What is Geometry?

Postulate number 5 above is commonly known as the

“parallel postulate”.
Geometry is the branch of mathematics which deals What are the Basic Geometric Elements and
with the properties of shapes and spaces. The term Figures?
“geometry” was derived from the Greek words, “ge” 1. Point – a dimensionless geometric figure having no
meaning earth and “metria” meaning measurement. properties other than location or place.
Euclid (c. 330 – c 275 B.C.) in his best known book in 2. Line – the shortest distance between any two points.
geometry “Elements” give more emphasis on Plane A line is implicitly a straight line. A line segment is
geometry while Archimedes (287 – 212 B.C.) a piece of a line with definite endpoints.
contributed so much to Solid geometry. 3. Angle – the opening between two lines or two
planes that meet. The point where two lines meet is
What are the different branches of Geometry? known as vertex. Angle comes from Latin “angulus”
for “sharp bend”.
1. Plane Geometry – deals with the properties of plane
What are the different types of angles according to
figures or geometrical shapes of two dimensions,
their measure?
such as angles, triangles, square, polygons, conic,
1. Null or Zero angle - equal to zero
sections, etc.
2. Solid Geometry – deals with the properties of
geometrical shapes of three dimension, such us
cones, pyramids, cylinders, prisms, spheres, etc.
3. Euclidean Geometry – a geometry that is based on π
the assumptions of Euclid, who about 300 B.C., 2. Acute angle – greater that zero but less that 90° or
2
collected the mathematical knowledge of that time in θ <90
radians
13-volume “Elements”. The problems of this type of
geometry can be solved by logical reasoning from an
initial core of postulates (axioms), a method
commonly referred to as the classical axiomatic π
3. Right angle – equal, to 90° or radians
method of Euclid. 2
4. Non-Euclidan Geometry – a geometry that is not
based on the assumption of Euclid.
5. Projective Geometry – deals with the study of
those properties of plane figures that are unchanged
when a given set of points is projected into a second π
4. Obtuse angle-greater than 90° or radians but less
plane. 2
6. Trigonometry – a geometry which specializes on than 180° or π radians
the study of triangles. This subject is divided into
two branches, namely Plane Trigonometry and
Spherical Trigonometry.
7. Analytic Geometry – a geometry which deals with θ >90
geometric which deals with geometry problems by
using the coordinates systems and transforming 5. Straight angle-equal to 180° or π radians.
them into algebraic problems. This type of geometry
was invented by Rene Descartes. Plane analytic
geometry deals primarily with the analysis of
equations in two variables while Solid analytic
geometry deals with equations in three variables. 6. Reflex angle-angle greater than 180° or π radians
8. Differential Geometry – a geometry that applies but less than 360° or 2 π radians.
differential and integral calculus to curves, surfaces
and other geometric entities.
270 °
What are the Basic Postulates of Euclid?
Euclid’s Elements is based upon five basic postulates or
assumptions which are as follows:
1. A unique straight line can be drawn between any
two points.
2. Such line can be extended indefinitely in either 7. Full angle or Perigon-equal to 360° or 2 π radians.
direction. What are the other types of angle?
3. A circle can be drawn in a plane using a given point
(a centre) and a given distance (a radius). 1. Adjacent angles-two angles with a common leg.
4. All right angles are equal.
5. Given a line and a point not on the line there exists
exactly one line parallel to the original line passing
through the given point.
 centesimal seconds. This unit is also known as
grad or grade and is used in surveying works
2. Complementary angles-two angles whose sum is a
and aircraft navigation.
right angle (90°).
4. Mil- The mil is a measure of an angle which is
1/6400 of the full circle. A right angle is 1600
mils.

The following is a table showing different measure of

an angle with corresponding value in one revolution.
3. Supplementary angle-two angle whose sum is a Unit One Revolution
straight angle (180°).
Degree 360
Radian 2π
Gon 400
Mil 6400
What is Polygon?
4. Explementary angle-two angle whose sum is a
perigon (360°). A polygon is a plane figure with three or more angles. It
has as many sides as angles. The sides of the polygon are
straight lines. The term “polygon” comes from Greek
words “poly” which means “many” and ”gonia” which
means “angles”. A regular polygon is a polygon having
5. Vertical angle-angles formed by two intersecting
all sides equal and all angles equal.
lines. Vertical angles are equal.
Table showing the regular polygons:
B
Name Sides Angle
A
A Equilateral Triangle 3 60°
B Square 4 90°
Regular Pentagon 5 108°
Angles A and B are vertical angles. These angles are Regular Hexagon 6 120°
called vertical angles because each side of one is an Regular Heptagon 7 ≈128.57°
extension through the vertex of a side of the other.
Regular Octagon 8 135°
What is a Bisector? Regular Nonagon 9 140°
A bisector is a straight line which divides a geometric Regular Decagon 10 144°
figure into two equal figures. An angle bisector is a Regular Hectagon 100 176.4°
light which divides an angle into two equal angles.
Regular Megagon 106 179.99964°
100
Regular Googolgon 100 ≈180°

Polygons are named according to the number of

sides or vertices.
Angle bisector

What are the different units of angles? Number of Name

sides
1. Degree-the degree is a non-SI unit approved in 3 Triangle
1969 by the General Conference on Weights and 4 Quadrilateral or Tetragon
Measures. This unit was established by the
5 Pentagon
Babylonians more than 4000 years ago. A
6 Hexagon
degree is divided into 60 minutes; a minute is
7 Heptagon
divided into 60 seconds.
8 Octagon
2. Radian- the radian is the standard angular
9 Nonagon
measure in the International System of Unit.
10 Decagon
(SI). A radian is the angle between two radaii of 11 Undecagon
a circle which cut off on the circumference an 12 Dodecagon
arc equal in length to the radius. 100 Hectagon
3. Gon- The gon or centesimal degree is 1/400th of 1000000 Megagon
the full circle. A right angle is 100 gons. A gon 10100 Googolgon
is divided into 1000 centesimal minutes; one n n-gon
centesimal minutes is divided into 100
A convex polygon is a polygon having each interior
angle less than 180° while a concave polygon is a
polygon having an interior angle greater than 180°. What is quadrilateral?
A quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides. A
quadrilateral is also known as quadrangle or tetragon
What are the types of quadrilateral?
1. Square – a regular quadrilateral. All its sides are
Reentrant angle equal and all angles are equal to right angle. A
is the inward-pointing angle (angle A in the figure) of square is a rectangle with all sides equal.
the concave polygon while the other angles are called 2. Rectangle – a right-angled parallelogram.
salient angles. 3. Rhombus – all sides are equal but no angle equal to
right angle.
The diagonal of a polygon is the line connecting two 4. Parallelogram – both pairs of opposite sides are
opposite vertices. The number of diagonals in a polygon parallel. Another term for parallelogram is
can be calculated using the following formula; rhomboid.
n 5. Trapezoid – only two sides are parallel.
Diagonals = (n – 3) 6. Trapezium – if no two sides are parallel
2
Where: n = number of sides 7. Kite – convex quadrilateral whose adjacent sides are
equal in pair.
The interior angles of a polygon are the angles inside the 8. Deltoid – concave quadrilateral whose adjacent
polygon. The sum of the interior angles of the polygon sides are equal in pair.
can be calculated using the following formula. 9. Cyclic quadrilateral – a quadrilateral whose
Sum of interior angles = (n-2)180° vertices lie on a circle.
Where: n = number of sides

The deflection angle of a polygon is the angle What are the formulas used in solving the area of a
subtended by the prolongation of one side to the next quadrilateral?
side.
Sum of deflection angles = 360° 1) Square
What is a triangle? a
A triangle is a polygon with three sides. All the three
sides are contained in a plane. a A = a2
What are the classification of triangles according to
their sides?
1. Equilateral triangle -all sides and angles are equal. 2) Rectangle
An equilateral triangle is also equiangular. Each
interior angle is 60°.
2. Isosceles triangle- two sides are equal and a A= ab
corresponding angles are also equal.
3. Scalene triangle- no two sides are equal. b
3) Rhombus
What are the classifications of triangles according to A. Given base and altitude:
their angles?
1. Acute triangle-each interior angle is less than a h
right angle.
2. Right triangle – one angle is a right angle. b
3. Obtuse triangle – one angle is greater than right
A = bh
angle.
Note: A triangle which is not a right triangle is B. Given two diagonals:
known as oblique triangle. Both acute triangle and
obtuse triangle are oblique triangles. d1 0
d2
What are the other types of triangles?
b
1. Egyptian triangle – a triangle with sides 3, 4, 5
units. For rhombus, θ is a right angle.
2. Pedal triangle – a triangle inscribe in a given
triangle whose vertices are the feet of the 1
A= (d1)(d2)
perpendiculars to the sides from some point inside 2
the given triangle. where: d1 and d2 are lengths of diagonals
3. Golden triangle – an isosceles triangle with sides is
to its base in the golden ratio; its angles are 72°, 72° C. Given sides and included angle:
and 36°.
 a where: θ= A+C ∨θ= B+ D
θ A = a2 sinθ 2 2
a+ b+c +d
a s=
4) Parallelogram or Rhomboid 2
A. Given base and altitude: 7. Cyclic quadrilateral

A = bh c
a
b
B. Given two diagonals and their included angle:

d1
b d
θ
d2
1 A=√ s−a ¿(s−b)(s−c)( s−d )¿
A= (d1)(d2)sin θ
2
a+ b+c +d
where: s=
Where: d1 and d2 are lengths of diagonals 2
C. Given two sides and included angle: The radius of the circle circumscribing the quadrilateral
may be calculated using the following formula:

(ab+cd )(ac +bd )(ad+ bc)

a
θ
r=
√ 4R

b where: A = area of quadrilateral

8. Quadrilateral circumscribing a circle
A =ab sin θ
5. Trapezoid
What is Bramaguptha’s Theorem?
b “In a cyclic quadrilateral having perpendicular
diagonals, the perpendicular to a side from the point
h A = ½(B + b)h
of intersection of the diagonals always bisects the
opposite side”.
B
6. Trapezium (General quadrilateral) Bramaguptha (A.D. 598-665)
Hindu astronomer and mathematician who became
A. Given two diagonals and included angle: the head of the observatory at Ujjain-the foremost
mathematical center in ancient India.
d1 What is Ptolemy’s Theorem?
θ
“The sum of the products of two pairs of opposite
d2 sides of a convex cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the
product of the length s of the diagonals”.

A=½(d1) (d2) sin θ This was named after the mathematician astronomer
and geographer, Ptolemy of Alexandria.
Where: d1 and d2 are lengths of diagonals
What are the formulas used in solving the areas and
B. Given four sides and opposites angles: (Using perimeters of other regular polygons?
Bramaguptha’s formula)
1. Regular Polygon
b
a
C a a
B a a
a c
a a
a
D
1 180
A
d
A=
4 [
n a2 cot
n ( )]
2. Regular Polygon circumscribing a circle
2
A=√ ( s−a )( s−b ) ( s−c ) ( s−d ) −abcd cos θ
r
 8. Radian–the measure of an angle whose arc
length is equal to the radius of the circle.
9. Sector of the ¿˚ -area bounded by two radii and
A=n r 2 tan ( 180n ) P=2 nr tan ( 180n ) the included arc.
10. Central angle –an angle whose vertex is at the
center of a circle and whose sides are the radii.
Where: n = number of sides
The central angle is an angle subtended by an
3. Regular Polygon inscribe in a circle arc.
11. Segment of the ¿˚ -area bounded by a chord and
the arc subtending the chord.

r
Sector Segment

1 360
A=
2 [
n r 2 sin ( )]
n
180
A=2 nr sin ( )
n 12. Angle subtended by a chord –an angle whose
where: n = number of sides vertex is along the periphery or circumference
and its sides are chords.
What is perimeter?
A perimeter is the distance around a two
dimensional shape. The perimeter of the square
is sum of the length of its sides. The formula for θ x
β
perimeter will vary depending on the geometric
figure or polygon.
What is a circle?
A circle is a plane curve that is the locus of all The angle θ is the central angle while ß is the angle
points in the plane equidistant from a given subtended by chord ”x”.
point, called center. The term “circle comes
from Latin “circus”, which refers to a large What are the formula used in solving a circle?
round or rounded oblong enclosure in which the 1. Area of a circle:
famous Roman chariot races were held. The
circle is a conic section whose eccentricity is π D2
A=π r 2 or A=
zero. 4
where: r = radius
What are common terms related to a circle? D = diameter
2. Circumference of a circle:
1. Arc of a circle-length of circle between two C=2 πr or C=πD
points on the circle or between two radii. 3. Area of sector of a circle:
2. tangent of a circle- a line touching the circle in c
one place. A tangent is perpendicular to the 1
radius of the circle.
A= rc
θ r 2
3. Secant of the ¿˚ - a line cutting the circle in two
places. 1
A= r 2 θ
4. Diameter of a ¿˚ -the longest chord of a circle 2
that passes through the center. where: θ is in radians
5. Radius-the distance from the center to the r2 θ
A=π
circle. It is one-half of the diameter. 360
6. Chord –the segment of a secant bounded by the where: θ is in degrees
circle. 4. Area of segment of a circle:
A
tangent

chord O B
secant
diameter
A = Area of sector – area of triangle AOB
radius What are useful theorem involving a circle?
1. If a central angle and a peripheral angle are
arc subtended by the same arc, then the central angle
7. Circumference -the perimeter of a circle. This is is twice as large as the peripheral angle.
2. Inscribe angles subtend the same arc are equal.
also known as periphery. The circumference of a
circle is 2 π (radius) or π (diameter).
 3. Inscribe angles subtended by the diameter of a
circle are right angles. Therefore, the triangle
formed in the figure is a right triangle.
4. Chord Theorem

a
d
ab = cd
c b

5. Secant Theorem:

c
d
a

a(a+ b) = c(c+d)
6. Secant – Tangent Theorem
t

t2 = a(a+b)
What is an ellipse?
Ellipse is a locus of a point which moves so that the sum
of its distances to the fixed points (foci, denoted as F in
the figure) is constant and is equal to the length of the
major axis.

b
V F F V
b

a a

Ellipse has two axis of symmetry, a major axis (2a),

between the vertices (V) of the ellipse, and a minor axis
(2b), which intersect at the center of the ellipse, and a
minor axis (2b), which intersect at the center of the
ellipse.
Area of an ellipse, A
A=πab
where: a= semi-major axis
b = semi-minor axis