Application Note 32

March 1989

High Efficiency Linear Regulators

Jim Williams

Introduction
Linear voltage regulators continue to enjoy widespread use switching supply output. Figure 1 shows such an arrange-
despite the increasing popularity of switching approaches. ment. The main output (“A”) is stabilized by feedback to
Linear regulators are easily implemented, and have much the switching regulator. Usually, this output supplies most
better noise and drift characteristics than switchers. Ad- of the power taken from the circuit. Because of this, the
ditionally, they do not radiate RF, function with standard amount of energy in the transformer is relatively unaf-
magnetics, are easily frequency compensated, and have fected by power demands at the “B” and “C” outputs.
fast response. Their largest disadvantage is inefficiency. This results in relatively constant “B” and “C” regulator
Excess energy is dissipated as heat. This elegantly sim- input voltages. Judicious design allows the regulators to
plistic regulation mechanism pays dearly in terms of lost run at or near their dropout voltage, regardless of loading
power. Because of this, linear regulators are associated or switcher input voltage. Low dropout regulators thus
with excessive dissipation, inefficiency, high operating save considerable power and dissipation.
temperatures and large heat sinks. While linears cannot L, LT, LTC, LTM, Linear Technology and the Linear logo are registered trademarks of Linear
Technology Corporation. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
compete with switchers in these areas they can achieve
significantly better results than generally supposed. New
$V
components and some design techniques permit reten- +VIN

tion of linear regulator’s advantages while improving VREG “C”

efficiency.
One way towards improved efficiency is to minimize the
$V
input-to-output voltage across the regulator. The smaller
this term is, the lower the power loss. The minimum input/ VREG “B”
output voltage required to support regulation is referred
to as the “dropout voltage.” Various design techniques
and technologies offer different performance capabilities.
Appendix A, “Achieving Low Dropout,” compares some
“A”
approaches. Conventional three terminal linear regulators
have a 3V dropout, while newer devices feature 1.5V drop-
out (see Appendix B, “A Low Dropout Regulator Family”) SWITCHING
at 7.5A, decreasing to 0.05V at 100μA. REGULATOR

Regulation from Stable Inputs

AN32 F01

Lower dropout voltage results in significant power sav-

ings where input voltage is relatively constant. This is Figure 1. Typical Switching Supply Arrangement Showing Linear
normally the case where a linear regulator post-regulates a Post-Regulators

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AN32-1
Application Note 32
Regulation from Unstable Input—AC Line Derived Case
Unfortunately, not all applications furnish a stable input the output voltage. The 15V output comparison still favors
voltage. One of the most common and important situations the low dropout regulator, although efficiency benefit is
is also one of the most difficult. Figure 2 diagrams a classic somewhat reduced. Figure 4 derives resultant regulator
situation where the linear regulator is driven from the AC power dissipation from Figure 3’s data. These plots show
line via a step-down transformer. A 90VAC (brownout) to that the LT1086 requires less heat sink area to maintain
140VAC (high line) line swing causes the regulator to see the same die temperature as the LM317.
a proportionate input voltage change. Figure 3 details ef-
Both curves show the deleterious effects of poorly con-
ficiency under these conditions for standard (LM317) and
trolled input voltages. The low dropout device clearly cuts
low dropout (LT®1086) type devices. The LT1086’s lower
losses, but input voltage variation degrades obtainable
dropout improves efficiency. This is particularly evident
efficiency.
at 5V output, where dropout is a significant percentage of

15
14
13

POWER DISSIPATION IN WATTS

12 LM317 VO = 15V, 1A
11
10 LT1086 VO = 15V, 1A
9
VIN—MOVES WITH 8 LM317 VO = 5V, 1A
AC LINE VOLTAGE 7
LINEAR 6
VOLTAGE VOUT
5
REGULATOR
90 TO 140 4
AN32 F02
VAC LINE 3
2 LT1086 VO = 5V, 1A
1
+ 0
80 90 100 110 120 130 140
AC LINE VOLTAGE
AN32 F04

Figure 2. Typical AC Line Driven Linear Regulator Figure 4. Power Dissipation for Different Regulators vs AC Line
Voltage. Rectifier Diode Losses are not Included

120
110 LT1086 WITH
SCR PRE-REGULATOR
100
VIN = 16.5V VOUT = 15V, 1A VOUT = 15V, 1A
90
VIN = 18V
80
EFFICIENCY (%)

VIN = 6.5V LM317

70 LT1086
60 VIN = 8V VIN = 25.6V
VIN = 28V
50 LT1086 WITH VIN = 10.1V
40 SCR PRE-REGULATOR VOUT = 5V, 1A LT1086 VIN = 12.4V
LM317
VOUT = 5V, 1A
30
20 DATA DOES NOT INCLUDE RECTIFIER
10 DIODE LOSSES. SCR PRE-REGULATOR LM317 DROPOUT = 3V
INCLUDES SCR LOSSES LT1086 DROPOUT = 1.5V
0
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
AC LINE VOLTAGE
AN32 F03

Figure 3. Efficiency vs AC Line Voltage for LT1086 and LM317 Regulators

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AN32-2
 Application Note 32
SCR Pre-Regulator
Figure 5 shows a way to eliminate regulator input variations, SCR and a path from the main transformer to L1 (Trace D)
even with wide AC line swings. This circuit, combined with occurs. The resultant current flow (Trace E), limited by L1,
a low dropout regulator, provides high efficiency while charges the 4700μF capacitor. When the transformer out-
retaining all the linear regulators desirable characteristics. put drops low enough the SCR commutates and charging
This design servo controls the firing point of the SCRs to ceases. On the next half-cycle the process repeats, except
stabilize the LT1086 input voltage. A1 compares a portion that the alternate SCR does the work (Traces F and G are
of the LT1086’s input voltage to the LT1004 reference. The the individual SCR currents). The loop phase modulates
amplified difference voltage is applied to C1B’s negative the SCR’s firing point to maintain a constant LT1086 input
input. C1B compares this to a line synchronous ramp voltage. A1’s 1μF capacitor compensates the loop and its
(Trace B, Figure 6) derived by C1A from the transformers output 10kΩ-diode network ensures start-up. The three
rectified secondary (Trace A is the “sync” point in the terminal regulator’s current limit protects the circuit from
figure). C1B’s pulse output (Trace C) fires the appropriate overloads.

L1
500μH ≈16.5V TO 17V
L2 15VOUT
LT1086
1N4148 + 121Ω*
+ 1A
20VAC 4700μF 158k* 20μF
AT 115VIN (TRIM)
90VAC TO 1k
140VAC 1.37k*
20VAC
AT 115VIN 12k*

1N4002 1N4002

“SYNC” +V

1N4002 10k
≈30V TO ALL
“+V” POINTS
+ 1N4148
200k
+ C1A
22μF 750Ω 1/2 LT1018
0.1μF
–

+V

0.001 2.4k +
C1B
1/2 LT1018 1N4148
+
A1
– LT1006 10k 10k
10k – +V
1μF
+V

L1 = PULSE ENGINEERING, INC. #PE-50503 LT1004

L2 = TRIAD F-271U (TYPICAL) 1.2V
* = 1% FILM RESISTOR AN32 F05

= G.E. C-106B

Figure 5. SCR Pre-Regulator

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AN32-3
Application Note 32
This circuit has a dramatic impact on LT1086 efficiency DC Input Pre-Regulator
versus AC line swing*. Referring back to Figure 3, the Figure 8a’s circuit is useful where the input is DC, such
data shows good efficiency with no change for 90VAC as an unregulated (or regulated) supply or a battery. This
to 140VAC input variations. This circuit’s slow switching circuit is designed for low losses at high currents. The
preserves the linear regulators low noise. Figure 7 shows LT1083 functions in conventional fashion, supplying a
slight 120Hz residue with no wideband components. regulated output at 7.5A capacity. The remaining com-
*The transformer used in a pre-regulator can significantly influence overall ponents form a switched-mode dissipation regulator.
efficiency. One way to evaluate power consumption is to measure the
actual power taken from the 115VAC line. See Appendix C, “Measuring
This regulator maintains the LT1083 input just above the
Power Consumption.” dropout voltage under all conditions. When the LT1083
input (Trace A, Figure 9) decays far enough, C1A goes high,

A = 50V/DIV
B = 10V/DIV

C = 50V/DIV

D = 20V/DIV
A = 5mV/DIV
E = 10A/DIV (AC-COUPLED)

F = 10A/DIV
G = 10A/DIV
AN32 F06 AN32 F07
HORIZ = 5ms/DIV HORIZ = 5ms/DIV

Figure 6. Waveforms for the SCR Pre-Regulator Figure 7. Output Noise for the SCR Pre-Regulated Circuit

Q1 L2
P50N05E 335μH
D S ≈6.75V
12VIN 5VOUT
LT1083-5
(7V TO 20V) + + 1N966 + + 7.5A
10μF 330Ω 47μF 16V 1000μF 10μF

L1 MBR1060
820μH 100Ω
5.1k 1N4148
56k*
(TRIM)
270k 1N4148
≈30V
12V +
22μF 100k D
– Q2
C1B VN2222
0.01 S
1/2 LT1018
+ –
1N4148
C1A
10k 1/2 LT1018 12k*
+ 20k 12k
10k 12V AN32 F08a
12V LT1004
47pF 1.2V
2k 1M
L1 = PULSE ENGINEERING, INC. #PE-52630
L2 = PULSE ENGINEERING, INC. #PE-51518
P50N05E = MOTOROLA

Figure 8a. Pre-Regulated Low Dropout Regulator

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AN32-4
 Application Note 32
FROM VOUT
LT1083
L2
120
+
470Ω 10μF

12V 1k
1N4148

VREF ≈ 1.8V
4N28

– 10k AN32 F08b

TO REMAINING
1/2 LT1018
CIRCUITRY 20k 12k
+
12V
1N4148
47pF
1M

Figure 8b. Differential Sensing for the Pre-Regulator Allows Variable Outputs

100
VIN = 12V
90
80
70 • •
EFFICIENCY (%) 60 • •
50
A = 100mV/DIV
(AC-COUPLED) 40
30
B = 20V/DIV
20
10
C = 20V/DIV
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
D = 4A/DIV
OUTPUT CURRENT (A)
AN32 F09 AN32 F10
HORIZ = 100μs/DIV

Figure 9. Pre-Regulator Waveforms Figure 10.Efficiency vs Output for Figure 8a

allowing Q1’s gate (Trace B) to rise. This turns on Q1, and overdrives. These measures are required because alterna-
its source (Trace C) drives current (Trace D) into L2 and the tives are unattractive. Low loss P-channel devices are not
1000μF capacitor, raising regulator input voltage. When currently available, and bipolar approaches require large
the regulator input rises far enough C1A returns low, Q1 drive currents or have poor saturation. As before, the
cuts off and capacitor charging ceases. The MBR1060 linear regulator’s current limit protects against overloads.
damps L2’s flyback spike and the 1M-47pF combination Figure 10 plots efficiency for the pre-regulated LT1083 over
sets loop hysteresis at about 100mV. a range of currents. Results are favorable, and the linear
Q1, an N-channel MOSFET, has only 0.028Ω of satura- regulator’s noise and response advantages are retained.
tion loss but requires 10V of gate-source turn-on bias. Figure 8b shows an alternate feedback connection which
C1B, set up as a simple flyback voltage booster, provides maintains a fixed small voltage across the LT1083 in ap-
about 30V DC boost to Q2. Q2, serving as a high voltage plications where variable output is desired. This scheme
pull-up for C1A, provides voltage overdrive to Q1’s gate. maintains efficiency as the LT1083’s output voltage is
This ensures Q1 saturation, despite its source follower varied.
connection. The Zener diode clamps excessive gate-source

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AN32-5
Application Note 32
Q1 5V
P50N05E 10A
0.01Ω** D S
VIN
1N966 +
10k* 10k* 16V 22μF
100k*

180Ω
–
1N4148 38k*
A1B
1/2 LT1013
+ 0.001

100k*
–
VIN L1 A1A 12k*
150μH 1/2 LT1013 10k
+ +
VIN AN32 F11
4.7μF LT1004
VIN
VSW 1.2V
1N4148
LT1072 ≈30V
28k + L1 = PULSE ENGINEERING, INC. #PE-52645
47μF P50N05E = MOTOROLA
FB * = 1% FILM RESISTOR
GND VC 1.2k ** = DALE RH-10

1k
+
1μF

Figure 11. 10A Regulator with 400mV Dropout

10A Regulator with 400mV Dropout across the 0.01Ω shunt, provides current limiting by forcing
In some circumstances an extremely low dropout regulator A1A to swing negatively. The low resistance shunt limits
may be required. Figure 11 is substantially more complex loss to only 100mV at 10A output. Figure 12 plots current
than a three terminal regulator, but offers 400mV dropout limit performance for the regulator. Roll-off is smooth, with
at 10A output. This design borrows Figure 8A’s overdriven no oscillation or undesirable characteristics.
source follower technique to obtain extremely low satura- 6

tion resistance. The gate boost voltage is generated by the

5 • • • •
LT1072 switching regulator, set up as a flyback converter.* •
OUTPUT VOLTAGE (V)

This configuration’s 30V output powers A1, a dual op 4

MAXIMUM RATED
OUTPUT CURRENT
amp. A1A compares the regulators output to the LT1004 FOR 5VOUT
3
reference and servo controls Q1’s gate to close the loop.
The gate voltage overdrive allows Q1 to attain its 0.028Ω 2
saturation, permitting the extremely low dropout noted. The •
Zener diode clamps excessive gate-source voltage and the 1

0.001μF capacitor stabilizes the loop. A1B, sensing current 0

•
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
*If boost voltage is already present in the system, significant circuit OUTPUT CURRENT (A)
simplification is possible. See LTC Design Note 32, “A Simple Ultra-Low AN32 F12
Dropout Regulator.”
Figure 12. Current Limit Characteristics for the Discrete Regulator

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AN32-6
 L2 5VOUT
335μH 10A
12VIN P50N05E ≈5.45V 0.01Ω P50N05E
(5.9V TO 20V) + + + +
1N967A 1N967A
10μF 330Ω 47μF 18V 1000μF 10k* 10k* 18V 22μF
100k*

L1 MBR1060 180Ω 38k*

820μH –
5.1k 1N4148 1N4148
100Ω 42.5k*
1/2 LT1013
1N4148 (TRIM)
270k ≈30V + 0.001

12V
+ 100k*
22μF 100k
VN2222
– –
0.01
1/2 LT1018 – 1/2 LT1013 12k*
+ 1N4148 +
1/2 LT1018 12k*
20k 12k
10k + 12V

10k LT1004
12V 1.2V
47pF
1M
2k
AN32 F13

L1 = PULSE ENGINEERING, INC. #PE-52630

L2 = PULSE ENGINEERING, INC. #PE-51518
* = 1% FILM RESISTOR
0.01Ω = DALE RH-10

Figure 13. Ultralow Dropout Linear Regulator with Pre-Regulator

AN32-7
an32f
Application Note 32
Application Note 32
Ultrahigh Efficiency Linear Regulator 100
VIN = 12V
90
Figure 13 combines the preceding discrete circuits to • •
80 • • • •
achieve highly efficient linear regulation at high power. 70

EFFICIENCY (%)
This circuit combines Figure 8a’s pre-regulator with 60
Figure 11’s discrete low dropout design. Modifications 50
include deletion of the linear regulators boost supply and 40
slight adjustment of the gate-source Zener diode values. 30

Similarly, a single 1.2V reference serves both pre-regula- 20

tor and linear output regulator. The upward adjustment in 10

the Zener clamp values ensures adequate boost voltage 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
under low voltage input conditions. The pre-regulator’s OUTPUT CURRENT (A) AN32 F14

feedback resistors set the linear regulators input voltage Figure 14. Efficiency vs Output Current for Figure 13
just above its 400mV dropout.
This circuit is complex, but performance is impressive. Micropower Pre-Regulated Linear Regulator
Figure 14 shows efficiency of 86% at 1A output, decreasing Power linear regulators are not the only types which
to 76% at full load. The losses are approximately evenly can benefit from the above techniques. Figure 15’s pre-
distributed between the MOSFETs and the MBR1060 catch regulated micropower linear regulator provides excellent
diode. Replacing the catch diode with a synchronously efficiency and low noise. The pre-regulator is similar to
switched FET (see Linear Technology AN29, Figure 32) and Figure 8a. A drop at the pre-regulator’s output (Pin 3 of the
trimming the linear regulator input to the lowest possible LT1020 regulator, Trace A, Figure 16) causes the LT1020’s
value could improve efficiency by 3% to 5%. comparator to go high. The 74C04 inverter chain switches,

100mH
DALE TE-5Q4-TA
+V IRFD9120 5.2V 3 2
VIN VOUT 5VOUT
6V TO 10V
S D + 2.5V
LT1020 +
1N5817 220μF 680pF 1M* 1M* 0.001μF 10μF
REF GND FB
4 9 11

825k* 1M 909k*
200k
200k
PRE-REG
OUTPUT TRIM
8 TRIM
220k  –
74C04
6 LT1020
COMP 7
+
270pF
* = 1% METAL FILM RESISTOR
GROUND UNUSED 74C04 INPUTS

HP5082-2810

AN32 F15

Figure 15. Micropower Pre-Regulated Linear Regulator

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AN32-8
 Application Note 32
100
OUT OF
90 VDIFF LT1020 = 0.2V REGULATION
80
VDIFF LT1020 = 0.5V
70

EFFICIENCY (%)
60
A = 50mV/DIV 50
(AC-COUPLED)
40
B = 10V/DIV
30
20
C = 10V/DIV 10
0
D = 100mA/DIV 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
OUTPUT CURRENT (mA)
AN32 F16
HORIZ = 500μs/DIV
AN32 F17

Figure 16. Figure 15’s Waveforms Figure 17. Efficiency vs Output Current for Figure 15

biasing the P-channel MOSFET switch’s grid (Trace B). The circuit’s low 40μA quiescent current is due to the low
The MOSFET comes on (Trace C), delivering current to LT1020 drain and the MOS elements. Figure 17 plots ef-
the inductor (Trace D). When the voltage at the inductor- ficiency versus output current for two LT1020 input-output
220μF junction goes high enough (Trace A), the compara- differential voltages. Efficiency exceeding 80% is possible,
tor switches high, turning off MOSFET current flow. This with outputs to 50mA available.
loop regulates the LT1020’s input pin at a value set by the
resistor divider in the comparator’s negative input and the References
LT1020’s 2.5V reference. The 680pF capacitor stabilizes 1. Lambda Electronics, Model LK-343A-FM Manual
the loop and the 1N5817 is the catch diode. The 270pF
capacitor aids comparator switching and the 2810 diode 2. Grafham, D.R., “Using Low Current SCRs,” General
prevents negative overdrives. Electric AN200.19. Jan. 1967
The low dropout LT1020 linear regulator smooths the 3. Williams, J., “Performance Enhancement Techniques
switched output. Output voltage is set with the feedback for Three-Terminal Regulators,” Linear Technology
pin associated divider. A potential problem with this circuit Corporation. AN2
is start-up. The pre-regulator supplies the LT1020’s input 4. Williams, J., “Micropower Circuits for Signal Condition-
but relies on the LT1020’s internal comparator to function. ing,” Linear Technology Corporation. AN23
Because of this, the circuit needs a start-up mechanism.
The 74C04 inverters serve this function. When power is 5. Williams, J. and Huffman, B., “Some Thoughts on DC-DC
applied, the LT1020 sees no input, but the inverters do. The Converters,” Linear Technology Corporation. AN29
200k path lifts the first inverter high, causing the chain to 6. Analog Devices, Inc, “Multiplier Application Guide”
switch, biasing the MOSFET and starting the circuit. The
inverter’s rail-to-rail swing also provides good MOSFET
grid drive.

Note: This application note was derived from a manuscript originally prepared for publication in EDN magazine.
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AN32-9
Application Note 32
APPENDIX A

Achieving Low Dropout

Linear regulators almost always use Figure A1a’s basic on-resistance varies considerably under these conditions,
regulating loop. Dropout limitations are set by the pass although bipolar losses are more predictable. Note that
elements on-impedance limits. The ideal pass element voltage losses in driver stages (Darlington, etc.) add di-
has zero impedance capability between input and output rectly to the dropout voltage. The follower output used in
and consumes no drive energy. conventional three terminal IC regulators combines with
drive stage losses to set dropout at 3V.
INPUT
PASS
OUTPUT
Common emitter/source is another pass element option.
ELEMENT REGULATING
LOOP
This configuration removes the Vbe loss in the bipolar
DRIVE
–
case. The PNP version is easily fully saturated, even in IC
form. The trade-off is that the base current never arrives
+
at the load, wasting substantial power. At higher cur-
AN32 FA1a
rents, base drive losses can negate a common emitter’s
VREF
saturation advantage. This is particularly the case in IC
Figure A1a. Basic Regulating Loop
designs, where high beta, high current PNP transistors
are not practical. As in the follower example, Darlington
connections exacerbate the problem. At moderate currents
Common
Followers Emitter/Source Compound PNP common emitters are practical for IC construction.
VIN VOUT VIN VOUT VIN VOUT The LT1020/LT1120 uses this approach.
Common source connected P-channel MOSFETs are
VIN VOUT VIN VOUT
also candidates. They do not suffer the drive losses of
bipolars, but typically require 10V of gate-channel bias
VIN
VOUT
to fully saturate. In low voltage applications this usually
VIN
VOUT
requires generation of negative potentials. Additionally,
P-channel devices have poorer saturation than equivalent
size N-channel devices.
–V AN32 F1b

Figure A1b. Linear Regulator with Some Pass Element The voltage gain of common emitter and source configura-
Candidates tions is a loop stability concern, but is manageable.
Compound connections using a PNP driven NPN are a
A number of design and technology options offer various
reasonable compromise, particularly for high power (be-
trade-offs and advantages. Figure A1b lists some pass
yond 250mA) IC construction. The trade-off between the
element candidates. Followers offer current gain, ease of
PNP Vce saturation term and reduced drive losses over a
loop compensation (voltage gain is below unity) and the
straight PNP is favorable. Also, the major current flow is
drive current ends up going to the load. Unfortunately,
through a power NPN, easily realized in monolithic form.
saturating a follower requires voltage overdriving the
This connection has voltage gain, necessitating attention
input (e.g., base, gate). Since drive is usually derived
to loop frequency compensation. The LT1083-6 regulators
directly from VIN this is difficult. Practical circuits must
use this pass scheme with an output capacitor providing
either generate the overdrive or obtain it elsewhere. This
compensation.
is not easily done in IC power regulators, but is realiz-
able in discrete circuits (e.g., Figure 11). Without voltage Readers are invited to submit results obtained with our
overdrive the saturation loss is set by Vbe in the bipolar emeritus thermionic friends, shown out of respectful
case and channel on-resistance for MOS. MOS channel courtesy.

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 Application Note 32
APPENDIX B

A Low Dropout Regulator Family

The LT1083-6 series regulators detailed in Figure B1 In contrast, the LT1020/LT1120 series is optimized for
feature maximum dropout below 1.5V. Output currents lower power applications. Dropout voltage is about 0.05V
range from 1.5A to 7.5A. The curves show dropout is at 100μA, rising to only 400mV at 100mA output. Quiescent
significantly lower at junction temperatures above 25°C. current is 40μA.
The NPN pass transistor based devices require only 10mA
load current for operation, eliminating the large base drive
loss characteristic of PNP approaches (see Appendix A
for discussion).

LT1083 Dropout Voltage vs Output Current LT1084 Dropout Voltage vs Output Current LT1085 Dropout Voltage vs Output Current
2 2 2
MINIMUM INPUT/OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL (V)

MINIMUM INPUT/OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL (V)

MINIMUM INPUT/OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL (V)

• INDICATES GUARANTEED TEST POINT • INDICATES GUARANTEED TEST POINT • INDICATES GUARANTEED TEST POINT
0°C ≤ TJ ≤ 125°C
–55°C ≤ TJ ≤ 150°C
• 0°C ≤ TJ ≤ 125°C • 0°C ≤ TJ ≤ 125°C
••
•• –55°C ≤ TJ ≤ 150°C •• –55°C ≤ TJ ≤ 150°C ••
•• •• ••
•• •• ••
1 1 1
TJ = –55°C TJ = 150°C TJ = 150°C
TJ = 25°C TJ = –55°C TJ = –55°C
TJ = 150°C
TJ = 25°C TJ = 25°C

0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
OUTPUT CURRENT (A) OUTPUT CURRENT (A) OUTPUT CURRENT (A)
AN32 FB1a AN32 FB1b AN32 FB1c

LT1086 Dropout Voltage vs Output Current LT1020/LT1120 Dropout Voltage and Supply Current
2 1.00 10
MINIMUM INPUT/OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL (V)

• INDICATES GUARANTEED TEST POINT

••
SUPPLY CURRENT (mA)

0°C ≤ TJ ≤ 125°C
DROPOUT VOLTAGE (V)

–55°C ≤ TJ ≤ 150°C
••
••
1 0.10 1
TJ = 150°C
TJ = –55°C
TJ = 25°C

0 0.01 0.1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.1 1 10 100 1000
OUTPUT CURRENT (A) OUTPUT CURRENT (mA)
AN32 FB1d AN32 FB1e

Figure B1. Characteristics of Low Dropout IC Regulators

an32f

Information furnished by Linear Technology Corporation is believed to be accurate and reliable.

However, no responsibility is assumed for its use. Linear Technology Corporation makes no representa-
tion that the interconnection of its circuits as described herein will not infringe on existing patent rights. AN32-11
Application Note 32
APPENDIX C overloads. Load voltage is derived from the 100k-4k divider.
The shunts low value minimizes voltage burden error.
Measuring Power Consumption
The voltage and current signals are multiplied by a 4-quad-
Accurately determining power consumption often neces- rant analog multiplier (AD534) to produce the power prod-
sitates measurement. This is particularly so in AC line uct. All of this circuitry floats at AC line potential, making
driven circuits, where transformer uncertainties or lack of direct monitoring of the multipliers output potentially lethal.
manufacturer’s data precludes meaningful estimates. One Providing a safe, usable output requires a galvanically
way to measure AC line originated input power (Watts) is isolated way to measure the multiplier output. The 286J
a true, real time computation of E-I product. Figure C1’s isolation amplifier does this, and may be considered as
circuit does this and provides a safe, usable output. a unity-gain amplifier with inputs fully isolated from its
BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER, THE READER output. The 286J also supplies the floating ±15V power
IS WARNED THAT CAUTION MUST BE USED IN THE required for A1 and the AD534. The 286J’s output is re-
CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND USE OF THIS CIRCUIT. ferred to circuit common ( ). The 281 oscillator/driver is
HIGH VOLTAGE, AC LINE-CONNECTED POTENTIALS necessary to operate the 286J (see Analog Devices data
ARE PRESENT IN THIS CIRCUIT. EXTREME CAUTION sheet for details). The LT1012 and associated components
MUST BE USED IN WORKING WITH AND MAKING CON- provide a filtered and scaled output. A1B’s gain switching
NECTIONS TO THIS CIRCUIT. REPEAT: THIS CIRCUIT provides decade ranging from 20W to 2000W full scale.
CONTAINS DANGEROUS, AC LINE-CONNECTED HIGH The signal path’s bandwidth permits accurate results, even
VOLTAGE POTENTIALS. USE CAUTION. for nonlinear or discontinuous loads (e.g. SCR choppers).
To calibrate this circuit install a known full-scale load, set
The AC load to be measured is plugged into the test socket. A1B to the appropriate range, and adjust the trimpot for
Current is measured across the 0.01Ω shunt by A1A with a correct reading. Typical accuracy is 1%.
additional gain and scaling provided by A1B. The diodes
and fuse protect the shunt and amplifier against severe

DANGER! LETHAL POTENTIALS 15V

PRESENT IN SCREENED AREA! ISO 15V
DO NOT CONNECT GROUNDED
TEST EQUIPMENT—SEE TEXT FLOATING –15V
COMMON ISO 281 OSCILLATOR/DRIVER
A=1
Y
AD534 Z + 15V
X 286J
+
Z= X•Y – 56.2k
LT1012
WATTS OUT
10 0V TO 2V
1M
100k –
0.47
150k –15V

20A 100k

10k
4k 2kW
665k 100k
200W
TEST LOAD 1M
SOCKET 20W
115VAC LINE 10k – ALL RESISTORS = 1% FILM RESISTORS
* = DALE RH-25
1N1183 1N916 A1A 15.8k –
s2 s2 1/2 LT1057 = FLOATING COMMON—AC LINE COMMON
0.01Ω* + A1B
1/2 LT1057 = CIRCUIT COMMON
+
USE A LINE ISOLATED ±15V SUPPLY TO POWER COMPONENTS
OUTSIDE SCREENED AREA. DO NOT TIE AND POINTS TOGETHER
AN32 FC1

Figure C1. AC Wattmeter DANGER! Lethal Potentials Present—See Text

an32f

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