TABLE OF CONTENTS page no:

1. Introduction 3
 What is an Electric Transformer?
2. Transformer Construction 5
 Core
 Windings
3. Classification of Transformers 7
 Based on Function
 Step-up Transformers
 Step-down Transformers
 Based on Core Construction
 Core Type transformer
 Shell Type Transformer
 Based on Nature of Supply
 Other Types of Transformer
 Based on Use
4. Working Principle of Transformer 13
5. Manufacturing Transformer 15
 Design Parameters
 Calculations Transformer
 Core Calculations
 Primary Winding Calculations
 Secondary Winding Calculations
 Weight Estimation of Windings
 Materials list
 Tools list
 Manufacturing Process
6. Losses in Transformer 23
 Core or Iron Losses
 Copper Losses
7. Transformer Efficiency 24
8. Applications of Transformers 25

1
Introduction

The transformer is one of the most common devices found

in electrical system that links the circuits which are operating at different
voltages .These are commonly used in applications where there is a need of AC
voltage conversion from one voltage level to another. It is possible either to
decrease or increase the voltage and currents by the use of transformer in AC
circuits based on the requirements of the electrical equipment or device or load.
Various applications use wide variety of transformers including power,
instrumentation and pulse transformers.

In a broad, transformers are categorized into two types,

namely, electronic transformers and power transformers. Electronic
transformers operating voltages are very low and are rated at low power levels.
These are used in consumer electronic equipments like televisions, personal
computers, CD/DVD players, and oth0er devices. The term power transformer is
referred to the transformers with high power and voltage ratings. These are
extensively used in power generation, transmission, distribution and utility
systems to increase or decrease the voltage levels. However, the operation
involved in these two types of transformers is same. So let us go in detail about
the transformers.

What is an Electric Transformer?

The transformer is a static device (means that has no

moving parts) that consists of one, two or more windings which are magnetically
coupled and electrically separated with or without a magnetic core. It transfers
the electrical energy from one circuit to the other by electromagnetic induction
principle. The winding connected to the AC main supply is called primary winding
and the winding connected to the load or from which energy is drawn out is
called as secondary winding. These two windings with proper insulation are
wound on a laminated core which provides a magnetic path between windings.

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 When the primary winding is energized with alternating
voltage source, an alternating magnetic flux or field will be produced in the
transformer core. This magnetic flux amplitude depends on the applied voltage
magnitude, frequency of the supply and the number of turns on the primary side.
This flux circulates through the core and hence links with the secondary winding.
Based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, this magnetic linking
induces a voltage in the secondary winding. This is called as mutual induction
between two circuits. The secondary voltage depends on the number of turns on
the secondary as well as magnetic flux and frequency

Transformers are extensively used in electrical power

systems to produce the variable values of voltage and currents at the same
frequency. Therefore, by an appropriate primary and secondary turns proportion
desired voltage ratio is obtained by the transformer.

3
Transformer Construction

The main parts of a transformer are core, windings.

Core

For high power applications, transformer core is made with high

permeability material which provides the low reluctance path for the
magnetic flux. The cross section of the core would be square or
rectangular.

Generally the iron core transformers provide better power

transformation compared with air core transformers. Air core transformers
are used for high frequency application (above 2 KHz) whereas , for low
frequency applications (below 2 KHz) iron core transformers are
employed.

In all types of transformers, core is made up of silicon steel or

sheet steel laminations which are assembled to provide a continuous
magnetic path for the flux. With this laminated core eddy current losses
are minimized.

The thickness of these laminated sheets of steel are 0.35 to 5 mm

and are insulated with a varnish, or oxide, or phosphate and then formed
as a core.

For a better magnetic properties, Hot rolled grain oriented (HRGO)

steel, or Cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO) steel, or High B (HiB)
laminations are used. In case of small transformers, core is constructed
with hot rolled silicon steel laminations in the form of E and I, C and I or O
are used.

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Windings

Generally, the (two winding) transformer has two windings

namely primary and secondary windings which are made up of high grade
copper.

The insulated stranded conductors are used as windings for

carrying high currents. This insulation avoids turns contacting with other
turns.

The voltage connected to the primary winding is called primary

voltage whereas the induced voltage in the secondary is called as
secondary voltage. If the secondary voltage is more than the primary, it is
called as step-up transformer and if less, it is called as step-down
transformer. Therefore, the windings are designated as HV and LV
windings based on the voltage level.

Compared to the LV winding, HV winding needs more

insulation to withstand high voltages, also needs more clearance to the
core and the body.

The transformer coils can be concentric or sandwiched coils.

Concentric coils are used in core type transformers whereas sandwiched
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 coils are used in shell type transformers. In concentric arrangement, LV
winding is placed near to the core and HV winding is placed around the LV
winding for low insulation and clearance requirements. The most commonly
used coils for the transformer include helical, sandwiched, disc and cross
over coils.

Other necessary parts of the transformer are conservator tank

which is used to provide the necessary oil storage such that the pressure of
the oil under heavy loads settles down. When the oil in the transformer
subject to the heat, naturally, oil expand and contract. Under this, oil is
subjected to heavy pressure so without a conservator tank, there will be a
chance of bursting the transformer.

The bushings provide the insulation to the output terminals to

be taken from the windings of the transformer. These can be porcelain or
condenser type bushing and based on the level of operating voltage these
are selected. Because of simple, durable and rugged construction,
transformers require a little maintenance. Because of no moving parts, the
efficiency of the transformer is very high which may vary from 95% to 98%.

Classification of Transformers
Transformers are classified into several types depends
the various factors including voltage ratings, construction, type of cooling,
number of phases of the AC system, the place where it is employed, etc.
Let us discuss some of these types of transformers.

Based on Function
Transformers are classified into two types based on the
conversion of voltage level. These are step-up and step-down
transformers.

Step-up Transformers
In step-up transformer, the secondary voltage is more than the
primary voltage. This is due to the lesser number of coils in the primary
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 compared to the secondary. This type of transformer is used to raise the
voltage to a higher level. These are used in transmission systems and are
rated at higher power levels.

Step-down Transformers
In step-down transformer, secondary voltage is less than the
primary voltage due to the less number of turns in the secondary winding.
Hence, this type of transformer is used to reduce the voltage to specified
levels of the circuit. Most of the power supplies use the step-down
transformer to keep the circuit operating range to a specified safer voltage
limit. These types of transformers are used in distribution systems (power
transformers) and in electronic circuits (electronic transformers).

It is to be noted that the transformer is a reversible device, so it

can be used as both step-up and step-down transformer. For example, if
the circuit needs a high voltage we will connect the HV terminals to the load
whereas the load or circuit needs a low voltage, we will connect the LV
terminals to the load.

The ratio of the voltage of a transformer is determined by the

turns ratio. With the use of larger number of turns in the winding, higher will
be the voltage produced in it. Hence, a step down transformer has lesser
number of turns on secondary to produce a low voltage and has more turns
on primary to withstand high voltage levels of the AC supply.

Turns Ratio = Primary Voltage/ Secondary Voltage = Primary

Turns/ Secondary turns

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 The turns ratio is,

VP /VS = NP /NS
Based on Core Construction

Based on the construction, transformers are classified into two

types in the manner in which the windings are placed around the core.
These types are core and shell type transformers

Core Type transformer

In this type of transformer, windings surround the considerable

part of the core. Generally, distribution transformers are of core type.
Some of the large power transformers are of shell type.
Form-wound, cylindrical coils are used in the core type
transformers and these coils may be rectangular, or oval, or circular. For
small size core type transformer, a simple rectangular core with a
cylindrical coil in either circular or rectangular form is used. And for a large
sized core type transformer, cruciform core with round or circular
cylindrical coils are used. In most of the core type transformers, cylindrical
coils are used due to their mechanical strength. These cylindrical coils are
wound in helical layers and are insulated from each other by insulating
materials like cloth, paper, mica, etc. It is easy to insulate the LV winding
compared to the HV winding; hence it is placed nearer to the core.

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Shell Type Transformer

In a shell type transformer, iron core surrounds a considerable

portion of the copper winding as a reverse case to the core type
transformer. In this type also, coils are former wound, but are of multilayer
disc type coils which are wounded in the form of pancakes. These
multilayer disc coils in different layers of are separated each other by
paper. The whole winding consists of stacked discs and in between the
coils the insulation space is provided to form the horizontal insulating and
cooling ducts.

Berry transformer is the most commonly used shell type

transformer. In shell type, core has three limbs and the windings are
wound around the central limb. Both LV and HV windings are divided into
different coils which are arranged alternately. Between the LV windings,
HV windings are sandwiched. Again to reduce the insulation requirement,
LV windings are placed adjacent to the core. This type of construction is
preferred for high rating transformers.

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Based on Nature of Supply

Based on the nature of the supply, transformers can be single

or three phase transformers. Single phase transformers are designed to
work on a single phase system; therefore it has two windings to transform
the voltage levels. These are used in remote ends of the power distribution
system. These have less power rating compared with three phase
transformers. Mostly core type construction is used for this type of
transformer.

To work with three phase system, we need three single phase

transformers. Thus, for an economic advantage, three phase transformer
is considered for three phase operation. It consists of three windings or
coils which are connected in a proper way to match the input voltage. This
type of transformers, primary and secondary windings are connected in
the form of star- delta or delta-star fashion depending on the load voltage
requirements

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Other Types of Transformer
Based on the type of cooling these are classified into

1. Self air cooled transformer

2. Air blast cooled transformer
3. Oil filled self cooled transformer
4. Oil filled water cooled transformer
5. Oil filled forced oil cooled transformer

Based on Use

1. Power transformer
2. Distribution transformer
3. Instrument transformer

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Working Principle of Transformer
The operation of the transformer is based on the principle of
mutual induction between two coils or winding which are linked by a
common magnetic flux. When the primary winding is energized with AC
source supply, a magnetic flux is established in the primary winding. This
flux is linked with both primary and secondary windings because the core
provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux. Hence, most of the
flux produced by the primary winding links with the secondary winding.
This is called as main flux or useful flux. And also, the flux which does not
link with the secondary winding is called as leakage flux. Most of the
transformers are designed to have low leakage flux to reduce the losses
.
According to the Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction,
this flux linkage with both primary and secondary windings induces EMFs
in them. This EMF induced in each winding is proportional to the number
of turns in it. The voltage or EMF induced in the primary winding is called
as back EMF which opposes the input supply voltage to the extent that no
primary current would flow. But small magnetizing current flows through
the primary of the transformer. The EMF induced in the secondary winding
is the open circuit voltage. If the secondary circuit is closed or the load is
connected, secondary current starts flowing through it which causes to
create demagnetizing magnetic flux. Due to this demagnetizing flux, the
unbalance is created between the applied voltage and back EMF. To
restore the balance between these two, more current is drawn from the
supply source so that equivalent magnetic field is created to balance with
secondary field.

Since the same mutual flux cuts both windings, the EMF
induced in the each turn of both windings are same. Hence the total
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induced EMF in each winding must be proportional to the number of turns
in that winding. This turns out for the establishment of well-known
relationship between induced EMF and the number of turns. And is given
as

E1 /E2 = N1 / N2

Since the terminal voltages of the both windings are slightly

different from their induced EMFs, we can write as

V1/V2 = N1/N2

This is called as the transformation ratio of the transformer.

This transformation value is greater than unity in case of step-up
transformer and less than unity in step-down transformer.

In terms of ampere turns balance,

I1N1 = I2N2
I1/I2 = N2/N1

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Manufacturing Transformer

Design Parameters

For designing a transformer, we need:

1. Power rating
2. Voltage levels (primary and secondary)
3. Currents on both sides
4. Primary and secondary coils wire diameter/size
5. Iron Core area
6. Numbers of turns (primary and secondary)

We are going to design a 50 VA step down transformer of

230V to 12V. Necessary calculations along with formulae are given below
in details:
As we are going to design small transformer (of small power
rating) so we are neglecting core and copper losses as they doesn’t
matters in small transformers and seriously considered in designing power
transformers (high power rating transforms).

Calculations Transformer

Core Calculations

Calculate area of core (central limb) by using following formula:

Ai= area of core

F= operating frequency
Bm= magnetic flux density
Te= turns per volts

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 Assumptions,

So, we know the frequency of the power system. We need magnetic

flux and turns per volts. For designing a small transformer magnetic flux
density is averagely taken as 1 to 1.2.

By putting values we will get the area of core.Current density of

copper wire is taken as 2.2 A / mm2 to 2.4 A/ mm2 (approximately).

So, putting values

F= 50 hz
Bm = 1.2 wb/m2
Te = 4 (turns per volts)

As, we are going to design a practical transformer so we must

consider the core available in market. The standard Bobbins available in
market practically is 1”x1”, 1.25”x1.5”, 1.5”x1.5” and so on. We took
nearest core area available to our calculation. We took bobbin of 2.25
inch2 (1.5”x1.5”) or 0.00145161 meter square. We have the core area.
We can calculate turns per volts using this area by following:

Putting f=50 hz;

Bm = 1.2 wb/(m^2);
Ai= 0.001451 m^2,

We got:

So, Turns per volts are 2.6 Turns per volts.

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 Primary Winding Calculations

Primary voltage = Vp = 230 V

Primary current = I1= VA / Vp = 50 / 230 = 0.218

Let transformer we are going to design is 95 % efficient so,

I1 = VA/ (efficiency x Vp) = 0.23A

Primary Current = 0.23 Amp (approx.)

Number of Turns:
Total number of turns = turns per volts x primary side voltage
= 2.6 x 230
N1 = 600 turns (approximately)

Size of Conductor:
As we know that,

As, for copper the current density is taken as 2.3 A per mm

square So, for area of copper conductor,

From the standard American wire gauge table, we can choose

wire of the same thickness. It can be seen that it comes out that required
primary side wire is of 27 gauge which can conduct required current.

Selection of wire can also be done by calculating primary

current and by cross match the standard table of copper wire according to
their current handling capabilities.

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 Secondary Winding Calculations

Secondary voltage = Vs = 12 V
Secondary current = Is = VA/ Vs = 50 / 12 = 4.2 Amp (approx.)

From the standard copper wire, table it can be seen that wire of this
thickness is of 15 gauge. So for secondary winding we need 15 gauge
wire.

So,
Secondary Wire =15 AWG

Number of Turns:

Number of secondary turns = turns per volts x secondary volts

N2 = 2.6 x 12
= 32 turns (approx.)

Weight Estimation of Windings

For weight calculations, following steps will be followed:

1. Approximate length of copper wire = perimeter of bobbin x

number of turns
2. Cross sectional Area of copper conductor
3. Volume = Approximate length x Cross sectional area
4. Mass = density of copper x Volume

Density of copper = 8960 kg/ m3

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Primary side:
Perimeter of bobbin = (1.75 x 4) = 7 inch = 0.1778 m

So,

Length of one turn = 0.1778 m

Total length of all turns of primary = L1

L1 = (length of one turn) x(total number of turns of primary)

L1 = 0.1778 x 600
L1 = 106 m (approx.)

As,
area of primary conductor = 0.1 mm2
= (0.1 x 10 ^ -6) m2

Volume of copper wire = area x length

And,
Density of copper = 8960 kg/ m3

So,

So we need approx. 100 grams of 27 gauge wire.

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Secondary winding weight:

Perimeter of bobbin = (1.75 x 4) = 7 inch = 0.1778 m

So,
Length of one turn = 0.1778 m

Total length of all turns of Secondary ,

L2 = length of one turn x total number of turns of secondary

L2 = 0.1778 x 32

L2 = 6 m (approx.)

As,
area of primary conductor = 1.83 mm2 = (1.83 x 10 ^ -6) m2

Volume of copper wire = area x length

So, we need approx. 100 grams of 15 gauge wire.

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Materials list
 100 grams of 15 gauge Insulation copper wire.
 100 grams of 27 gauge Insulation copper wire.
 Lamination sheets
 Transformer Plastic Bobbing

Tools list
 Transformer Winding Machine
 Hammer
 Wire cutter
 Combination pliers


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 Manufacturing Process

 Fristly, transformer laminations were cut more than calculate size(1.45 inch 2) used
by transformer lamination sheets.
 Transformer Bobbing hold in transformer winding machine , toughly
 After, Take the 27 gauge wire and convolved it 600 turns layer by layer in the
transformer bobbing toughly
 After the one layer convolved transformer Insulation paper one round and
continue the other layer until end of wire.
 Then, secondary winding started.
 In secondary winding convolved 32 turns used by 15 gauge copper wire and redo
primary procedure toughly
 After winding, Lamination filled inside hole on the transformer bobbing.
 Than we can test transformer connected with 230V current

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Losses in Transformer
The transformer has no moving parts and hence the
mechanical losses are absent in it. Hence, the losses in the transformer
are considered as electrical energy losses. Two types of electrical losses
are exist in a transformer which are core losses and copper losses.

Core or Iron Losses

These losses include both hysteresis and eddy current losses.
The magnetic flux set up in the transformer core is alternating type;
thereby it undergoes a cycle of magnetization and demagnetization.
During this, an appropriate power is required for continuous reversal of
elementary magnets of the iron core. This is called as hysteresis effect
and due to this considerable loss of energy takes place.

Hysteresis loss = Kh Bm1.67f v Watts

Where,
Kh = Hysteresis Constant
Bm = Maximum flux density
f= frequency
v = volume of the core

Since the transformer core is made up of ferromagnetic

materials that are also good conductors. And hence, the magnetic flux
linking with core induces emf in the core. Hence the core set up eddy
currents in the core, thereby considerable eddy current losses occurs in
the core.

Eddy Current losses = Ke Bm2f2t2W/unit volume

Where,
Ke = Eddy current constant
t = thickness of the core

From the above two equations, it is to be observed that the

supply voltage at a fixed frequency is constant and hence the flux in turn
flux density in the core is almost constant. Therefore, both hysteresis and
eddy current losses are constant during all loads. Hence the core losses
are also called as constant losses.
By using the high grade core materials like silicon steel having
very low hysteresis loop, hysteresis losses are minimized or reduced. On
other hand, eddy current losses are minimized by using laminated core.
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 These constant or core losses can be measured by conducting an open
circuit on the transformer.

Copper Losses

These losses occur in the winding resistances of the

transformer when it carries load current. The total copper loss in the
transformer is obtained by adding both primary and secondary copper
losses. These are found by conducting short circuit rest on the
transformer.

Other losses in the transformer include dielectric losses and

stray load losses. The stray losses are results from the eddy currents in
the tank and winding conductors. Dielectric losses are occurs in the
insulating materials like oil and solid insulations of the transformer.

Transformer Efficiency

It is the ratio of useful power output to the power input of the

transformer operating at a particular load and power factor.

Efficiency = Output/ Input

= Output / (Output + Total Losses) or
= (Input – Losses)/Input
= 1- (Losses/ Input)

Generally the efficiency of the transformer is in the range of 95

to 98%. From the above efficiency equation, it may be noted that the
efficiency is depends on the watts, but not in volt-ampere rating. Hence, at
any volt-ampere rating, the efficiency of the transformer depends on the
power factor. The efficiency is maximum at unity power factor and is
determined by calculating the total losses from OC and SC tests.

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Applications of Transformers

• Step-up or step-down the level of the voltage in power transmission

systems like transmission and distribution systems.
• To isolate the low voltage circuits from high voltage circuits in case of
substations, control circuitry circuits in industries, etc.
• Instrument transformers like current and potential transformer are
used in protection and meter indication systems.
• These are also used for impedance matching.

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