to the compare value. The interrupt han- dler sets flag New_time and increments variable Seconds. A reload of Timer1 is not required because Timer1 is reset on compare event. Timer0 is less comfortably equipped, and reloading must be imple- mented in the software. The procedure is demonstrated with a 50 ms timer. At a clock of 4 MHz and a prescaler of 1024, it will take 195 cycles to get a timer period of 50 ms. TimerO has the overflow interrupt available only. TimerO must be loaded with a value of 256 - 195 to get an overflow after 195 cycles. Listing 14 shows the initialization of TimerO and PortB and an end- less loop as the main program. On TimerO overflow the instruction Load TimerO , Reload re- loads the timer. Calculation 256 - Reload is performed internally. Const Reload = 195 ' Reload value for Period of 50 ms Config TimerO = Timer , Prescale = 1024 Qn TimerO Timer0_isr ' Jump to Timerl ISR Config Portb = Output Enable Timer0 ' Enable the timer interrupt Enable Interrupts ' Enable Global Interrupt Do Nop Loop End Timer0_isr: " Reload TimerO for Period of 50 ms Load Timer0 , Reload Portb.0 = Not Pinb.0 ' Toggle Portb.Pin0 Return Listing 14 Clock generation using Timer0 (TIMERO.BAS) Especially when manipulating the internal registers it is recom- mended to inspect the initialized registers or the generated code with the simulator. 85As shown in the following assembler list, all internal registers and the status register are saved on stack at the beginning of every interrupt service routine (ISR). Only after this pushing will the activities of the ISR start. In the example, the first activity (marked gray) is loading register TCNTO with the value of 256-195 = &H3D. Instruction Cycles | TCNTO (Prescaler=1) PUSH RO 2 &HOG PUSH R1 2 &HO8 PUSH R2 2 &HOA PUSH R3 2 &HOC PUSH R4 2 &HOE PUSH RS 2 &H10 PUSH R6 2 &H12 PUSH R7 2 &H14 PUSH R8 2 &H16 PUSH RO 2 &H18 PUSH R10 2 SHIA PUSH R11 2 &HIC PUSH R16 2 &HIE PUSH R17 2 &H20 PUSH R18 2 &H22 PUSH R19 2 &H24 PUSH R20 2 &H26 PUSH R21 2 &H28 PUSH R22 2 &H2A PUSH R23 2 &H2C PUSH R24 2 &H2E PUSH R25 2 &H30 PUSH R26 2 &H32 PUSH R27 2 &H34 PUSH R28 2 &H36 PUSH R29 2 &H38 PUSH R30 2 &H3A PUSH R31 2 &H3C IN R24,0x3F 1 &H3E PUSH R24 2 &H3F LDI R24, 0x3D 1 &H41 our 0x32,R24 1 &H42 1 &H3D IN R24,0x16 The interrupt occurs after 195 cycles of Timer0. The first activity in the ISR is carried out 66 cycles (&H42) later. Such deviations may be unacceptable in some cases. 86Caution: |n case of low prescaler values, take into account the time needed for register saving. Listing 15 shows a simple way (marked in bold) of taking the addi- tional cycles into consideration. Const Reload = 195 ' Reload value for Period of 50 ms Dim Counter As Byte Config Timer0 = Timer , Prescale = 1 On TimerO Timer0_isr ' dump to Timerl ISR Config Portb = Output Enable Timer ' Enable the timer interrupt Enable Interrupts ' Enable Global Interrupt Do Nop Loop End Timer0_isr: " Reload TimerO for Period of 50 ms Counter = Tent ' Read Timerd Tont0 = Counter - Reload ' Reload Timerd Portb.0 = Not Pinb.0 ' Toggle Portb.0 Retum Listing 15 Modified clock generation by Timer0 (TIMERO_1.BAS) Before reloading Timer0, its content is read and the reload value can be corrected before reloading Timer0. The assembler list shows the changes following this program modification. 87Instruction Cycles TCNTO ( Prescaler=1) PUSH RO 2 &HOT PUSH RL 2 &HOO PUSH R2 2 &HOB PUSH R3 2 &HOD PUSH R4 2 &HOF PUSH RS 2 &H11 PUSH R6 2 &H13 PUSH R7 2 &H15 PUSH RS 2 &H17 PUSH RQ 2 &H19 PUSH R10 2 &H1B PUSH R11 2 &HID PUSH R16 2 &HIF PUSH R17 2 &H21 PUSH R18 2 &H23 PUSH R19 2 &H25 PUSH R20 2 &H27 PUSH R21 2 &H29 PUSH R22 2 &H2B PUSH R23 2 &H2D PUSH R24 2 &H2F PUSH R25 2 &H31 PUSH R26 2 &H33 PUSH R27 2 &H35 PUSH R28 2 &H37 PUSH R29 2 &H39 PUSH R30 2 &H3B PUSH R31 2 &H3D IN R24, 0x3F 1 &H3F PUSH R24 2 &H40 LDI R26, 0x60 1 &H42 LDI R27, 0x00 1 &H43 IN R24, 0x32 2 &H44 ST X,R24 2 &H45 LDI R26, 0x60 1 &H47 LDI R27, 0x00 1 &H48 LD R16,X 2 &H49 LDI R20, 0xC3 1 &H4B SUB R16,R20 1 &H4AC OUT 0x32,R16 1 &H4D IN R24, 0x16 a &H81 The timer period should be 195 cycles of TimerO again. After 77 cy- cles (= &H4D) the calculated value of 129 (= &H81) is reloaded. With a prescaler of 1, Timer0O will overflow after 256 - 129 + 77 = 204 cycles. 88The remaining difference to the expected value of 195 results from the difference between reading and writing TCNTO (&H4D-&H44). It is nine cycles here and can be considered when necessary. 4.2.1.2 Counter In the counter mode the timers/counters of the AVR microcontrollers are able to count (external) events. For Timer0, PinO of PortB serves as counter input TO. The leading or falling edge of the input signal can trigger the counter. Register TCNTO contains the number of counted pulses. A simple example demonstrates the counter mode of Timer0. What is to be counted are pulse packages of 10 pulses each. The number of received packages will be saved in a variable. Listing 16 shows the resulting source. Const Ticks = 10 ' Number of pulses in a package Dim Count As Byte * Counter Config Timer0 = Counter , Edge = Falling Load Timer0 , Ticks ‘Overflow Interrupt after 10 cycles On TimerO Timer0_isr ' gump to TimerO ISR Config Portb = Output ' PortB Output Reset. Darb.0 ' PortbO Input for pulse counter Enable Timer0 ' Enable the timer interrupt Enable Interrupts ' Enable Global Interrupt Do Porth = Count * 2 ' Shift one bit left for display Loop End Timer0_isr: Load Timer0 , Ticks Iner Count Returm Listing 16 Pulse Counter with Timer0 (COUNTERO.BAS) At the beginning of this program example, TimerO is configured as counting falling edges of the input signal. Register TCNTO is loaded so that an overflow interrupt occurs after 10 counted pulses. 89The ISR manages reloading and increments variable Count. In the endless loop, the variable counter is displayed by the LEDs connected to PortB. As PinO serves as counter input TO, it is not available for display. The result needs to be shifted one bit to the left, and the rest of PortB is used for display only. Compared with Timer0, Timer’ offers a lot more features in counter mode as well. Timer1 can count pulses from Pin1 of PortB (T1). If a capture pulse is detected at Pin4 of PortD (ICP), then the register will be moved to the Capture Register. Pulse edges and noise cancellation can be set by means of instruction Config Timerl = Counter .... Listing 17 shows a simple program example intended to run in the simulator. For printing reasons the first line is broken. The whole instruction Config Timer1 = ... must be keyed in in one line. Config Timerl = Camter , Edge = Falling , Noice Cancel = 1, Capture Edge = Rising ' Count Input is Tl (PB1) Capture Input is ICP (PD4) Config Portb = Output Config Pinb.1 = Input Portbo Output PinB.1 Input for pulse counter Portb = 255 Do Porth = Icrll * 4 ' Shift two bits left for display Loop End Listing 17 Timer/Counter1 Input Capture (CAPTURE1.BAS) Since Pin1 of PortB serves as counter input T1, it is not available for display. We have to shift The result must be shifted two bits to the left, and the rest of PortB is used for display only. It is very important to know the exact result of a configuration like Config Timerl = Counter , Edge = Falling , Noise Cancel = 1 , Capture Edge = Rising. Take the simulator and inspect the phase of initialization in the single-step mode. Figure 46 shows the content of the Timer1 Register after initialization. 90no) Lo] Name Value Location “ AT90S8515 = & cpu #) & External Interrupts *! © Timer/Counter) Cee © Timer/Courter High 0x00 OxaD © Timer/CourterLow 0x00 0x20 “1 F® Intenupt Mask Register ITT 0439, bit 7,6,5,3 1 Intenupt Flag Register ITT 0x38, bit 7,6,5,3 2178 ContolRegteA PTT orm 278 ConiolRege® WR TR RT © Compare A High ox00 © Compare A Low ox00 © Compare B High x00 © Compare B Low 0x00 ® Input Capture High ox00 ® Input Capture Low ox00 42 Watchdog 29 SPI Interface 29 UART Interface D Analog Comparator ett g a Figure 46 Initial State of TCCR1B in CAPTURE1.BAS Instruction Config Timerl = Counter , Edge = Falling , Noice Cancel = 1 , Capture Edge = Rising sets the fol- lowing bits in register TCCR1B: ICNC1 | ICES1 cTc1 | Csi2 | Csi1_| CSIO 1 41 0 1 1 0} TCCR1B The Input Capture Noise Canceller samples pin ICP four times. De- pending on the chosen capture edge, all four samples must be Hi or Lo. Bit ICNC1 must be set (Noise Cancel = 1) to activate the noise canceller. If bit ICNC1 is reset (Noise Cancel = 0), the noise canceller is deactivated and a single edge will trigger. The edge for triggering at pin ICP is defined by bit ICES1. If IECS1 is set, the leading edge will trigger (Capture Edge = Rising). If 91ICES1 is reset, the falling edge will trigger (Capture Edge = Fal- ling). Bit CTC1 defines the content of TCNT1 after Output Compare and has already been mentioned. The Clock Select1 bits CS1x define the prescaling source of Timer1. CS12 CS11 CS10_ Description 0 0 0 Stop Timer/Counter1 0 0 1 CK 0 1 0 CK/8 0 1 1 CK/64 1 0 0 CK/256 1 0 1 CK/1024 1 1 0 External Pin T1, falling edge 1 1 1 External Pin T1, leading edge Parameter Edge = Falling is responsible for the setting of bits CS1x in Figure 46. 4.2.1.3 Pulse Width Modulation A pulse series can be controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM). Figure 47 shows two pulse series of different pulse width or duty. 218 5/8 Figure 47 Pulse series of different duties The upper pulse series has a duty of 2/8 which means that, in a pe- riod of eight cycles, two cycles are Hi and the rest of the period is Lo. The lower pulse series has a duty of 5/8. If such a pulse series is used for driving an LED, the brightness of this LED can be controlled by way of the duty. Listing 18 shows an example with Timer0 as pulse width modulator. The whole timer period is divided into a Hi and a Lo phase. The ISR has two paths that will be passed through alternatively. 92Const True = 1 Const False = 0 Dim Hi As Byte Dim Lo As Byte Dim A As Byte Dim Phase As bit Dim Pattem As Byte ' pit pattem for display Pwm Alias Portb.0 ' Modulated Pin ' Rate 244 Hz at 4 MHz Clock Config TimerO = Timer , Prescale = 64 Qn TimerO Timer0_isr ' Jump to Timer0 ISR Config Portb = Output Enable Timer ' Enable the timer interrupt Enable Interrupts ' Enable Global Interrupt lo = 128 ' Initial value for PM Phase = True Do A = Pind ' Ask for Key Select Case A Case &B11111110 : Case &B11111101 : Case &B11111011 : Case &B11110111 : Case &B11101111 : Case &B11011111 : Case &B10111111 : Case &B01111111 : End Select Bi = 255 - Io Incr Pattem " Change bit Pattern Waitms 100 " Wait 100 ms Loop End =0 ' Lo Time short u w 8 64 96 128 160 192 = 255 | Lo Time long BBEBBBBBDS Timer0_isr: If Phase = True Then Portb = GFF ' LED off Timerd = Lo ' Reload Timer Phase = False Else Portb = Not Patten ' LED on 93TimerOd = Hi ' Reload Timer0 Phase = True End If Retum Listing 18 Brightness Control for LED by PWM (PWM0.BAS) The following tasks are included in the endless loop of the program: 1. Query the key connected to PortD 2. Set Lo time according to the pressed key to reload TimerO 3. Calculate the corresponding Hi time for reloading TimerO 4. Manipulate the bit pattern for display on PortB 5. Include a waiting time It is very easy to test this program with the evaluation board. After the start of the program the Lo time is initialized to 128. The LEDs con- nected to PortB display the changing bit patterns at a mean bright- ness. After pressing one of the keys connected to PortD the CASE con- struct determines a new Lo time, and the brightness of the LED changes. The blinking rate does not change because the Hi time will always be adapted to the changed Lo time. For PWM, Timer1 offers some more features. Timer1 should be used if a certain precision is expected. In the PWM mode, Timer1 operates as up/down counter comparing TCNT1 with the Output Compare registers OCR1A and OCR1B permanently. If TCNT1 is equal to one of the registers OCR1A or OCR1B, then the actions described next will start. Digital-to-analog conversion based on PWM is here exemplified by PWM with Timer1. See the register contents for a better under- standing. Use the simulator to inspect the initialization process. Listing 19 is a program example. Pwma Alias Portd.5 ' Modulated Pins Pwmb Alias Oclb Dim Templ As Word ' Used Variables Dim Temp2 As Word Config Portb = Output ' PortB is Output Portb = 255 ' Switch LEDs off 94Config Timerl = Pwm , Pwm = 10 , Compare A Pwm = Clear Down , Compare B Pwm = Clear Up Templ = &H0000 ' Configure Timerl for PWM Pwnla = Templ Pwmlb = Templ Tecrlb = Tecrlb Or sHO2 ' Prescaler = 8 Config Pind.o = Input Configure PortD Config Pind.5 = Output Do bitwait Pind.0 , Reset bitwait Pind. , Set Wait for key pressed Wait for key unpressed Templ = Templ + 6H10 Increment Variable Pwmla = Templ Set PWM Registers Pwmlb = Templ Temp2 = Templ / sH10 ' Reset 4 LSB and shift right Temp2 = Not Temp2 Porth = Low(temp2) Loop End Listing 19 Digital-to-Analog Conversion by PWM (PWM1.BAS) Invert bit pattem Output bit pattem Instruction Config Timerl = Pwm , Pwm = 10 , Compare A Pwm = Clear Down , Compare B Pwm = Clear Up manages the setup of register TCCR1A completely. Figure 48 shows the con- tents of register TCCR1A after configuration. 95Value Location * ‘Ye AT90S8515 =-B cpu = G External Interrupts + © Timer/Counterd ® Timer/Counter High 0x00 0x20 © Timer/Counter Low 0x00 0x20 =) 8# Interrupt Mask Register IT 0439, bit 7,6,5,3 4) P Interrupt Flag Register TT # WwlRegieA = WTR 2-58 ContolRegte BT Pr ® Compare 4 High x00 ® Compare A Low ox00 ® Compare B High ox00 © Compare B Low 0x00 ® Input Capture High x00 ® Input Capture Low x00 Figure 48 Initialization of TCCR1A The bits in register TCCR1A are set as follows: COM1A1 | COM1A1 COM1B1 COM1B1 | PWM11 | PWM10. 1 0 1 1 | 1 1 TCCRIA Bits COM1A1 and COM1A0 define the response of output pin OC1A. Bits COM1B1 and COM1B0 define it for OC1B. The x in the next table is to be replaced by A or B. COM1x1 COM1x0 Description 0 0 not connected 0 1 not connected 1 0 Cleared on compare match, up-counting Set on compare match, down-counting 1 1 Cleared on compare match, down-counting Seton compare match, up-counting Bits PWM11 and PWM10 define the resolution of PWM to 8 bit, 9 bit or 10 bit. 96PWM11 PWM10 Description 0 0 PWM not activated 0 1 8-bit PWM 1 0 9-bit PWM 1 1 10-bit PWM The resolution defines the counting range of the up/down-counter. The counting range is always from 0 to TOP (see table). The fre- quency depends on the counting range, too. Resolution TOP PWM Frequency 8 bit &HOOFF Ffric (510 9 bit BHOIFF fy, /1022 10 bit &HOSFF f,,-, (2046 The following equation is used for calculating the PWM frequency: tt cl QN_ 9 The clock frequency for Timer fric1 is defined by the prescaler and will be set in register TCCR1B. Figure 49 shows the content of register TCCR1B after running in- struction Tccrlb = Tccrlb Or &H02 at the beginning of this pro- gram example. Fou = 97ae rr [-[obJ Name Value Location * ‘Ye AT90S8515 =-B cpu = G External Interrupts + © Timer/Counterd ® Timer/Counter High 0x00 0x20 © Timer/Counter Low 0x00 0x20 #8 Interrupt Mask Register MIMI TT 0439, bit 7,6,5,3 Interrupt Flag Register IT 0438, bit 7,6,5,3 #8 ContiolRegsieA WIR IR OF, bit7.8! Ce EE Pi G28. bit 7.6.3.2" ox00 0.28 ® Compare A Low ox00 Ox2a, ® Compare B High ox00 0x29 © Compare B Low oxo0 0428 ® Input Capture High x00 (025 ® Input Capture Low x00 O24 ls Figure 49 Initialization of TCCR1B At a clock frequency of 4 MHz a prescaler of eight generates a PWM frequency of about 245 Hz. Connecting a resistor and a capacitor as low pass filter to output OC1A or OC1B is all that is needed to get a simple digital-to-analog converter. In practice, the low pass can be designed according to this formula: C= (10..1000) Foun If time constant t is too high, the response time will also be high. On the other hand, if time constant t is too low, the filtering effect will be poor. =R Table 3 shows the output voltages measured across pins OC1A/ OC1B and ground for program example PWM1.BAS. To simplify matters, no low pass filter was connected. Due to the integrating measuring principle, the digital multimeter used for meas- uring had s sufficient filtering capacity. By pressing the key connected to PinO of PortD, the duty of the PWM output can be changed. As there is no debouncing, the change is sometimes greater than expected. The actual duty is displayed by LEDs connected to PortB. 98Word PortB OC1A OC1B Word PortB OC1A OC1B Word PortB OCIA OC1B Word PortB OC1A OC1B Word PortB OCIA OC1B Word PortB OC1A OC1B Word PortB OCIA OC1B Word PortB OC1A OC1B &HO00 &HOO 001 4.93 &H080 &HO8 622 4.32 &H100 &H10 1.23 3.70 &H180 &H18 1.85 3.08 &H200 &H20 247 2.46 &H280 &H28 3.08 1.85 &H300 &H30 3.70 1.23 &H380 &H38 4.32 618 &HO10 &HO1 078 4.86 &HO90 &HO9 .700 4.24 &H110 &H11 1.31 3.62 &H190 &H19 1.93 3.00 &H210 &H21 2.54 2.39 &H290 &H29 3.16 1.77 &H310 &H31 3.78 1.15 &H390. &H39 4.40 541 &H020 &HO2 156 4.78 &HOAO &HOA T77 4.16 &H120 &H12 1.39 3.54 &H1A0 &H1IA 2.00 2.93 &H220 &H22 2.62 2.31 &H2A0 &H2A 3.24 1.69 &H320 &H32 3.86 1.07 &H3A0 &H3A 447 463 &HO30 &HO3 234 4.70 &HOBO &HOB 855 4.08 &H130 &H13 1.46 3.47 &H1B0 &H1B 2.08 2.85 &H230 &H23 2.70 2.23 &H2B0 &H2B 3.32 1.61 &H330 &H33 3.93 1.007 &H3B0 &H3B 4.55 385, &HO040 &HO4 311 462 &HOCO &HOC 932 4.01 &H140 &H14 1.54 3.39 &H1CO &HIC 2.16 277 &H240 &H24 2.78 2.15 &H2CO &H2C 3.39 1.54 &H340 &H34 4.01 929 &H3CO &H3C 4.63 -308 &HO050 &HOS -389 4.55 &HODO &HOD 1.01 3.93 &H150 &H15 1.62 3.31 &H1D0 &H1D 2.24 2.69 &H250 &H25 2.85 2.08 &H2D0 &H2D 3.47 1.46 &H350 &H35 4.09 851 &H3D0 &H3D 471 .230 &HO60 &HO6 467 447 &HOEO &HOE 1.08 3.85 &H160 &H16 1.69 3.23 &H1E0 &HIE 2.31 2.61 &H260 &H26 2.93 2.00 &H2E0 &H2E 3.55 1.38 &H360 &H36 4.17 774 &H3E0, &H3E 4.78 152 &HO70 &HO7 544 4.39 &HOFO &HOF 1.15 3.77 &H170 &H17 1.77 3.16 &H1FO &H1F 2.39 2.54 &H270 &H27 3.01 1.92 &H2FO &H2F 3.63 1.30 &H370 &H37 4.24 696 &H3FO &H3F 4.86 075 Table 3 Digital-to-Analog Conversion by PWM Figure 50 shows the values of Table 3 in a clearly arranged graphic. 995,000 4500 4,000 3,500 | 3,000 —eocriA —*—OcR1B Voltage 2,000 1,500 | 1,000 | 0.500 0.000 SESESESESESS ISTE SEES EE Word Figure 50 Digital-to-Analog Conversion by PWM 4.2.1.4 Pulse Length Capture The timers can also be used for capturing the length of a pulse. Figure 51 shows a pulse series with two different Lo phases, tp; and ty2. Figure 51 Pulse series In the simplest case, the timer is started with a falling edge and stopped upon detection of the rising edge. The result in the timer register reflects the measured time. Listing 20 shows program ex- ample PULSIN.BAS which uses Timer0 for the time measurement. Declare Fimction Lopulse() As Byte Dim Value As Byte Inputpin Alias Pind.o Config Portb = Output ' PortB Output Portb = GFF ' all LEDs off Config Timerd = Timer , Prescale = 1 100On Timer0 Overflow _isr Nosave Enable Timer Enable Interrupts Do Value Portb Loop End Lopulse () Value Function Lopulse() As Byte While Inputpin <> 0 : Wend ' wait for Hi-Lo on inputpin Tonto = 0 ' veset TimerO Start TimerO While Inputpin = 0 : Wend Stop Timer0 ' stop Timer0 after 26 cycles minimm Lopulse = Tent End Sub ' overflow isr stops timer0 and set tcnt0 to zero Overflow_isr: tpush R24 Stop Timerd Tonto = 0 !pop R24 Return Listing 20 Capturing a pulse length (PULSIN.BAS) The key for capturing the pulse length is function Lopulse (). After calling Lopulse() the program waits for a falling edge on Input - pin. Inputpin is an alias for PinO of PortD (defined in the third line). After the detection of a falling edge register TCNTO is reset and TimerO starts. Timer0 internally counts clock signals (prescaler = 1) until it is stopped by a rising edge detected on Inputpin. If the pulse is longer than the TimerO period, a Timer0 Overflow Inter- rupt occurs. The ISR stops Timer0 and returns to 0. At a clock frequency of 4 MHz the resolution is (theoretically) 0.25 ps. The run time from detecting the falling edge to detecting the rising edge is 26 cycles, or minimum 6.5 us. Therefore the capture range is between 6.5 us and 64 ps. 101Using the assembler for edge detection will reduce the runtime. Listing 21 shows the required changes. The changes are marked in bold. Declare Fimction Lopulse() As Byte Dim Value As Byte Const Inputpin = $10 , 0 ' Inputpin Alias Pind.o Config Portb = Output ' PortB Output Porth = SIF ' all LEDs off Config TimerO = Timer , Prescale = 1 Qn Timerd Overflow_isr Nosave Enable Timer Enable Internpts Do Value = Lopulse() Portb = Value Loop End Function Lopulse() As Byte Sasm Hilo: Sbic Inputpin ' wait for Hi-Lo on inputpin Rjmp Hilo $end Asm TontO = 0 ' reset Timerd Start Timerd Sasm Lohi: Sbis Inputpin ‘ wait for Hi-Lo on inputpin Rjmp Lohi Send Asm Stop TimerO ' stop Timer after 10 cycles minimm Lopulse = Tonto End Sub 102' overflow isr stops timer0 and set tcnt0 to zero Overflow_isr: tpush R24 Stop Timero Tonto = 0 !pop R24 Return Listing 21 Capturing a pulse length (PULSIN1.BAS) The changed function needs ten cycles to detect a rising edge. The minimum pulse length that can be captured is now 2.5 us. Capturing a pulse length without an internal timer is demonstrated in Listing 22. Declare Function Lopulse() As Word Dim Value As Word Dim Time As Word Inputpin Alias Pind.o Config Portb = Output Porth = &HFF Do Value = Lopulse() Portb = Low(value) Loop End Function Lopulse() As Word While Inputpin <> 0 : Wend Time = 0 ‘ reset Time While Inputpin = 0 Incr Time Wend Lopulse = Time End Sub Listing 22 Capturing a pulse length (PULSIN2.BAS) The value of variable Time is proportional to the pulse length. For an exact time specification the cycles of the second while-wend loop are responsible. 103At a clock frequency of 4 MHz Inputpin is queried every 7.7 us. The longer sampling time is due to the data formats used for the calculations (word for value and time). An overflow check was not made here. 4.2.2 8051 Most 8051 derivatives have at least two 16-bit timers. These timers are fairly complex circuits. Registers TMOD, TCON and IE control the functionality of these timers. The timer counts the internal clock divided by 12. The timer period can be calculated according to the following equation: 12 Sosc The timer can operate in four modes: e Mode 0: 13-bit timer (8-bit timer with 5-bit prescaler) ¢ Mode 1 : 16-bit timer. T=2". ¢ Mode 2: 8-bit timer with auto-reload e Mode 3: 8-bit timer (see datasheet for details) Typically working at a clock frequency of 12 MHz, the timer clock is 1 MHz. For Mode 1 and Mode 2 the following data are obtained: Timer at 12 MHz clock frequency Mode 2 1 Maximum Timer Period 256 us 65.536 ms Resolution tus tus Figure 52 shows a block diagram of TimerO / Timer1. For timer con- figuration BASCOM-8051 has special instructions that set the re- spective special function registers (SFR). 104RDATE: frHo,TLo 10. THoD [ Fo Figure 52 Block diagram of 8051 timer To configure TimerO, the following bits have to be set/reset in the TMOD and TCON SFRs. At the beginning it is good practice to verify this setup in the simulator. Config TimerO = Counter 1 -> C/T Config TimerO = Timer 0 -> C/T Config Gate = External 1 -> Gate Config Gate = Internal 0 -> Gate Config Mode = 0-3 00-11 -> M1, MO Start Timero 1 -> TRO Stop TimerO 0 -> TRO In Listing 23, Timer is initialized as timer in mode 2. The timer oper- ates as a reloadable 8-bit timer with a period of 250 —s. When 250 us are exceeded, the timer overflows and interrupts the program. Interrupt handler timer0_isr increments a counter variable. After 4000 timer interrupts, P3.5 is toggled and the same procedure starts again. If an INTO interrupt occurs, the reload value for TimerO is manipu- lated, and the blinking rate changes. 105In the main loop of the program, P1.7 is toggled every 100 ms to demonstrate some activity of the main program. This program can be run in the simulator. Reducing the value of Ms_delay has a favorable effect in the simulation. ' TimerO for 8051 Dim Ms_cntr As Integer Dim Ms delay As Integer Dim RI_value As Byte ' Reload value for Timerd ' Timer0 is a reloadable 8-bit Timer Config Timero = Timer , Mode = 2 On Timer0 Timer0_isr Qn Into Into_isr Main: Rl_value = 250'Timer0 Overflow after 250us at 12 MHz Ms_cntr = 0 ‘Init Ms_cntr Ms_delay = 4000 "Delay of 4000 x 250us = 1000 ms Gosub Init_io Gosub Init_timerd Enable Interrupts ‘Global Interrupt Enable Do P1.7 = Not P1.7 "Do Anything Forever Waitms 100 Loop End ' Interrupt Handler TimerO_isr: ‘Handler for Timer0 Overflow Incr Ms_cntr If Ms cntr = Ms delay Then Ms cntr = 0 P3.5 = Not P3.5 "Toggle P3.5 End If Retum, Int0_isr: Rl _value = Rl_value / 2 ‘Change R1_value Value Stop Timero Load Timer0 , Rl_value ‘SetUp Timer0 with changed RI_value Start TimerOd P3.7 = Not P3.7 "Toggle P3.7 RetumInit_io: 7 a 5 a Set Toon.0 ‘Falling edge triggers INTO Enable Into ‘Enables INTO Return Init_timero Load Timerd , R1_value "Store Rl_value in Timerd Enable Timerd ‘Enable Timer0 Overflow Interrupt Start TimerOd ‘Start Timerd Returm Listing 23 Timer example (TIMER.BAS) 4.3 LED Control LEDs or displays based on LEDs are widely used for simple display functions. Their advantage is the excellent visibility. In most cases, however, this advantage must be paid for with a high power con- sumption. 4.3.1 Single LED LEDs can be directly driven from the pins of AVR microcontrollers. Due to the electrical specifications it is advantageous to connect the LEDs as is shown in Figure 53. The following equation is used to calculate the series resistances: V R=—< =, in Ve I, OL, LED According to the datasheet of the AT90S8515, the output voltage VoL is 0.6 V maximum at a current of 20 mA. If an LED is intended to be driven at a current of 10 mA, the series resistance can be determined using the parameters Voc = 5V, Vie = 4,5 Vand Vo. = 0.3V(R= 320Q). However, if the resistors shown in Figure 53 are used the current flowing through the LEDs will be lower. 107— meser >was of — | roocxo) (avo) Pan 7 —J xa ALE x ras ip | — | Po7qr) aor) par L— Poe CWA) cade) PAD |-— PDS(OCtA) (ADs) PAS | — —] Poa) (napa | — SS TSS POSGNTI) (ADS) RAs * ii | ~ POZ(INTO) —(AD2) PAZ — rote) otras PL PET(SCK) (AIS) PCT tape PBICTt) (aa) Pct PBO(TO) (ss) pco f— Figure 53 Connecting LEDs to PortB 4.3.2 Seven-Segment Displays Seven-segment displays can display the figures of our numbering system and a couple of special characters. There are many types of seven-segment displays from different manufacturers. Basically, this type of display consists of a number of LEDs with connected anodes or cathodes. In our application example, the type SA03-11 display made by King- bright is used. Figure 54 depicts such a display. Gg Figure 54 Seven-Segment Display SA03-11 Caution: To connect an LED display to the port of any micro- controller, adhere to the connecting diagram of the display used. 108Figure 55 shows the segment assignment and pin configuration of an SA03-11 display. a} by) ¢| 4) e] ft! 9) DPQ 1 913 108 7 2 119 PIN 4 , 5, 12 NO PIN PIN 6 NO CONNECTOR Figure 55 Segment Assignment and Pin Configuration of SA03-11 To display alphanumeric data with such a seven-segment display, it is necessary to define the control scheme. As can be seen in Figure 55, the anodes of the individual LEDs are interconnected. If a cathode resistor is connected to a microcontroller pin, the LED can be switched on and off. Lo at the controlling pin switches the LED on, and Hi switches it off. Table 4 shows the segment control for characters 0 to 9 and A to F as is required for displaying hexadecimal numbers. 109Character Segments Output &H40 &H79 &H24 &H30 &H19 &H12 &HO2 &H78 &HOO &H10 &HO08 &H03 &H46 &H21 &HO6 &HOE TAMIDQNODPFOCHNADAWNAD CSCOA20CCO200CCO=R34 SCO2DDDDCOA0 COBH Ols CODDDO202 0222 0+0]o ACDDO2002=00-00-0]0 BA2O20CCOCOOCOCOA0—0]o BBOB BDDC OBA CCC COls CO202=00CC COCO <0]p Table 4 Segment Control Chapter 0 lists the complete character set of a seven-segment dis- play. This table permits a lot more characters to be defined. No more than seven bits of the control byte are required for the complete character set. The MSB can control the decimal point. Listing 24 shows a program example that displays the characters 0 to F on a seven-segment display continuously. Config Porta = Output ' PortA Output Porta = 255 ' all segments off Dim I As Byte Dim X(16) As Byte ' Array for controlling bit patterns Restore Value_table For I= 10 16 ' Read data in array Read X(i) Next Do For I= 10 16 Porta = X(i) ' Display character Waitms 250 ' Wait .5 seconds Waitms 250 Next 110Loop End value _table: Data &H40 , SH79 , SH24 , SH30 , SHI9 , SHI2 , SHO2 , SH78 Data 6&HOO , &H1O , &HO8 , SHO3 , SH46 , 6H21 , SHOG , SHOE Listing 24 Control of Seven-Segment-Display by AVR (7SEGMENT.BAS) The controlling bit patterns (see Table 4) are stored in the ROM ina table named Value_table. Upon program start, the ROM table is copied to array X which makes access to the array (indexed variable) quite simple. Characters 0 to F are displayed in an endless loop. The two instruc- tions waitms 250 generate a waiting time of half a second. Two wait instructions are needed because the argument has byte format and is limited to 255! With the exception of port I/O, program 7SEGMENT.BAS has no AVR specific instructions. To port this program to 8051, all that is required is to adapt the I/O related instructions. Listing 25 shows the modified program for 8051 microcontrollers. The modifications are marked in bold characters. ' Seven-segment control by AT89C2051 $sim ' comment for nommal operation Pl = 255 Dim I As Byte Dim X(16) As Byte Restore Value_table For I = 1 To 16 Read X(i) Next Do For I = 1 To 16 Pl = Not X(i) ' inverted for simulation only Waitms 250 Waitms 250 Next Loop 111End Value_table: Data SH40 , 6H79 , S424 , &H30 , SH19 , SH12 , SHO2 , S&H78 Data SHOO , &H10 , &HO8 , SHO3 , SH46 , SH21 , SHOG , SHOE Listing 25 Control of Seven-Segment-Display by 8051 (7SEGMENT.BAS) In Listing 25 the output instruction was enhanced by the operator not. The reason is the BASCOM-8051 simulator which was used for program testing. Pressing the LCD button causes a display window to appear that contains a seven-segment display, too. Figure 56 shows the open window. As the segments of this display are switched on at Hi, the polarity had to be changed. 112ZBASCOM simulator ofr =) S{| [e*| selec | INTO. int | io | 1 SER | Variables | Break | Sf BEE Variable [Value [Hex Bin i 5 oo000005 — 9000000000000101 Hii ‘oo000€6 —o000000011100110 cece | eee © Restore Value_table O For I = 1 To 16 O | Read Ki) O Next Do O For I= 1 To 16 ° PL = Not K(i) Om| Vaitms 250 °° Waitms 250 o Next © Loop ‘ © Pauzed — 925(7,0036892361111 ms) Max stack: 38 Figure 56 Seven-Segment Display in BASCOM-8051 Simulator BASCOM-8051 offers the flexibility to assign the segments to any available pin. Right-click the seven-segment display to edit the prop- erties of this display. Figure 57 shows how to edit the digit properties. 113Figure 57 Pin Assignment 4.3.3 Dot-Matrix Displays In most cases, a dot-matrix display uses a 5 x 7 LED matrix for dis- play purposes. As is common with LCDs, a lot more characters can be displayed. As an example, Figure 58 shows a dot-matrix TAO7-11 made by Kingbright. Figure 58 Dot-Matrix Display TAO7-11 To control such a dot-matrix display, the assignment of these 35 LEDs to the pins of the display must be known. Figure 59 shows the internal circuit diagram of the TAQ7-11. Column connections C1 to C5 link up the anodes of all LEDs in a certain column. Row connections R1 to R7 do the same for all LEDs in a certain row. To switch a LED in the first column and third row, for example, line C1 must be connected to Vcc and line R3 via a series resistor to GND. 114TAO7-11 PINT 3 10 7 8 c1 02 C3 C4 CS C1 C2 C3 C4 CS Figure 59 Internal Circuit of Dot —Matrix Display TAO7-11 As shown in Figure 59, five column lines and seven row lines are needed to control all LEDs of a 5x7 dot-matrix display. Without extra hardware, each further display needs five additional column lines. If a dot-matrix display is to be used as a character display, define the characters to be displayed first. Figure 60 shows a graphic character as an example. Let us define these characters next. @O000000 @@00000 @e@e@0000 @ee@e@000 @©e0008000 Figure 60 Character to be defined The LCD Designer, a tool included in BASCOM, can be used not only for LCDs but for this purpose, too. Figure 61 shows the character to be defined with the LCD Designer tool. 115Clear all Setall | 7 Ok % Cancel Figure 61 Design of a character The LCD Designer generates the following instruction for this special character: Defledchar ?, 224, 224, 225, 227, 231, 239, 255, 224 ' replace ? with number (0-7) Of this instruction only the generated bit patterns are of interest here. These bit patterns are saved in the memory with a DATA instruction as follows: Dotmatrix: Data 224 , 224, 225 , 227, 231, 239, 255, 224 These eight bytes describe the bit pattern of the pixel lines from top to bottom. Only five bits of each byte are significant. The dot-matrix display is driven column after column. Therefore we need bit patterns for columns, not for rows as generated by the LCD Designer. The required conversion can be performed by the micro- controller during initialization. Figure 62 shows the circuit for driving the dot-matrix display. For more clarity, the circuitry for PortA and PortC is presented only. 116JRESET XTAL2 TALI PD7 GRD) PD6 (WR) PDS (OCTA) PD4 PD3 (INT1) PD2 (INTO) PD1 (TXD) PDO (RxD) Pa? (scky PBB (MISO) PBS (MOS!) Ppa (SS) PB3 (AINT) PB2 (AINO) Pet 1) PE (TO) ocie ALE icp (ADT) PAT (AD6) PAB (D5) PAS (AD4) PAS (aD3) PAS (D2) PA2 (D1) Pat (D0) Pao (ais) POT (1d) PCB (13) PCS (12) PCa (ait) PCa (ato) PC (AS) PCH (a) PCO Figure 62 Control Circuit for Dot-Matrix Display TAO7-11 Listing 26 is a program example for the display of a character gener- ated by the LCD Designer as described. ' Control of Dot-Matrix Display by AVR Dim A(5) As Byte Dim I As Byte , J As Byte Dim X As Byte , ¥ As Byte Config Porta = Output Config Porte = Output Restore Dotmatrix For I =0T07 If Y > SH7F Then Set X.i all rows Hi all colums Lo convert rows to colums read from table shift 3 MSB test for MSB 117Else Reset X.i End If AG) =x Shift Y , Left Next Next Set X.i ' set accessed columm Hi End Dotmatrix: Data 224 , 224 , 225 , 227 , 231 , 239 , 255 , 224 Listing 26 Controlling a Dot-Matrix Display (DOTMATRIX2.BAS) PortA serves as driver for the row lines. PortC drives the column lines of the dot-matrix display. After initialization all LEDs of the dis- play are switched off. The conversion of the bit pattern from pixel rows to pixel columns starts after resetting the data pointer to the first data byte of the bit patterns. Because the three most significant bits of each pixel row are not needed, they are cancelled by _ instruction Shift Y , Left , 3. As shown in the next table, the remaining five bits in each pixel row are inspected column by column. So the pixel positions in variables A(1) to A(5) will be set or reset bit by bit starting at the LSB. 224 224 225 227 231 239 255 224 ons2c0000 Onaaasco Sloszcoo000 GBIOt 2320000 > RlOa+2Aa2320CO > NS > > 118At a clock frequency of 4 MHz the whole conversion process takes about 2.2 ms. This time will not be noticed during initialization. An endless loop drives the dot-matrix display by outputting the con- verted bit pattern column after column. For enhancing the display to several devices either more column driver lines (five for each device) or extra hardware for multiplexing are required. 4.4 LCD Control LCDs are receiving advanced features for the display of information. The number of low-priced LCDs offered on the market is immense. Fortunately, the HD44780 LCD controller by Hitachi or compatible devices are used in most cases for alphanumeric displays. Basically, it is distinguished between two kinds of device control. In the direct mode the pins of the microcontroller drive the lines of the connected LCD directly. In the other case, some LCDs are equipped with a standardized RS232 or I°C interface. The number of required interface lines decreases. For small microcontrollers, it is often the latter aspect that is of importance. 4.4.1 Direct Control The LCD controller type HD44780 provides the connected microcon- troller with an 8-bit bus and a number of control lines. The pins of such an LCD module have the following meanings: Pin Designation Level Function 1 Vss GND GND 2 Vop +5V Supply voltage 3 Vo 0...+5V Contrast control L: Instruction register 4 RS HL H: Data register L: Read access 7 a Le H: Write access 6 E HIL Enable 7-14 DBO - DB7 H/L. Data lines 119There are two ways to connect a microcontroller in the direct mode. See Figure 14 for configuring the connection mode. If the microcontroller circuit works with an external memory or mem- ory-mapped I/O, then a data bus exists and the LCD can be con- nected in the bus mode. The SetUp of the STK200 evaluation board has already been shown in Figure 14. Figure 63 depicts the connec- tion of an LCD module with LCD controller HD44780 to the data bus and the control lines of an AT90S8515 microcontroller. JRESET XTAL2 ALE }— XTALY ioe bp POT YRD) = (ADT) PAT |} ~~. PDB (WR) = (ADB) PAB Jam PDS (OC1A) (ADS) PAS PJ PDs (AD4) PAG PO3(NT1) —(AD3) PAB PD2 (INTO) —(AD2) PA? PDI (TxD) (D1) PAt PDO(RXD) (ADO) PAD PBT(SCK) (A158) POT PBG (MISO) (A14) PCB PBS(MOSI — (13) PCS PB4 (SS) (12) PC4 PB3 (AIN1) (A11) PC3 PB2 (AINO) (aio) PC2 -}K—_ i PBI (TI) @gyPC1 }— | * PBO (TO) (as) PCO -}—— ] ) | CoH. Figure 63 LCD Connected to AT90S8515 in Bus Mode The LCD controller type HD44780 has two internal 8-bit registers that can be accessed from the connected microcontroller. The instruction register (IR) saves the received commands (RS = 0). The data register (DR) saves data (RS = 1) which are sent to the Data Display RAM (DD RAM) or Character Generator RAM (CG RAM). Address line A14 distinguishes between instructions and data. 120Together with the Read/Write signals, address line A15_ controls the Enable line of the LCD module. A falling edge at the Enable input (E) of the LCD controllers latches the data (D7-D0). If there is no external bus the LCD can be connected in the pin mode which means the SetUp must assign the pins of the LCD to the cor- responding pins of the microcontroller. The below table shows possible assignments: LCD Pin Port DB7 14. PORTB.7 DB6 13 PORTB.6 DBS 12 PORTB.5 DB4 11. PORTB.4 E 6 PORTB.3 RS 4 PORTB.2 RW 5 GND Vss 1 GND Vas 2 +5 Volt Vo 30-5 Volt In this configuration PORTB.1 and PORTB.0 (and the other Ports not used here) are available for other purposes. After correct initialization in the LCD SetUp the LCD can be con- trolled using comfortable LCD instructions. Listing 27 shows a simple LCD control program for a first test. 121' LED Control by AVR and 8051 $sim ' for similation only otherwise comment Dim A As Byte ML: A = Waitkey() If A = 27 Then Goto M2 cls Upperline Led A Lowerline Led Hex (a) ‘uncomment for AVR ' Ledhex A ‘ unconment for 8051 Print Chr(a) Goto ML v2: End Listing 27 LCD Control (LCD.BAS) The program waits for a character to be sent. If the character sent is ESC the program will end. Otherwise, the display (16 characters, 2 lines) shows the received character on both lines in different formats. If one prefers to go inside BASCOM, then the internal routines can be used, too. The following is an example for BASCOM-AVR. SASM Idi _templ, 5 ‘load register R24 with value Reall _Ied control ‘it is a control value "to control the display Idi _temp1,65 "load register with new value (letter A) Reall Write lod ‘write it to the LCD-display SEND ASM Subroutines _1cd_control and _write_lcd are written in as- sembler and can be called from BASIC. 4.4.2 LCD with Serial Interface LCDs with a serial interface offer a simplified connectivity. In the sim- plest case two wires (TxD & GND) from the microcontroller to the LCD are sufficient. The comfortable LCD instruction cannot be used for this kind of LCD control. Some knowledge of the LCD controller is required. 122As the DD RAM of the HD44780 LCD controllers has 80 bytes, one HD44780 LCD controller can control one LCD with four lines of max. 20 characters each. Table 5 shows the LCD position and DD RAM address for a 4x16 LCD (LM041L etc.) as an example. DD RAM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1.Zeile 00 01 02 03 04 05 O06 O07 08 O09 OA OB OC OD OE OF 2.Zeile 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F 3.Zeile 10 11 12 14 13 15 16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F 4.Zeile 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 5A 5B 5C 5D _5E_ 5F Table 5 Display position and DD RAM address for LCD 4x16 As shown in Table 5, not all memory space is used for display in a 4x16 LCD. DD RAM not used for the display is available as external RAM. The access to that external RAM requires a complete RS-232. Table 6 shows an extract from the instruction set of an HD44780LCD controller. Table 7 describes some designations in Table 6. 123iction RS DB7 ODB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DBO Description “Display or At ; intry Mode ay On/Off or/Display tion Set ~G RAM 1D RAM Write 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Clears display and sets cursor to home position 0 0 0 0 0 60 60 14. X_ Sets cursor to home position 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 VD S Defines direction of cursor and shift movements 0 0 0 0 0 1 D c B See explana- tions of D, C, and B 0 0 oO 0 4 SCG RL X X_ See explana- tions of SIC and RIL 0 0 0 1 DL N F x X — See explana- tions of DL, N, and F 0 0 4 ACG Sets CG RAM address o 14 AD Sets DD RAM address 1 Deta Writes byte in DD RAM or CG RAM Table 6 Coding of Instructions of LCD Controller HD44780 Name Description After writing a character to RAM, the DD RAM or CG RAM address will be VD incremented (I/D = 1) or decremented (I/D = 0). Moving the contents of display to the right (S = 1) or left (S = 0) S Cursor position does not change (calculator). D__ Display on (D = 1) or off (D = 0). Data in DD RAM remain unchanged. C Cursor on (C = 1) or off (D = B Cursor blinking (B = 1) or not blinking (B = 0). Moves the contents of display (S/C = 1) or the cursor (S/C = 0) by one posi- SIC tion according to RIL. RIL Moving to the right (R/L = 1) or left (R/L = 0) without changes in DD RAM. DL Data bus 8 bit (DL = 1) or 4 bit (DL = 0). N Number of display lines - one (N = 0) - several (N = 1). F Font- 5x7 dots (F = 0) - 5 x 10 dots (F = 1). X__Don't care. Table 7 Explanation of instruction set of HD44780 LCD controllers After this short description of the basics of LCD controller type HD44780, the next program example can be interpreted. 124Listing 28 shows a BASCOM-AVR program controlling an LCD via RS-232. Due to the serial interface all commands for the LCD con- troller must be sent by print instructions from the microcontroller. This program example is based on a serial LCD from Scott Edwards Electronics [http://www.seetron.com]. Scott's web site offers a lot of information about all types of LCDs. ' SW_UART.BAS for AVR ' Controlling a LCD with LCD Serial Backpack from ' SEETRON: ' C. Kuehnel * 1999-11-21 Const Instr = 254 Const Clr =1 Const Led blank = 8 Const Led restore = 12 = 6880 HCO 8HO4 sHD4 Config Portd = Input Porta = 956 Open "COMC.0:2400,8,N,1, inverted" For Output As #1 Print #1, Chr(instr) ; Chr(clr); Print #1, Chr(instr) ; Chr(linel) ; Print #1, "BASCOM-AVR writes to"; Print #1, Chr(instr) ; Chr(line2) ; Print #1, "4 line/20 colum LoD"; Print #1, Chr(instr) ; Chr(line3); Print #1, "via serial interface"; Print #1, Chr(instr) ; Chr(line4); Print #1 , "from www.seetron.com!'; Wait 5 125While Pind.o = 1 Print #1 , Chr(instr) ; Chr(1cd blank) ; Waitms 200 : Waitms 200 Print #1 , Chr(instr) ; Chr(1lcd_restore) ; Wait 1: Waitms 250 : Waitms 250 Wend Close #1 End Listing 28 Control of a Serial LCD (SW_UART.BAS) A number of constants are declared in the first part of the program. PortD is initialized as input because the program looks for PinO of PortD to run or end. Before any display the serial interface must be initialized, too. No complete serial interface is needed for this program example; the transmit line (TxD) will do. Therefore, the UART software is good enough for this purpose. The asynchronous serial communication will be discussed in chapter 4.7. You may read this chapter to get first information, or accept the initialization of the UART software with Open "COMC.0:2400,8,N, 1,inverted" For Output As #1 and the data output with Print #1 , ... first. The data are output from PinO of PortC of the microcontroller used at 2400 baud and with inverted polarity. We have to distinguish between two types of data output: Print #1, Chr(instr) ; Chr(linel); Print #1 , "BASCOM-AVR writes to"; In the first instruction, data byte instr announces a command (RS=0). The command itself is the data byte line (DD RAM = 00) which sets the data pointer to the first position in DD RAM. The second instruction transfers data to be displayed to the DD RAM, starting at the preselected location. Before entering the while-wend loop all data are written to the LCD. In the loop, the display is cleared and reactivated (Restore) periodi- cally. Because the arguments for instructions Wait and Waitms are limited to one byte, several wait instructions need to be added to generate longer wait times. In BASCOM-8051 it is different. The UART software only supports the GET and PUT statements, and the PRINTBIN and INPUTBIN 126statements to retrieve and send data. It is not possible to simply send a string with print "abcdefg". COM1 and COM2 are hardware ports that can be used with PRINT etc. Listing 29 shows the LCD control program ported to BASCOM-8051. PinO of Port1 serves as key input. The UART hardware sends the data to the serially connected LCD. ' Serial_LOD.BAS for 8051 * Controlling a LCD with LCD Serial Backpack from ' SEETRON: ' C. Kuehnel * 2001-01-01 Const Led blank = 8 Const Led restore = 12 Const Linel = sH80 Const Line2 = sHCO Const Line3 = sH94 Const Line4 = sHD4 Dim I As Byte Dim Key As Bit Qpen "COM1:2400, inverted" For Output As #1 " RS232 inverted! Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(clr); Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(linel) ; Print #1 , "BASCOM-AVR writes to"; Print #1, Chr(command) ; Chr(line2) ; Print #1, "4 line/20 colum LoD"; Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(line3); Print #1, "via serial interface"; Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(line4) ; Print #1 , "from www.seetron.com"; Wait 5 Do Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(1cd_blank) ; 127Waitms 200 : Waitms 200 Print #1 , Chr(command) ; Chr(1cd_ restore) ; Wait 1: Waitms 250 : Waitms 250 Key = P1.0 Loop Until Key = 0 Close #1 End Listing 29 Control of a Serial LCD (SERIAL_LCD.BAS) 4.5 Connecting Keys and Keyboards Keyboards for microcontrollers need not have the same features as keyboards for PCs. Often simple keypads as shown in Figure 64 are sufficient for input purposes. This kind of keypad is available in two types: e 1x12 single keys © 3x4 key matrix Figure 64 Keypad If there are enough I/O lines available then the single key version can be used. If not, three I/O lines can be saved when the key matrix is used. 1284.5.1 Single Keys In the single key version (1x12) the keypad shown in Figure 64 has the internal connections shown in Figure 65. All keys of the keypad are wired up on one side and connected to pint. The other side of each key is connected to one of the pins 2 to 13. Figure 65 Internal Wiring of Keypad 1x12 Figure 66 shows how to connect such a keypad to a microcontroller. To simplify the diagram the keypad was reduced to four keys. 129° oe — — Figure 66 Reduced Keypad The wired end (COMMON) of all keys is connected to GND. The other side of each key is connected via pull-up resistors to the supply voltage. Most microcontrollers have internal pull-up resistors at their I/O ports. These internal pull-up resistors can be used to reduce the number of components on your board (initialize correctly!). The next two lines of the code show the initialization of a port as input with internal pull-ups for AVR microcontrollers. Config Porta = Input ' Porta is input Porta = 255 ' with internal pull-up The first line initializes the data direction registers for input, and the second line sets the data register to Hi to enable the pull-up resistors. Pressing a key generates a falling edge at the respective I/O pin, and the microcontroller can detect this event. It is important to consider the bouncing of all kinds of mechanical keys. Debouncing is no issue under BASCOM: debounce is a very helpful instruction. Listing 30 shows the query of the reduced keypad using the debounce instruction. 130' Query a keypad by AVR Const Keys = 4 Config Portb = Output Config Porta = Input Porta = 255 Config Portc = Input Portc = 255 Dim I As Byte Dim Key As Byte Port = 255 Do For I = 1 To Keys Key = 1 Select Case Key Case 1 : Debounce Pina.0 Debounce Pina.1 Debounce Pina.2 : Debounce Pina.3 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 End Select Next Loop End Display key: Porth = Not Key Retum Test for 4 keys only ' Porth is output. ' Porta is input ' with internal pull-up ' Port is input ' with internal pull-up ' variable contains key number ' Switch LEDs off ' Query all keys 0 , Display_key , Sub 0, Display key , Sub 0, Display key , Sub 0, Display key , Sub Display key number by LED Listing 30 Query of a Keypad by AVR (KEY1.BAS) Listing 31 shows the slightly modified program for an 8051 micro- controller. The differences result from the differing port I/O only. ' Query a keypad by 8051 Const Keys = 4 Dim I As Byte Dim Key As Byte ' Portl is drives LEDs 1 = 255 ' Test. for 4 keys only ' Variable contains key number ' Switch LEDs off ' Port2 is input with intemal pull-up 131P2 = 255 ' needed for input Do For I = 1 To Keys ' Query all keys Key = I Select Case Key Case 1 : Debounce P2.0 , 0 , Display key , Sub Case 2 : Deboumce P2.1, 0 , Display key , Sub Case 3 : Deboumce P2.2 , 0 , Display key , Sub Case 4 : Debounce P2.3 , 0 , Display key , Sub End Select Next Loop End Display key: Pl = Not Key ' Display key number by LED Retum Listing 31 Query of a Keypad by 8051 (KEY1.BAS) 4.5.2 Matrix Keypad If there is only a limited number of I/O lines available for the keypad, a matrix keypad will be the better solution. Figure 67 shows the changed internal wiring for the same keypad. The single keys are wired up in the form of columns and rows, with pins 1 to 3 connecting the columns and pins 4 to 7 the rows. Pressing key "1" connects pin 1 and pin 7, for example. 132"5 _s"s a ve | in . ws oe oe | "7" "8" | “9” as 3%. Fe nen "9" nn + as a | fi] r| ~{2] | —dttt 4 ee Figure 67 Internal Wiring of a 3x4 Keypad Figure 68 shows how to connect a matrix keypad to an AVR micro- controller when internal pull-up resistors are used. 133—| reset ocig -— xTaL2 ALE tat op — | Por uD) woz) PAY |} D8 (MIR) 5 (OCT) a 3 ANTI) PD2 (NTO) | Poimm) gota ——| PD0 (RxD) 00) FAD Par ck) ats) Pe7 }— ——| Psaisoy aay pce L— J pas qios) aay pcs PB4YSS) GAIN PCA PasAINT) — @@l)PCo ——| parang) — catoppce ag Pci P80 (70) (=) PCO | —] parc Figure 68 Connection of a Matrix Keypad Pins PD4 to PD7 serve as inputs with internal pull-up resistors. Pins PDO to PD2 set the queried column line to Lo. A query of a matrix keypad divides into several queries of key col- umns. Listing 32 shows two interlocked loops to query this matrix keypad for an AVR microcontroller. * Query a matrix keypad by AVR Config Portb = Output Ddra = 6HOF Porta = SHEF PD7-PD4 Input; PD3-PDO Output with internal pull-up Dim Colum As Byte Dim Row As Byte Dim Key As Byte ' Variable contains key number Porth = 255 ' Switch LEDs off Do ' Query all keys For Colum = 0 To 2 If Colum = 0 Then Reset Porta.0 If Colum = 1 Then Reset Porta.1 If Colum = 2 Then Reset Porta.2 ‘If Colum = 3 Then Reset Porta.3 For Row = 4 To 7 Select Case Row 134case 4 : Debounce Pina.7 , 0 , Calc key , Sub case 5 : Debounce Pina.6 , 0, Calc key , Sub Cage 6 : Debounce Pina.5 , 0, Calc_key , Sub Case 7 : Deboumce Pina.4 , 0 , Calc_key , Sub End Select Next Porta = SHFF Next. Loop End Calc _key: Select Case Row Case 4 : Key = Colum +1 Case 5 : Key = Colum + 4 Case 6 : Key = Colum +7 Case 7 : Key = Colum + 10 End Select Portb = Not Key Return Listing 32 Matrix Keypad Query (KEY2.BAS) In the inner loop For Row = 4 to 7 ... Next the keys of one column will be queried. The column to be queried is activated in the outer loop For Column = 0 To 2 ... Next by resetting the respective I/O pin. To query a 4x4 matrix (hex keypad, for example) the column query must be changed to For Column = 0 To 3 ... Next. Additionally, BASCOM-AVR has the function GETKBD () for querying a 4x4 matrix keypad. See the BASCOM-AVR help for the required details. Instruction Config Kbd = Porta assigns any port of the AVR to the matrix keypad. A keypad query now needs one function call only. The next program lines show how easy it is to encode a keypad in- put. 135Config Kod = Porta Config Porth = Output Dim Value As Byte Value = Getkbd() Portb = not Value 4.5.3 PC-AT Keyboard PC-AT keyboards are nowadays offered at low prices and can be used in microcontroller applications which don't use the whole func- tionality. Old PC-XT keyboards have a different functionality and won't be dealt with here. The PC-AT keyboard sends a scan code when a key is pressed or released. The BIOS of the PC evaluates this scan code. Pressing key "A", for example, causes the keyboard to send the scan code &H1C (Make Code). If the key is kept pressed, the keyboard will send this scan code again after a defined time. This procedure repeats as long as that key is pressed, or another key is pressed. After releasing the key, the keyboard sends the scan code &HFO followed by &H1C (Break Code). The Break Code differs from the Make Code by the leading byte &HFO. As shown in Figure 69, each key has its own scan code. Whether the Shift key needs to be pressed is determined by the PC BIOS. In the same way the PC BIOS controls the LEDs in the keyboard when one of the keys Num Lock, Caps Lock or Scroll Lock is pressed. 136( M(B (E (B See 3) (Fi) (Fa) (Fa? (ce) (45) GE) 5) 8) Ge) Se) Ge) 2) Gs) G2) (ee) Gs) (40) 5) EB IESICOLETICTICSIESIESIOUICTICIE SIE) caps 5A, ie) Lis) 2) bs) GU) Js) bes) ene wl) | iW (WB wWAE (oH (a If SPACE 14 1 29 Alt Ci JLeths E014 Figure 69 Scan Codes of a PC-AT Keyboard It is, however, definitely wrong to think that the 101 keys of a PC-AT keyboard generate 101 different scan codes in byte format. Some keys are so-called Extended Keys. Their scan codes have a leading &HEO. Pressing key Pause generates the following sequence of scan codes: &HE1, &H14, &H77, &HE1, &HFO, &H14, &HFO, &H77! Since the microcontroller is not supported by a BIOS, the scan codes must be decoded in the application program. BASCOM-AVR sup- ports querying the PC-AT keyboard by function Getatkbd () . Before discussing the software, it is worthwhile to have a closer look at the hardware interface between PC-AT keyboard and microcon- troller. Figure 70 shows the available connectors for a PC-AT keyboard (DIN and PS/2 connector). As can be seen from pinout, the data exchange is synchronous and serial. The data line is bidirectional. The clock is always generated by the PC-AT keyboard. Figure 71 shows the simple interfacing of a PC-AT keyboard to an AT90S8515. Any pin can be chosen for this kind of interface. 1374 - Clock are 2-n.c. an 3-GND 4-GND pape 5-+5V oe 6-n.c. Figure 70 DIN and PS/2 Connector of PC-AT Keyboard PC-AT Keyboard Interface a octe XTAL2 ALE XTALI oP. [3V} | POT (RO) (ADT) PAT PDB (WR) (ADE) PAB PDS(OC1A) (ADS) PAS PDA — PD3 (INT1) (AD3) PAB KBD CLOCK >— PD2(INTO) —(AD2) PAZ PD1 (TXD) (AD1) PAI PDO (RXD) (ADO) PAO [NO } PBT(SCK) —(A15) PCT PBG (MISO) (14) PCB PBS (MOS!) — (13) PCS Pe4 (55) (AZ PCA PBS(AINI) —(A11) PCI PB2(AIND) —(A10) PC2 Patt) 9) PCI Pao (TO) 8) PCO Figure 71 Interface between PC-AT Keyboard and AVR Function Getatkbd() is here used for querying the PC-AT key- board. Listing 33 shows a simple program example for this purpose. 138* Query a PC-AT keyboard by AVR Config Keyboard = Pind.2 , Data = Pind.4 , Keydata = Keydata Dim B As Byte Print "hello" Do B = Getatkbd() ‘get a byte and store it into "byte variable ‘When no real key is pressed the result is 0 'So test if the result was > 0 If B > 0 Then Print B ; Chr(b) End If Loop End 'This is the key translation table Keydata: ‘normal keys lower case Dttad0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0, d#,0 Dtad,0,0,0,0,13,49,0,0,0,12,15,97,19,0,0 Dia0, 9, 120,10,11,2,51,0,0,2, 18,19, 16,14,3,0 Dtad, 00,8, 10,18, 11,%,7,8,%, 109, 16,17,5,%,0 Dtad, 4,107,105, 11, 8,57,0,0, 4,45, 18, 48,12, 8,0 Dta0,0,0,0,0,2,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,0,0 Dta0,@,0,0,0,0,8,0,0,4,0,%.%,0,0.0 Dra, 4,5,53,5%,56,0,0,0,8,9,6,2,57,0,0 Dta0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0 Dta0,0,0,0,0,8,%3,0,0,0,0,8,6,8,%,0 Dita, 67,8, 8,0,0,35,0,0,2,%,0,%,2,37,0 Dta0, 8,6, 2,1,8,38,0,0,6,7,4,6,47,0,0 Dta0, 59,5,B,B,4,4,0,0,8,65, 6,8, 0,8,0 Dta0,0,0,0,0,%,0,0,0,0,3,%,0,42,0,0 Dtad, @,0,0,0,8,0,0,4,0,2,%,0,0,0,0 Dita 48, 4,5,3,5%,56,0,0,0,8,9,6,42,57,0,0 Listing 33 Query of a PC-AT Keyboard (ATKBD.BAS) Before the PC-AT keyboard can be queried, the used pins must be assigned and a table containing the scan codes must be prepared. Pin2 of PortD receives the clock from the PC-AT keyboard while Pin4 serves as data line. 139Function Getkbd() queries the PC-AT keyboard for data by analyz- ing the bit stream received from the keyboard (Figure 72). This bit stream contains the scan codes. “0/1/2|3]/4/5.6)7/Pi»| Figure 72 Bit Stream from Keyboard Controller The connected microcontroller circuitry serves as power supply for the PC-AT keyboard. Note the power consumption of the PC-AT keyboard used. In case it is not known, measure the power supply current of the PC-AT keyboard used to avoid a damaging of the power supply. 4.6 Data Input by IR Remote Control Most audio or video systems available today have IR remote controls for user interaction. Widespread are remote controls manufactured by SONY or Philips which operate with a standardized transmission protocol (RC5). The RC5 protocol consists of a 14-bit data word. The data word uses the so-called Manchester coding, a bi-phase code. Figure 73 shows an IR command according to RC5. Sti St2 Ctrl S4 $3 S2 S1 SO C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 CO 1100014 04 4 41 0414 0 1 Figure 73 RC5 Coded IR Command The command begins with two start bits (St1, St2) which are always set. The following bit (Ctrl) toggles for each command. Repeated commands can be detected this way. The control bit is followed by five system bits (S4-S0). The control bits contain the address of the device to be controlled. Usually, TV sets have an address of 0, video 140recorder an address of 5, etc. Six command bits (C5-C0) close the sequence. There are 64 different commands available for each de- vice. Table 8 shows an extract from a list of devices and their RC5 ad- dresses. System Device 0 Video T1 1 Tv2 5 VCR1 6 VCR2 17 Audio Tuner 20 cD 21 Phono 18 Recorder1 Table 8 RC5 Device Address In correspondence with these explanations, the command in Figure 73 sends command value &H35 to VCR1. 141' Query an IR Remote Control by AVR Const Tv = 0 ' TV address is 0 Config ReS = Pind.2 * Configures PinD.2 as RCS Input Portd.2 = 1 ' Activates Pull-up Enable Interrupts ' Getre5 uses timer0 interrupt Dim Address As Byte , Command As Byte Do Getre5 (address , Command) ' Query IR remote control If Address = Tv Then ' Check for the TV address Print Address ; " " ; Conmand End If Loop End Listing 34 Query of an IR Remote Control (RC5.BAS) As shown in Listing 34, function GETRCS() handles the whole RCS protocol. What about the hardware? Siemens offers the IR receiver SFH5S06- 36 for this purpose. It is very simple to connect this receiver to a mi- crocontroller. Figure 74 shows the connection of an IR receiver SFHS506 to an AVR. It is important that the internal pull-ups are acti- vated. In consideration of the different port situation between the 8051 and the AVR, program RC5.BAS can be modified to suit BASCOM-AVR without any problems. 142RESET oc1B XTAL2 ALE TALI IcP —— P07 ¢RD) (ADz) PAT —— PD6 dWR) (AD6) PAS —— PDS{OC1A) (ADS) PAS uJ —— Ppa (AD4) PAd —— PD34INT1) (AD 3) PAB PD2(INTO) — (AD 2) PAZ —— P01 7xD) (AD1) PAT —— PDO(RXD) = (ADO) PAD Pa? (CK) (A1 5) PCT PRG (MISO) —(A14) PCB PBS(MOSI (413) PCS cy PB4 ¢8S) (12) PO PB3(AIN1) (At) PC3 UW P82 (INO) (A10) PC2 vo —— Pat €11) (Ag) PC1 —— Ps0 (70) (a8) PCO Figure 74 SFH506 connected to AT90S8515 4.7 Asynchronous Serial Communication For asynchronous serial communication, microcontrollers use an internal UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter), or it must be implemented in the software (emulation). In BASCOM, the I/O instructions common in BASIC (input and print) are redirected to the serial port. That means instruction Input reads characters from and instruction Print sends characters to the serial port. A signal converter is required to connect a microcontroller to the COM port of a PC. Well-known are MAX232 or compatible devices. Figure 75 shows a MAX231 connected to the UART pins of an AT90S8515. The MAX231 is equivalent to MAX232 but needs one capacitor only. 143JRESET XTAL2 XTALI PO7 GRO) PDB (WR) PDS (OC1A) PD4 PO3 (NTI) PO2 (NTO) PDI (TxD) PDO (RXD) Paz (sCK) PB6 (MISO) PBS (MOS!) PB4 (SS) PBS (AINT) P82 (AIND) PBI (TI) PO (TO) octg ALE IP. (ADT) PAT (ADB) PAB (ADS) PAS (AD4) PAA (AD3) PAI (D2) PA2 (@D1) Pat (@D0) PAO (1)PoT (ala) PCB AID) POS (A12) PCA (att) Pca (10) PC? 9) PCI (as) PCO ve Tio — TxD, 120 R10 TH R20 ce Rai Figure 75 RS-232 Level Conversion by MAX231 ar —C RxD For communication, use the BASCOM-internal Terminal Emulator or any other terminal program at the PC end. Program RS232MON, which can be downloaded from authors' web site, can be used for debugging at byte level. BASIC. BASCOM. Listing 35 shows how to use them. ' Serial I/O by AVR and 8051 Dim A As Integer Do Input "Input Number: ", A Print " Number was"; A Loop End Listing 35 Serial I/O (SERIAL1.BAS) instructions Input and Print are also available in Variable A is declared as integer. Figure 76 shows the conversion of that number to the range of integer numbers -32768 ... 32767. 144PEE File Terminal Ter Le rad re jer was -32768 5535 Number was -1 5536 Number was 0 eee Se Cee eer era es COM! S600N81 — Figure 76 Input of an Integer Very important for character input without finishing Carriage Return (CR) is instruction Inputbin. Listing 36 shows a simple program example. ' Serial I/O by AVR and 8051 Dim A As Byte Dim B As Word ' B is a reserved word for BASCOM-8051 Do Inputbin A, B Printbin A, B ‘use Printbin A ; B for BASCOM-8051 Print Loop End Listing 36 Character I/O (SERIAL2.BAS) Variable A is declared as byte and variable B as word. Instruction Inputbin waits for three characters (bytes) without a CR. In BASCOM-8051, B is a reserved word. Therefore, the name of this variable must be changed for BASCOM-8051. Moreover, the syntax of instruction Printbin is different. See the remark in Listing 36. 145After receiving three bytes, instruction Printbin sends these three bytes back. The output by Printbin is completed by a CR/LF out- put by instruction Print. Related to this kind of input are the functions Inkey() and Wait- key(). Waitkey() waits until a character is received, while Inkey () reads one character from the input buffer. Both functions store that character in a variable. If the input buffer is empty, Inkey() hands over the value of 0. Listing 37 shows a program example and Figure 77 the respective outputs in the terminal win- dow. ' Serial I/O by AVR and 8051 Dim A As Byte Do A = Waitkey() ' waits for one character Print Chr(a) ; "is ASCII"; A Loop Until A = 27 Do A = Inkey() ' veads one character Print Chr(a) ; "is ASCII." ; A Waitms 100 Loop Until A = 27 End Listing 37 Input by Waitkey() and Inkey() (SERIAL3.BAS) ENR el Fie Teminal COM1:9600,N.8.1 | Figure 77 Input by Waitkey() and Inkey() 146The first loop containing function Waitkey () will be reached after program start. Upon pressing key A on the PC keyboard, the Terminal Emulator sends character A to the connected microcontroller. Waitkey () receives this character as expected. The procedure is repeated when key 1 is pressed. The print instruction echoes the character and its ASCII code to the Terminal Emulator each time this is done. Pressing key ESC quits this first loop. The program progresses to the second loop containing the function Inkey (). In this loop, function Inkey () will return 0 as long as one character is received by the serial port and written in the input buffer. In Figure 77, character x was received before leaving the loop by pressing ESC again. A wait time of 100 ms slows down the passing of the loop. Beside serial communication with the internal UART of the micro- controller used, there is the possibility of using an UART emulation. Instructions OPEN and CLOSE serve to configure the communication channels. Instruction OPEN initializes the communication channel by assigning a pin for input or output and selecting a baud rate. These examples show the opening of a communication channel for serial output: ' Open for AVR Open "COMA.0:9600,8,N,1, INVERTED" For Output As #1 ‘Open for 8051 Open "COM3.0:9600,8,N,1, INVERTED" For Output As #1 For AVR, PinO of PortA is opened as serial output (transmitter) with a baud rate of 9600 Baud, one stop bit and inverted polarity of the RS-232 signal. For 8051, PinO of Port3 was initialized with the same parameters. Each communication channel that is open at any time must be closed by instruction CLOSE before the end of the program. In the next program example, two microcontrollers will be serially connected. 147Figure 78 shows the circuit diagram of those two linked microcon- trollers. Used here are an AT90S8515 and a BASIC Stamp II (BS2). For information on the BS2 see the Appendix. Instead of a BS2, any microcontroller with a serial port, or a PC run- ning a terminal program, can be used. JRESET oct — raz Ae | — oat icp LF —|Po7 oro) aon par -}— —— Poe 0wR) (ade) PAG | — ——| Posiociay ans) Pas F — 1 poe (ADS) PAA — {Posty 03) PA3 | — | Pozanto) 02) Paz sout vin —|ro10%0) ~—@onypat SIN vss —| PDO (RxD) (ADO) PAD IN RES | vss bb —|rar(scig —atypcr Po P15 —— | Pas miso) aia) pce Pt Pi ——|Pasiwosy — ataypcs P2 P13 —| Pasyss) wince Pa P12 \» — Pasay —aityeca Pa Pit ——| Perino) — aroyec? Ps P10 rai ay (ag) Pct P6 Pa | — | rao cro} a) PCO P7 Pe Figure 78 Coupling of AT90S8515 and BASIC Stamp II The AVR microcontroller uses its internal UART for communication with a terminal as usual. Pins PDO and PD1 are connected to a MAX232 for level conversion. This part of the circuit is not shown in Figure 78. In this program example, the second serial interface connected to the BS2 is of importance. Pins PAO and PA1 form the communication channel for the UART software. At the BS2 end, pins P9 and P10 serve as serial interface. Pin P8 drives an LED for signalization. Listing 38 shows the program for the AVR microcontroller and Listing 39 that for the BS2. If it is intended to replace the AVR by an 8051 derivative, remember to make the required changes in the source code: 148