FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS

Study Guide 4

GEOMETRY AND MEASUREMENT OF AREAS AND

VOLUMES

Prepared by Dr. Faleye Sunday

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CONTENTS
MODULE 4: GEOMETRY AND THE MEASUREMENT OF AREAS
AND VOLUMES
Unit 1 Geometry 1

Outcomes 1

1.1 Lines and Angles 3

1.2 Polygons 23

1.3 Circles 57

Unit Summary 60

Checklist 63

Unit 2 Perimeter, Area and Volume 66

Outcomes 66

2.1 Measurements of Perimeter and Area 67

2.2 Surface Area and Volume of Three Dimensional Objects 80

Unit Summary 96

Checklist 98

ANSWERS 99

REFERENCES 118
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UNIT 1: Geometry
OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

1.1: Lines and angles

I Create patterns by translating an object in a given direction, over a given distance.

I Create patterns by reflecting an object, for example in a vertical or horizontal line. Recognise objects
that have reflection symmetry.

I Recognise objects that have rotational symmetry. Create patterns by rotating an object through a
given angle between 0 and 360 .

I Define the following concepts: line, line segment, ray, angle.

I Recognise lines that are coincident, parallel, perpendicular.

I Classify angles according to measure or relationship with other angles.

I Recognise the relationship between parallel lines cut by a transversal line and the resulting corre-
sponding, alternate and co–interior angles.

1.2: Polygons

I Create patterns by means of tessellating polygons.

I Draw the diagonals (if they exist) and altitudes of any polygon.

I Recognise polygons that are congruent, and identify corresponding sides or angles of congruent poly-
gons.

I Recognise polygons that are similar. Show that corresponding sides of similar polygons are in propor-
tion.

I Use the property of similarity of polygons to determine the scale factor required when a given object
needs to be enlarged or reduced.

I Classify triangles according to the lengths of their sides or the measure of their angles.

I Use the Theorem of Pythagoras.

I Know and apply the four sets of conditions that triangles must satisfy in order to be congruent. The
conditions are referred to as SSS, SAS, AAS (or ASA) and RHS.
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I Recognise triangles that are similar. Use the fact that corresponding sides of similar triangles are in
proportion to calculate distance or length.

I Classify quadrilaterals according to whether opposite sides are parallel, or equal in length.

I Use congruency of triangles to prove certain properties of quadrilaterals.

– In a kite prove that

the diagonals intersect at right angles, and the longer of the diagonals bisects the shorter
diagonal.
– In a parallelogram prove that
the diagonals bisect each other
opposite sides have equal length
opposite angles have equal measure.
– In a rhombus (in addition to the properties of parallelograms) prove that
the diagonals bisect each other at right angles
the diagonals bisect the vertices.
– In a rectangle (in addition to the properties of parallelograms) prove that
the diagonals have equal length.
– In a square (in addition to the properties of a rhombus) prove that
the diagonals have equal length.

1.3: Circles

I Use the terminology of circles: centre, radius, chord, diameter, arc, semi– circle, tangent, central angle
subtended by an arc.
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1.1 Lines and Angles

WHAT GEOMETRY MEANS

Geometry is the branch of mathematics that considers the size and shape of things. From as early as 2 000
BC there are records of geometric activity in various parts of the world. The Babylonians knew how to find
the areas of rectangles and some triangles, and volumes of various objects. They were also responsible for
dividing the circumference of a circle into 360 equal parts.

Geometry came into being in response to human activities such as measuring land areas and volumes of
harvested grain. Construction of the pyramids in Egypt required extensive geometric understanding. By the
time of Euclid, about 300 BC, the method of making a sequence of deductions from certain initial clearly
stated assumptions was a well–established mathematical practice. This way of thinking forms the basis of
Euclidean geometry and other branches of mathematics.

When we hear the word geometry, most of us think about Euclidean geometry. Euclid was a professor of
mathematics at the University of Alexandria (in Egypt) but it seems that he originally studied in Athens. His
best–known work is Elements which has had a significant influence on scientific thinking.

Transformation geometry

Today we still study aspects of Euclidean geometry at school, although in later mathematics we will en-
counter non–Euclidean geometries. At school level, transformation geometry is also sometimes studied.
Transformation geometry involves three different processes, namely translation, reflection and rotation.
We describe each of these processes by means of an example.

EXAMPLE 1.1.1

Consider the elephant motif below.

If we repeat it several times, horizontally, we obtain the design on the following page.

Figure 1.1.1

Translation

We say that this design has been created by horizontally shifting (or sliding or translating) the original
elephant. The distance that the original motif is shifted may vary. For example, in Figure 1.1.2 if we translate
the circle motif horizontally by 2 cm, we have a pattern of separate circles; however, if we translate it only
 4

a very short distance, we have an overlapping pattern. The translation distance applies to any point of the
motif.

Figure 1.1.2

Shapes can be translated in any direction, upwards, downwards, diagonally, etc.

Symmetry

Before we consider reflection we need to look at symmetry. In Book 3, the discussion after Activity 4.1.1
deals with the symmetry of a graph in the y–axis. Look at the butterfly in the figure below.

Figure 1.1.3

Is it possible to draw a line through the middle of the butterfly that divides the butterfly into two identical
halves? If you fold the figure along a vertical line through the middle of the butterfly you will see that the one
half lies directly on top of the other half. We say that the one half of the butterfly is the mirror image of the
other half, and that the vertical line is the axis of symmetry of this figure. This figure thus has a vertical axis
of symmetry. In Figure 1.1.4 we see an object with a horizontal axis of symmetry. A figure may have more
than one axis of symmetry.

Figure 1.1.4

Figure 1.1.5 shows an object which we can fold along many possible lines that pass through its centre in such
a way that one half lies directly on top of the other half. The object thus has an infinite number of axes of
symmetry.

Figure 1.1.5

Reflection symmetry

The objects in Figures 1.1.3, 1.1.4 and 1.1.5 are all symmetric about at least one axis of symmetry. One half
of the object reflects the other half in this line. For this reason we say that the objects in these figures all have
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reflection symmetry. Reflection symmetry is also called line symmetry. We can create patterns by reflecting
any given object in a certain line. We may, for example, reflect objects vertically, or horizontally. To grasp
more easily what this means, put your pencil down on a piece of paper.

Now pick it up at the point, keeping the blunt end on the paper, and let it lie down flat again pointing the other
way.

We can continue moving in the same direction as often as we choose to. In the sketch below we have reflected
the pencil three times in a vertical line.

EXAMPLE 1.1.2

Consider the following motif.

Create a design by reflecting the motif in various ways.

(a) Start with a vertical line through the right hand corner, then reflect the motif five times moving to the
right with no spaces between successive motifs.

(b) Start with a horizontal line through the bottom corner, then reflect the motif five times moving down-
wards with no spaces between successive motifs.

(c) Reflect the motif once in a vertical line (as in (a)), then reflect the resulting shape once in a horizontal
line through the lower corners.

SOLUTION

(a)
 6

(b)

(c)

EXAMPLE 1.1.3

Consider the motif below. Create a design in the following way. First reflect the motif downwards in a
horizontal line through the bottom corner. Then translate the resulting shape horizontally 7 times by intervals
of 5 mm.

SOLUTION

Rotational symmetry

We can also turn or rotate objects about a central point. If they look exactly the same after the turn as they did
before the turn, we say they have rotational symmetry. The amount of rotation is the angle through which
the object is rotated, and it is measured in degrees. Earlier (when we discussed pie graphs in Unit 7 of Module
3) we mentioned that angles can be measured in degrees, and that one complete revolution measures 360 .
Hence, for example, a full circle rotation measures 360 , a half circle rotation is a turn through 180 , and a
quarter circle rotation is a turn through 90 . When objects have rotational symmetry, the angle of rotation will
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always be less than 360 , since any object will look the same after a turn through one complete revolution.
We discuss angles in the next study unit.

EXAMPLE 1.1.4

The object below has rotational symmetry of 180 since it looks the same every time we turn it through
one half of a revolution about its central point.

Figure 1.1.6

Do you see why the angle of rotation of the object in Example 1.1.4 is not 90 ? If we rotate it 90 (i.e. through
a quarter of a revolution) we obtain the following figure.

This figure is not the same Figure 1.1.6.

EXAMPLE 1.1.5

Through how many degrees can you rotate the object below to obtain the identical object?

SOLUTION

You can turn this 90 or 180 or 270 and still have exactly the same object.

ACTIVITY 1.1.1

(No solution is suggested for (a) and (b)).

(a) Find (in a magazine, newspaper or advertisement) any object with

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(i) rotational symmetry

(ii) reflection symmetry.

Use these two items to create an interesting design.

(b) Look at designs in your environment, such as designs on baskets, table cloths, walls, covers of books.
Can you identify the basic motif used to create the design? See whether each motif has reflection or
rotational symmetry. If it has rotational symmetry, through how many degrees can the motif be rotated?
If it has reflection symmetry, in what line(s) can the motif be reflected?

(c) Draw a capital letter E such as the one shown below. Fold along the dotted line. Does it have line
symmetry or rotational symmetry?

SOLUTION

The object “capital E” has line symmetry, or reflection symmetry. It is symme-trical about the horizontal
line shown. It does not have rotational symmetry, since we cannot rotate it through any angle other than 360
and still have exactly the same object.

LINES AND ANGLES

You have already worked with the number line, which we use to represent the set of real numbers. (See
Module 1, Unit 1.) We have also seen (in Module 3, Unit 1) how this association (between points on a line
and real numbers) was extended to ordered pairs of real numbers that represent points in the Cartesian plane.
When we look at points, lines and curves in the Cartesian plane, we can describe their behaviour in algebraic
terms by using equations.

We now look at points and lines separately from the Cartesian plane. We are thus no longer considering an
algebraic description, but a geometric description, which treats these entities as physical objects that we can
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see and measure. There is obviously a big difference between a “point” on a number line and a “point” on a
page in your book. On the number line there are, for example, infinitely many numbers between 0 and 1: A
few of them are shown in Figure 1.1.7(a).

0 _81 _41 _1
2
1

Figure 1.1.7(a)

In the Cartesian plane we can consider the points .1; 0/; 12 ; 0 ; then 14 ; 0 ; 1
8
;0 , and so on (see Figure
1.1.7(b)), and we soon realise that this process can also continue indefinitely.

( _4 , 0 )
1

( _81 , 0 ) ( _21 , 0 ) ( 1, 0)
Figure 1.1.7(b)

However, if we physically draw a line segment, and use even a very fine pencil, we will soon cover the
number line with the dots that represent numbers; however there will be many numbers not yet shown, for
which there is “no space” on the number line.

A point

We In use the word “point” in many different ways. When we look in a Mathematics Dictionary we are even
more confused. We read that a point is “an undefined element of geometry”. Euclid called it something that
“has position but no non–zero dimensions”. This directly contradicts the Concise Oxford English dictionary’s
definition of a point as a “very small mark on a surface”. What is the point of all this? (Yet another use of the
word!)

The geometry we will now study

I is based on an undefined concept (a point)

I has a structure in which the apparent contradictions are overcome through the propositions formulated
by Euclid

I is consistent with the physical world.

We will not study any of Euclid’s propositions, but it is helpful to remember the role that they play.
 10

Terminology

In many sections of the MAT011–K books we have used words such as point, line, line segment, angle, and
so on. We now give the specific mathematical meaning of some of these words.

A line
Definition 1.1.1
A line is a collection of points in a plane.
It extends indefinitely in two directions.
It has no width.

The line AB
Figure 1.1.8

Note that when we use the word line we mean straight line. We denote the line by means of any two points on
!
the line. Some authors use the notation AB where the double–headed arrow indicates that the line continues
indefinitely in both directions.

A line segment
Definition 1.1.2
A line segment is part of a line.
It has two endpoints.
Its length is the distance between the two endpoints.

B
The line segment AB
Figure 1.1.9

Note that some authors use the notation AB to denote the line segment AB ; they may also use AB to
denote the length of the line segment. We use the notation AB to denote both the line segment and its length.

We need the following definition because we use it in the definition of an angle.

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A ray
Definition 1.1.3
A ray is part of a line.
It has one endpoint.
It extends indefinitely in one direction.

B
A
The ray AB
Figure 1.1.10

!
Some authors use the notation AB to denote a ray. We denote the ray by first writing down its endpoint
(starting point), then any other point on it. For example, if the points C; D or E also lie on the ray shown in
Figure 1.1.10, then
! ! ! !
AB; AC; AD and AE

all denote the same ray.

Since the context usually makes it quite clear whether we are dealing with lines, rays, line segments, or the
lengths of line segments, we avoid the sometimes confusing notation
!
AB for line
!
AB for ray
AB for line segment
AB for the length of the line segment.

From now on we will use only AB in each case, and we depend on the context to make it clear which meaning
is intended.

When we consider the different line segments (or lines or rays) we have three possible situations. The line
segments

I are coincident

I intersect in one point (in which case they may be perpendicular)

We can also use the phrase “cut each other” instead of the word “intersect”.

I are parallel to each other.

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Figure 1.1.11 illustrates the meanings of these terms.

B
B
G D
C A
B
A
F
A D C
Two coincident Line segments E F and C D Line segment AB is parallel to
line segments intersect once, at F. line segment C D.
Line segments E F and AB We write AB k C D.
intersect once, at G. The arrows denote parallel
E F is perpendicular to AB lines.
and we write E F ? AB.
The little block at G indicates
the right angle.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.1.11

In Figure 1.1.11(b) we see that the line segments E F and C D intersect the line segment AB in different
ways. The difference can be considered in terms of the angles that are made at the points of intersection.

Definition 1.1.4
An angle is formed by rotating a ray about its fixed end-
point, called the vertex of the angle.
The amount of rotation is the measure of the angle.

Note that the plural of vertex is vertices.

The direction of rotation determines whether the measurement of the angle is positive or negative. If the ray
is rotated in an anti–clockwise direction, the measurement is positive; if it is rotated in a clockwise direction,
the measurement is negative.

We can see from Figure 1.1.11(b) that whenever two lines (or line segments or rays) meet at some point such
 13 MAT0511/001

as G or F, they form angles whose vertex is that point.

positive negative
angle angle

This is a mathematical convention, chosen to ensure consistency. We will not consider negative angles in this
module.

In the Concise Oxford Dictionary the word “angle” is given as “space between two meeting lines or planes;
inclination of two lines to each other; corner; sharp projection” and a few other options. The word angle is
derived from the Latin word angulus which means corner.

End position of ray

C
B2

A Starting position of ray

vertex B1 D
O
The angle C AD
Figure 1.1.12

The angle shown in Figure 1.1.12 is obtained by rotating the ray with endpoint A in an anti–clockwise
direction. AB1 is the starting position of the ray, and it is rotated about the endpoint A so that the end
position is the ray AB2 :

Notation

Consider the angle with vertex A: We denote it by

I C AD
O (or D AC;O O 1 ; C AB
B2 AB O 1 etc., using A and any other two points, one on one ray, the other on
the other ray; note that A is always written in the middle)

I 6C AD (or 6 D AC; 6 B2 AB1 ; etc., using A and any other two points on the rays; once again A is
written in the middle)

I AO (provided there is no ambiguity about the angle).

O However, in Figure
In Figure 1.1.12 it is quite clear what we mean when we speak about the angle A; or A:
 14

1.1.13 we see that it is necessary to be more specific.

P Q R

Figure 1.1.13

In Figure 1.1.13 there are two different angles at the point Q: We have S QO P and S QO R; and hence if we
write just QO it will not be clear what angle we are referring to.

Angle Measurement

We mentioned previously that angles are measured in degrees. One complete rotation of a ray about its
endpoint is a rotation of 360 degrees. We denote this by 360 , and we call this one revolution. There are
also other ways of measuring angles, but we will not discuss those here.
o
360

Figure 1.1.14

In our notation we do not always specifically distinguish between the angle itself and the measure of the
angle. Suppose the angle S QO P in Figure 1.1.13 measures 60 : We then usually write

S QO P D 60

whereas it is more correct to write

the measure of S QO P D 60 :

Degrees can be broken into minutes and seconds. We have

1 degree D 60 minutes (we write 600 )

1 minute D 60 seconds (we write 6000 ).

Thus, when we are measuring an angle accurately, we may have a measurement such as 35 200 1500 : As in
the case of time, where we do not work within a decimal system, we need to remember that 40; 6 means
40 and 0; 6 of one degree.

We have

0; 6 degree D .0; 6 60/ minutes

6
D 10
60 minutes
D 36 minutes.
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We can thus write the measurement 40; 6 as 40 360 :

When we have a diagram in which several angles occur, we often use capital letters to represent the vertices
and small letters to indicate the measures of the angles in degrees. See Figure 1.1.15.
A
B

a
e
E b
d cQ

C
D

Figure 1.1.15

From Figure 1.1.15 we understand that the measure of A QO B is a; the measure of B QCO is b; and so on,
where a; b; c; d and e represent specific numbers of degrees. Since one revolution is 360 ; we know that
a C b C c C d C e D 360 : Although we recognise that a; b; etc., represent measurements, it is often
convenient to refer to angle a; angle b; etc.

Although we understand that an angle is defined in terms of the rotation of a ray, we do not usually put arrows
on the ends of the line segments to denote rays. It is also clear that angles occur whenever lines or line
segments intersect, so we need not restrict ourselves to thinking of angles only in terms of rays.

Revolution; straight and right angles

Angles are classified according to their measures. We have three special names for three specific measure-
ments.
o
360
I 360 one revolution

o
180
I 180 a straight angle

o
90
I 90 a right angle

Acute, obtuse and reflex angles

We have another three names which describe angles. In these three cases they are classified according to their
measures relative to 90 ; 180 and 360 :
 16

I If 0 < a < 90 then A OO B is an acute angle.

B a
A
O

I If 90 < a < 180 then A OO B is an obtuse angle.

a
O A

I If 180 < a < 360 then A OO B is a reflex angle.

a O
A

Right angles are especially important. Many of the structures we depend on everyday make use of right an-
gles. Walls are usually at right angles to floors. Shelves need to be at right angles to the wall, i.e. perpendicular
to the wall (and parallel to the floor).

Let us consider two lines in the same plane that are not coincident or parallel. When they cut each other they
form angles of different measurements at the point of intersection.

Note the following.

I The lines can intersect in at most one point. See Figure 1.1.16(a).

I If two lines in a plane are perpendicular to the same line, they are parallel to each other. See Figure
1.1.16(b), where AB k C D since AB ? P Q and C D ? P Q.

A C

A D

P Q

C B B D

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1.16
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Adjacent, supplementary, complementary and vertically opposite angles

We have looked at some names given to specific angles, and we now consider some other angle names based
on the relationships between two or more angles.

I We call two angles adjacent if they have a common vertex and a common ray.

A C D

O and C BO D are adjacent angles with common vertex B and common

A BC
ray BC:

I We call two (or more) angles supplementary if their measures add up

to 180 :
A
o
B
120
O
o
60

C D

A OO B and C OO D are supplementary angles since A OO BCC OO D D 180 : We are usually more interested
in adjacent supplementary angles, since together they form a straight angle.

180 o
P S
Q

R QO P and R QO S are adjacent supplementary angles, since they are adjacent (common vertex Q and
common ray Q R ) and supplementary (since P QO R and R QO S form the straight angle P QO S ).

I We call two (or more) angles complementary angles if their measures add up to 90 :

D
E

o o
60 30
A C
B

A BO D and E BC
O are complementary angles since A BO D C E BC
O D 90 :
 18

We also have adjacent complementary angles, where the measures of two (or more) adjacent angles
add up to 90 :
P
R

S
Q

P QO R and R QO S are adjacent complementary angles, since they have a common vertex, Q, and a
common ray, Q R, and P QO R C R QO S D 90 :

I We say that two angles are vertically opposite each other if they are non–adjacent angles formed by
two intersecting lines. The measures of two vertically opposite angles are equal.

M Q

P N

M OO Q and P OO N are vertically opposite angles and M OO Q D P OO N :

Similarly, M OO P D Q OO N :

Further relationships arise when we consider two parallel lines. Look at Figure 1.1.17, which shows two
parallel lines both cut by a line AB:

B
p Pp
1
E p4 p
2 C
3 EC k F D; pi and ri
.i D 1; 2; 3; 4/ represent
r1 R r2
F D the measures (in degrees)
r4 r3
of the angles shown.
A
Figure 1.1.17

Corresponding, alternate and co–interior angles

The line AB is sometimes referred to as a transversal line.

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I B PC
O and B RO D are called corresponding angles. If two parallel lines are cut by another line, the
corresponding angles are equal. Thus we have p2 D r2 : Similarly p3 D r3 I p4 D r4 and p1 D r1 : We
also have: if correspon-ding angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.

I E PO R and P RO D are called alternate angles. If two parallel lines are cut by another line, the alternate
angles are equal. Thus p4 D r2 : Similarly p3 D r1 : The converse of the second statement is also true:
if alternate angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.

I C PO R and D RO P are called co–interior angles. If two parallel lines are cut by another line, the co–
interior angles are supplementary. Thus we have p3 C r2 D 180 : Similarly p4 C r1 D 180 : The
converse of the third statement is also true.

EXAMPLE 1.1.6

What is the converse of the statement “If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal line then the co–interior
angles so formed are supplementary.”?

SOLUTION

If two lines in the same plane are cut by a transversal line and the co–interior angles so formed are supple-
mentary, then the two lines are parallel.

ACTIVITY 1.1.2
o
c b 30
A B
d a

h e
C D
g f

We have AB k C D; and b D 30 : Find the measurements of all the other angles, and give reasons for your
answers.

SOLUTION

a D 150 a and b are adjacent supplementary angles.

d D 30 b and d are vertically opposite angles.

c D 150 b and c are adjacent supplementary angles.

e D 30 b and e are corresponding angles on parallel lines AB and C D.

 20

f D 150 e and f are adjacent supplementary angles.

h D 150 h and d are co–interior angles on parallel lines AB and C D.

g D 30 g and e are vertically opposite angles.

There are several different ways of finding these angles. For example, e D 30 since e and d are alternate
angles on parallel lines AB and C D:

ACTIVITY 1.1.3

A E
G

x1
Px
C 2
x3 x5
x4
y1
y2 Q PC; AB; D E and F G are four lines
y D E k F G. xi (i D 1; 2; 3; 4; 5) and
4
y3
yi .i D 1; 2; 3; 4/ represent the measures,
D in degrees, of the angles shown.
F B

Figure 1.1.18

Look at Figure 1.1.18 and complete each of the following.

(a) x2 C x3 C x4 D ........ because A PO B is a ........ angle.

O is a ........ angle.
(b) x2 D 90 : Hence A PC

(c) A PO E and D PO Q are ........ angles. Hence x1 ::::::::x4 :

(d) D E k F G and hence x5 C y1 D ........ because E PO Q and G QO P are co–interior angles on the parallel
lines D E and F G:

(e) There are two pairs of alternate angles. They are ........ and ........; ........ and ........ .

(f) x2 D 90 : Hence x1 C x3 D ........ because D PO E is a straight angle. Thus A PO E is an ....... angle,

because x1 ........ . We call x1 and x3 ........ angles.

(g) Since x1 ........ it follows that x5 ........ and x5 ........ because A PO B is a straight angle. Hence we call
E PO Q an ........ angle.

(h) x1 D y1 because A PO E and P QG

O are ........ angles on the parallel lines D E and F G:
 21 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a) 180 straight

(b) right

(c) vertically opposite D

(d) 180

(e) D PO Q and P QG
O I E PO Q and P QO F

(f) 90 acute < 90o complementary

(g) < 90 > 90 < 180 obtuse

(h) corresponding angles

We have seen that two non–coincident lines in a plane are either parallel or cut each other in one point. When
more than two line segments are considered they can form many different shapes. The names of the shapes
often tell us something about them. We look at some of these shapes in the next two sections.

EXERCISE 1.1

1. Reflect the triangle ABC shown below in a vertical line through C to create its mirror image.

2. Rotate the triangle ABC shown below through an angle of 90 about the vertex B in

(a) a clockwise direction

(b) an anti–clockwise direction.
C

A B
 22

O D C PO D; A PO D D 90 ; and P B bisects A PO D: Note

3. Consider the following sketch, in which B PC
that to bisect means to cut in half.
A

P
B

(a) Identify all the pairs of adjacent angles.

(b) What is the measure of C PO D ?
(c) Why can we say that A PO B; B PC
O and C PO D are complementary angles?

(d) Suppose you include an additional point E such that E PO D and D PC

O are supplementary angles.
What will be the measure of E PO A ?

4. Write each of the following angle measurements in terms of degrees, minutes and seconds. (If there are
no minutes, or no seconds, write the answer as x 00 000 where x represents the number of degrees.)
(a) 28; 65 (b) 90; 055
(c) 30; 8 (d) 100; 1

5. In the sketch below, AB k C D and AB ? E F: H G bisects E PO D:

E H
B
R
Q

A D

C
F
G

(a) What are the measures of

O
(i) E PC
(ii) E PO H
(iii) C PO G ?
(b) Identify four pairs of co–interior angles.
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(c) Identify the pair of acute alternate angles.

(d) What kind of angle is A QO R ?
(e) (i) What angle is the complement of F PO G ?
(ii) What angle is the supplement of F PO G ?

6. Consider the shapes below.

Show that one of the shapes has rotational symmetry as well as reflection symmetry and that the other
shape only has reflection symmetry.

1.2 Polygons
TERMINOLOGY

In Book 1 we noted that a specific type of algebraic expression consisting of several terms can be described
in general as a polynomial.

In geometry we have a similar type of classification, in which we call a many–sided figure a polygon.

A polygon is a closed figure in a plane composed of line segments that only meet at their endpoints. The line
segments are called the sides of the polygon, and each point where two sides meet is a vertex of the polygon.
So, for example, the shape in Figure 1.2.1 represents a polygon; the shape in Figure 1.2.2 does not, because
in Figure 1.2.2 the line segments do not only meet at their endpoints.

D
A
ABC D is a polygon, since the line segments
AB, BC, C D and D A meet only at the
B endpoints A, B; C and D.
C
Figure 1.2.1

P
A D ABC D is not a polygon, since the line segments
AD and BC intersect at P; which is not an
endpoint of any one of the line segments.
B
Figure 1.2.2
 24

Classification of polygons

Polygons are classified according to the number of angles (or sides) they have. Because the sides only meet
at the vertices it is clear that any polygon has exactly the same number of angles as the number of sides.

I Three sides Triangle

I Four sides Quadrilateral

I Five sides Pentagon

I Six sides Hexagon

There are also special names for polygons with 7; 8; 9; 10 and 12 sides. For example, an octagon is an
eight–sided polygon.

Regular polygons

A polygon is called a regular polygon if all of its sides have the same length and if all of its interior angles
have the same measurement. Consider the three special quadrilaterals sketched below.

Rectangle Rhombus Square

(not regular) (not regular) (regular)

The rectangle has all four angles equal to right angles, but the sides are not all equal. The rhombus has all
sides equal, but not all angles equal. Thus neither of these quadrilaterals is a regular polygon. If, however, the
rectangle has equal sides or the rhombus has equal angles we obtain a square, which is a regular polygon.
 25 MAT0511/001

Figure 1.2.3 shows three other regular polygons.

A A F
A
B E
B E

B C C D C D
Regular triangle Regular pentagon Regular hexagon
Figure 1.2.3

Polygons are usually denoted by the vertices, stated in order. Thus we refer to the hexagon in Figure 1.2.3 as
the hexagon ABC D E F:

Polygons that fit together to create a flat surface with no gaps are said to tessellate. A pattern formed in this
way is referred to as a tessellation. Figure 1.2.4 is a tessellation of regular hexagons.

Figure 1.2.4

Note that not all regular polygons will tessellate. Can you think of a regular polygon that will not tessellate?

Polygons have altitudes and diagonals. Altitude is sometimes referred to as height. A diagonal of a polygon
is a line segment whose endpoints are non–adjacent vertices. The altitude from any vertex V to an opposite
side is the line segment with endpoint V which is perpendicular to that side. See Example 1.2.1.

EXAMPLE 1.2.1

Draw diagonals for the quadrilateral ABC D; and draw the altitude from A to C D:

C D
 26

SOLUTION
A

C E D

AC and B D are the only two diagonals of quadrilateral ABC D. AE is the altitude from A to C D:

When we compare different polygons, to see whether they are possibly the same shape and size, we look at
their corresponding angles, or corresponding sides. Look at the two polygons shown in Figure 1.2.5. Can
you say what kind they are? (Since they each have five sides, they are pentagons. The sides are not all the
same length, so they are not regular pentagons.)

P T
A E

S
B D
Q
C R
Figure 1.2.5

In polygons ABC D E and P Q R ST , examples of pairs of corresponding sides are

AE and P T
E D and T S
DC and S R
C B and R Q
B A and Q P:

Similarly, pairs of corresponding angles are

AO and PO
BO and QO
CO and RO
DO and SO
EO and TO :
 27 MAT0511/001

Congruent polygons

If all corresponding sides and corresponding angles of two polygons are equal, we say the polygons are
congruent. Thus congruent polygons have exactly the same shape and size. We use the notation to
denote congruency.

ACTIVITY 1.2.1

(a)
P

A C

Q R
B

The two triangles shown above appear to have the same shape and size. List the three pairs of corre-
sponding sides, and the three pairs of corresponding angles, that we can compare to see whether or not
the triangles are congruent.

(b)
P S

A D

Q R
B C

ABC D and P Q R S are both squares.

Why are they not congruent?

SOLUTION

(a) Corresponding sides

AB and Q P (opposite the biggest angle in each triangle)

AC and Q R (opposite the smallest angle in each triangle)

C B and R P (the remaining sides of the two triangles)

 28

Corresponding angles

CO and RO (the biggest angles)

BO and PO (the smallest angles)

AO and QO (the remaining two angles)

(b) ABC D and P Q R S have exactly the same shape, but P Q R S is clearly bigger than ABC D; so they
do not have the same size. Thus they are not congruent.

Similar polygons

When polygons have the same shape but not the same size, they are called similar polygons. Hence the
two squares in Activity 1.2.1(b) are similar, even though they are not congruent. To be certain that they
have the same shape, we need to find out whether the measurements of the corresponding angles are
equal and the lengths of the corresponding sides are in proportion. In (b) of Activity 1.2.1 we see that
AO D PO D 90 ; BO D QO D 90 ; CO D RO D 90 ; DO D SO D 90 I we also have
PQ QR RS SP
D D D :
AB BC CD DA

Hence the squares ABC D and P Q R S are similar.

In a sketch, if we want to show that corresponding sides or corresponding angles have the same measurements,
we mark the sides with different numbers of small lines, and the angles with different numbers of arcs, as
shown in Figure 1.2.6.

Figure 1.2.6

ACTIVITY 1.2.2

Assume the polygons in the sketch below have the measurements and properties indicated. Note that they are
not drawn to scale.
 29 MAT0511/001

P
4 cm 3 cm

S
A 12 cm
D
o
100
9 cm
Q

o
100
B C R
E o H
100

12 cm

F G
6 cm

(a) Which two polygons are similar, and why?

(b) Which pairs of polygons are not similar, and why not?

SOLUTION

The polygons illustrated are all quadrilaterals since they have four sides.

(a) Quadrilateral ABC D is similar to quadrilateral P Q R S; for the following reasons.

Corresponding angles are equal.
AO D RO D 100 This is given.

BO D QO D 80 We deduce this from the fact that AD k BC and

hence AO and BO are co–interior angles and thus
supplementary.
Similarly P Q k S R and QO and RO are supplementary.

CO D PO D 100 CO C BO D 180 since AB k DC:

PO C QO D 180 since P S k Q R:

DO D SO D 80 AO C DO D 180 since AB k DC:

RO C SO D 180 since P S k Q R:
 30

Corresponding sides are in proportion.

Note:
Just after Activity 1.2.8 in fig 1.2.26 we prove that if P Q k S R and P S k Q R then P Q D S R and
P S D Q R.
AD 12
D D3 Since P Q D 4 cm it also follows that
RS 4
S R D 4 cm, because otherwise P S and Q R
would not be parallel.

CD 9
D D3
PS 3

BC 12
D D3 BC D 12 cm since AD D 12 cm.
QP 4

AB 9
D D3 AB D 9 cm since C D D 9 cm.
QR 3
Q R D 3 cm since P S D 3 cm.

(b) Quadrilateral ABC D is not similar to quadrilateral E F G H: We realise this as soon as we try to
identify corresponding sides and angles.

E o H
100

A 12 cm
D
o
100
12 cm
9 cm

F G
B C 6 cm

If we “stand” the quadrilaterals on the longer of their two sides, we see that quadrilateral ABC D “leans”
to the right, whereas quadrilateral E F G H
“leans” to the left. We also see that the ratio of the longer sides is 12
12
; i.e. 1; but the ratio of the shorter
9 3
sides is 6 ; i.e. 2 :
Similarly quadrilateral P Q R S is not similar to quadrilateral E F G H:

P
4 cm 3 cm E o H
100
S

Q 12 cm

o
100
F G
R 6 cm
 31 MAT0511/001

The idea of similarity is important when we need to reproduce a large object on a smaller scale, or enlarge
an object. We are all familiar with maps, which are small–scale reproductions of large–scale regions. There
may also be times when we need to provide bigger representations of very small objects. Hence we can scale
things up or down, depending on the requirements of the situation.

Scale factor
The amount by which an object is enlarged or made smaller is known as the scale factor. Thus, if a figure
has doubled in size, we say that the new figure has a scale factor of 2: If an object is halved in size the new
figure has a scale factor of 21 :

ACTIVITY 1.2.3
A company wants to hang on the wall of one of its function rooms an enlargement of a photograph which is
50 cm across and 70 cm high. The available wall space measures 0; 9 m across and 1; 5 m high. What scale
factor will allow for maximum enlargement? What will the dimensions of this enlargement be?

SOLUTION
The enlargement will be similar to the original, i.e. the corresponding sides will be in proportion. The original
photograph has sides that are in the ratio 5 : 7 (when we consider the ratio of width to height). The available
wall space is 0; 9 m wide and 1; 5 m high.

0,9 m

50 cm
1,5 m
70 cm

Picture

Available wall space

Since the dimensions of the photograph are given in centimetres it is convenient to convert the wall space
dimensions to centimetres as well.

The enlargement cannot be more than 90 cm wide or 150 cm high. We first consider whether it is possible
for the enlargement to be 90 cm wide. Let us use a scale factor of x:

If

50 x D 90
then
90 9
xD D :
50 5
 32

Alternatively:

50 70
D
90 x
, 50x D 6300
, x D 126

Thus, if we use a scale factor of 95 , the width of the enlargement will be 90 cm and its height will be
70 95 cm, i.e. 126 cm. Thus an enlargement with this scale factor will fit into the available wall space. If
we consider a scale factor that will make the enlargement 150 cm high, then it will be too wide to fit into the
available wall space.

The scale factor of 95 gives an enlargement that completely fits the available width. Hence the scale factor of
9
5
will produce the maximum enlargement, and the enlargement will measure 90 cm across, and 126 cm high.

TRIANGLES

In Study Unit 1.2A we introduced triangles as polygons with three sides. The name “tri–angle” suggests that
triangles are shapes which have three angles (and hence also three sides). Triangles have various charac-
teristics. Some of these are important when we study trigonometry (the word, literally translated from the
original Greek form, means triangle measurement). Trigonometry, in turn, is an important foundation for
other mathematical topics.

Consider the triangle in Figure 1.2.7.

C
γ
a
b

α β
A B
c

Figure 1.2.7

Note
We use the symbol 4 to denote a triangle. Hence Figure 1.2.7 represents 4 ABC.

In Study Unit 1.1B we used a; b and c to represent the measurement of angles. Previously, in Unit 1 of
Module 3, we worked according to the convention that a; b and c represent the lengths of the sides opposite
the angles A; B and C; respectively. When we do this we often represent the measurements of angles in
a triangle by means of letters of the Greek alphabet. In Figure 1.2.7 the measure of AO is denoted by ; the
measure of BO is denoted by and the measure of CO is denoted by ; where ; and represent numbers
of degrees. , and are pronounced as alpha, beta and gamma. They are the first three letters of the Greek
alphabet.
 33 MAT0511/001

Triangles can have different shapes, but regardless of their shape, they all have one common characteristic.

THE ANGLE SUM OF A TRIANGLE

In any triangle the sum of the measures of the angles
is 180 :

Thus, in Figure 1.2.7, we have C C D 180 :

Like many other statements in geometry, we can prove the statement formally, or we can illustrate it in some
way. We now illustrate this statement. Draw any triangle, on a separate piece of paper. Tear off the vertices,
and arrange them next to each other, as shown in Figure 1.2.8.

β
α γ

X P Y
Figure 1.2.8

When we arrange the angles next to one another so that the three vertices meet at the point P; we see that,
regardless of the order in which they are arranged, the angles form a straight line. From our classification of
angles, we know that X PY O is a straight angle, which measures 180 . Note that this is not an actual proof.

Another fact, which we do not prove here, is the following.

TRIANGLE INEQUALITY
The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than
the third side.

Thus, in Figure 1.2.7, we have

aCb > c
aCc > b
bCc > a:

Classification of triangles

In Study Unit 1.1B angles are classified according to certain characteristics. We may also classify triangles
according to various characteristics, such as the lengths of their sides. The lengths of the sides of the triangles
influence the sizes of the angles, and vice versa as we see in Figures 1.2.9, 1.2.10 and 1.2.11.
 34

I A scalene triangle has no sides of equal length, and hence no angles of equal size.

C
B
Scalene triangle
Figure 1.2.9

The longest side is opposite the biggest angle. Conversely, the biggest angle is opposite the longest
side.

I An isosceles triangle has two equal sides, and hence two equal angles.

B C
Isoscelestriangle
Figure 1.2.10

If AC D AB; then the angles opposite these two sides are also equal, i.e. BO D C.
O Conversely, if
BO D C,
O then the sides opposite these two angles are also equal. Hence AC D AB:

An equilateral triangle has all three sides equal in length, and hence all three angles equal.

A
o
60
C

B
Equilateral triangle
Figure 1.2.11

Since the angles of any triangle add up to 180 it follows that in equilateral triangles, all angles measure
60 :
If AB D BC D AC then CO D AO D BO D 60 :
Conversely, if AO D BO D CO .D 60 / then BC D AC D AB.
 35 MAT0511/001

We may also classify triangles according to their angles.

An acute angle triangle has all angles acute.

C
Acute angle triangle
Figure 1.2.12

It is clear that an acute angle triangle may be scalene, isosceles or equilateral.

I An obtuse angle triangle has one obtuse angle.

A

C
B
Obtuse angle triangle
Figure 1.2.13

Obtuse angle triangles may be scalene or isosceles, but cannot be equilateral.

A right angle triangle (which we usually call a right triangle) has one right angle.

C
B
Right triangle
Figure 1.2.14

A right triangle may be scalene or isosceles. In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle is
called the hypotenuse.

ACTIVITY 1.2.4

In 4 ABC; we have AC > BC > AB:

 36

(a) Arrange the angles in descending order according to size.

(b) How can you classify 4 ABC?

SOLUTION

(a) Since the longest side is AC; the angle opposite AB; i.e. BO , is the biggest. The next longest side is
O Thus in descending order we have
BC; hence the next biggest angle is the angle opposite BC; i.e. A:

O A;
B; O C:
O

(b) All sides have different lengths, hence 4 ABC is a scalene triangle.
All angles are acute, hence 4 ABC is an acute angle triangle.

We dealt with right triangles and the Theorem of Pythagoras in Unit 1 of Module 3. You may want to read
the relevant parts of that section again, before moving on.

ACTIVITY 1.2.5

Consider the right triangle P Q R.

o
50
Q R

Indicate which of the following statements are true or false.

If possible, correct each false statement in an appropriate way.

(a) P Q 2 D P R 2 C R Q 2
 37 MAT0511/001

p
(b) Q R D P Q2 P R2

(c) P Q D P R C Q R

(d) P Q > P R

(e) Q R > P R

We use P Q 2 to denote .P Q/2 , etc.

SOLUTION

(a) True This is a statement of the Theorem of Pythag-

oras for 4 P Q R:

(b) False
p
Q R D P Q2 P R2 The statement is algebraically correct, since
if a 2 D b2 C c2 then b2 D a 2 c2 , and
p
hence b D a 2 c2 :
But R Q represents length, which cannot be
negative, hence we ignore the negative root.

(c) False The length of the hypotenuse is less than the

PQ < PR C QR combined lengths of the other two sides.
See the Triangle Inequality.

(d) True P Q is opposite an angle that measures 90 :

P R is opposite an angle that measures 50 :

(e) False Q R is opposite an angle that measures 40 .

QR > PR Since 180 .50 C 90 / D 40 we have PO D 40 :
P R is opposite an angle that measures 50 :

Congruency

We discussed congruency of polygons in Study Unit 1.2A. Two triangles are congruent if they have exactly
the same shape and size, i.e. if corresponding sides are equal in length and if corresponding angles have
the same measure. We make use of congruency to prove several important mathematical statements, and to
derive rules such as the distance formula.

However, we do not need to investigate all pairs of corresponding sides and all pairs of corresponding angles
every time that we want to show that two triangles are congruent.
 38

Conditions for congruency

If two triangles have certain properties, then certain other properties will follow. We have four different sets
of requirements that must be satisfied in order for triangles to be congruent.

Two triangles are congruent if the three sides of one triangle are equal to the three corresponding sides of the
other triangle. We call this the side–side–side (abbreviated SSS) condition for congruency.

C Q
A

P
B R

4 ABC 4 PQR

Figure 1.2.15

We see that AB D P Q; AC D P R; BC D Q R.
Hence CO D R;
O BO D Q;
O AO D P.
O

It is clear that if corresponding sides are equal, then the corresponding angles will be equal as well. We
denote equal sides by writing down the vertices of corresponding angles in the correct order. Thus we
write

AB D P Q

and not

AB D Q P;

since A corresponds to P; and B corresponds to Q:

(2) I Two triangles are congruent if two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to two sides and
the included angle of the other triangle. We call this the side–angle–side (abbreviated SAS) condition
for congruency. For example
A

B C
 39 MAT0511/001

BO is the angle included by the sides AB and BC:

R U

T V

4 R ST 4 WUV

Figure 1.2.16

We see that R S D W U; SO D UO ; ST D U V .
From this it follows that RT D W V (we can show, by drawing any two such triangles, that under these
conditions the third sides of the two triangles are equal). Thus we have the condition SSS and hence
4 RST 4 W U V . Consequently
RO D WO
and
TO D VO
since the angles are opposite equal sides.

(3) I Two triangles are congruent if two angles and one side of one triangle are equal to two correspond-
ing angles and the corresponding side of the other triangle. We call this the angle–side–angle, or
angle–angle–side (abbreviated ASA or AAS) condition for congruency. When we have AAS we
automatically have ASA and vice versa: if two pairs of angles are equal the third pair must also be
equal.
S

X
P

R Q M

4 PQR 4 MXS

Figure 1.2.17
 40

We see that PO D M; O QO D XO ; P Q D M X .
From this it follows that
SO D RO (angle sum of a triangle)
RP D SM
RQ D SX.
The last two properties can be shown by drawing any two triangles with the properties shown in Figure
1.2.17.

Thus we have the SSS condition and hence 4 P Q R 4 M X S.

(4) I Two right triangles are congruent if the lengths of the hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are
respectively equal to the lengths of the hypotenuse and one side of the other triangle. We call this the
right angle–hypotenuse–side (abbreviated RHS) condition for congruency.

A C
M

P T

4 MPO 4 T AC

Figure 1.2.18

We see that AC D P O; C T D O M; AO D PO D 90 .
From this it follows that AT D P M (by the Theorem of Pythagoras) and hence we have the SSS
condition. Thus 4 M P O 4 T AC. Consequently
CO D OO
and
TO D MO
since both pairs of angles are opposite equal sides. This is a special case of two sides and an angle
where we do not necessarily have the angle included between the two sides.

In Example 1.2.2 we see why ASS is not a condition for congruency.

 41 MAT0511/001

EXAMPLE 1.2.2

Y Z U

Figure 1.2.19

Figure 1.2.19 shows 4 X Y Z and 4 N U T in which none of the angles is a right angle and X Y D N U; Y Z D
U T; ZO D TO .

Although the lengths of two corresponding sides are equal and one pair of corresponding angles is equal, we
see that
4 XY Z 6 4 NU T

since YO is acute but the corresponding angle, UO , is obtuse. We use 6 to denote “is not congruent to”.

Thus it is necessary that when two sides and one angle of each triangle are involved we must have either RHS
or SAS.

ACTIVITY 1.2.6

(a) Draw any scalene triangle P Q R: Can the triangle have a diagonal? Draw the altitude from Q to P R:

(b) Draw any equilateral triangle G E F: Draw the altitude from G to E F; so that it meets E F in the point
H: Show that 4 G E H 4G F H:

SOLUTION

(a)
X
R P

Q
 42

It is impossible to draw a line from any vertex to a non–adjacent vertex. Hence 4 P Q R has no
diagonals. In fact, no triangle has a diagonal. Since a triangle has three sides it can have three altitudes.

Q X ? P R; hence Q X is an altitude of 4 P Q R:

(b)

E F
H

In 4 G E H and 4 G F H
EG D FG 4 G E F is equilateral.

GH D GH We write this to show that although G H

is one line, it serves as a side for two
different triangles.

E HO G D F HO G D 90 . The altitude G H is perpendicular to E F.

Thus
4 GEH 4 GF H. RHS condition is satisfied.

From the solution to Activity 1.2.6(b), since 4 G E H 4 G F H it follows that

EH D FH

and

E GO H D F GO H:

Thus we see that an altitude of an equilateral triangle bisects the angle at the vertex from which it originates
and bisects the opposite side of the triangle.

Similar triangles

As in the case of polygons in general, we also have similar triangles. We say that two triangles are similar
if all three pairs of corresponding angles are equal. In practice this means that we only need to show that two
 43 MAT0511/001

pairs of corresponding angles are equal, because the angles of any triangle add up to 180 :

P T L
Figure 1.2.20

In Figure 1.2.20 we have 4 M P T jjj 4 S L K . We use jjj to denote similarity. We know that when polygons
are similar, their corresponding sides are in proportion. This applies to triangles, and thus
PT PM MT
D D :
LK LS SK
We can use this relationship to calculate the length of a side of a triangle.

EXAMPLE 1.2.3

At a certain time of the day a boy who is 1; 2 m tall casts a shadow that is 3; 6 m long. At the same time a
tree casts a shadow that is 7; 2 m long. How high is the tree?

SOLUTION
D

1,2 m
B C F
3,6 m E
7,2 m

In the sketch we have AB representing the boy, BC representing the boy’s shadow; similarly D E represents
the tree and E F the tree’s shadow.

We assume that the boy and the tree both stand upright and make an angle of 90 with the horizontal ground.
Since the sun is in the same position relative to both the boy and the tree, we can also assume that CO D F:
O
 44

We thus have two similar triangles, i.e.

4 ABC jjj 4 D E F:

Since the triangles are similar, pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion. Thus

DE EF DF
D D :
AB BC AC

We want to find the length of D E. Since we know nothing about D F or AC, we use the equation

DE EF
D :
AB BC

We substitute AB D 1; 2 m, BC D 3; 6 m and E F D 7; 2 m into this equation. We then have

DE 7; 2 m
D
1; 2 m 3; 6 m

and thus

1; 2 7; 2
DE D m
3; 6

12 72
D m
360

D 2; 4 m:

The tree is thus 2; 4 m high. You may want to revise decimal multiplication and division.

QUADRILATERALS

As we have already pointed out, a quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides. The angles in a triangle add
up to 180 : What do you think is the angle sum of any quadrilateral? You may want to try to work this out
physically. If you draw a few different quadrilaterals, cut off the vertices and rearrange them (as you did in
the case of a triangle in Figure 1.2.8) you will see that the angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360 :

You can also derive this mathematically, using your knowledge of triangles. A quadrilateral can be divided
into two triangles. See Figure 1.2.21.

D
C
Figure 1.2.21
 45 MAT0511/001

In quadrilateral ABC D;

AO C BO C CO C DO

D C O DO C D CO A} C |ACO B C {z
BO C B AC
O
| AD C {z }
the angles in the angles in
4 AC D 4 ABC

D 180 C 180

D 360 :

Because quadrilaterals have four sides, we have two different kinds of quadrilaterals: one kind in which
opposite sides (either one pair or both pairs) are parallel, and the other kind in which no sides are parallel.
We cannot generalise much about quadrilaterals such at these, because if opposite sides are not parallel, then
such quadrilaterals cannot have any common properties. Figure 1.2.22 shows three different quadrilaterals,
in which no opposite sides are parallel.

A A

B
D
C

D
C B

B
Figure 1.2.22
 46

Kite

The only “interesting” quadrilateral in this category is a kite. A kite is a quadrilat– eral in which pairs of
adjacent sides have the same length. See Figure 1.2.23.

Q
D

R P

A C

B S
Figure 1.2.23

A square and a rhombus are also kites.

ACTIVITY 1.2.7

Use congruent triangles to show that the diagonals of a kite cut each other at right angles, and that the longer
of the two diagonals bisects the shorter one, and bisects the vertices that it joins. When we write “bisects the
vertex” we mean “bisects the angle at the vertex”.

SOLUTION
Q

R P
T

In 4 Q P S and 4 Q R S
QP D QR
P S D RS
Q S D Q S:

Hence
4 QPS 4 Q R S: SSS
 47 MAT0511/001

Hence
P QO S D R QO S
and
P SO Q D R SO Q:

Hence
Q S bisects QO and S.
O

In 4 P QT and 4 R QT
QP D QR
QT D QT
O D R QT:
P QT O
Hence
4 P QT 4 R QT: SAS
Hence
Q TO P D Q TO R:
Since
Q TO R C Q TO P D 180 R TO P is a straight angle.
it follows that
Q TO R D Q TO P D 90 :

Thus the diagonals are perpendicular to each other.

Since 4 P QT 4 R QT it also follows that P T D RT , i.e. the longer diagonal bisects the shorter one.

Trapezoid (Trapesium)

A trapezoid or trapesium is a quadrilateral which has two parallel sides. See Figure 1.2.24.

E
D C

A F B
Figure 1.2.24

ABC D is a quadrilateral in which DC k AB: We call ABC D a trapezoid or trapesium. Either of the parallel
sides is called a base of the trapezoid. Any perpendicular line such as E F between DC and AB is called an
altitude of the trapezoid. A trapezoid in which the non–parallel sides are equal in length is called an isosceles
trapezoid.
 48

Parallelogram

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which opposite sides are parallel. In Figure 1.2.25, we have

AB k DC and AD k BC:

D C

A B
Figure 1.2.25

ACTIVITY 1.2.8

Draw any parallelogram. Draw its diagonals. Measure its sides and its angles. What do you notice about
these line segments and angles?

SOLUTION

(In this activity (and in others that follow) you are asked to draw parallel lines, perpendicular lines, measure
angles, construct certain angles, and so on. We assume you will have learnt to do these constructions at
school. If you are not sure what to do, any school geometry book at grade 7 or 8 level will help you. In this
module we will not expect you to do accurate constructions.)

S T
Q

From even a rough sketch, such as the figure on the previous page, you can see that in parallelogram S R Q P

I opposite sides have equal length, i.e. P Q D R S and Q R D S P

I opposite angles have equal measurement, i.e. RO D PO and SO D QO

I the diagonals bisect each other, i.e. RT D T P and ST D T Q:

 49 MAT0511/001

But note that S Q 6D P R.

Note that these results will be the same regardless of the shape of the parallelogram we draw. In fact, we can
once again prove the results, using congruent triangles.

Consider parallelogram S R Q P:
S 2 1
R
1 2

2 2
1 1
P Q
Figure 1.2.26

I In 4 Q S P and 4 S Q R
QO 1 D SO2 Alternate angles.
QO 2 D SO1 Alternate angles.
S Q D S Q: Common to both triangles.
Hence
4 QSP 4 SQR ASA
and thus
RO D P;
O Q P D S R; P S D R Q:

I Similarly,
4 PSR 4 R Q P: ASA
Hence
SO D Q:
O

Since RO D PO and SO D Q,
O we have shown that the opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal. Since
Q P D S R and P S D R Q we have shown that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.

I Also
4 S RT 4 Q PT ASA
so that
ST D QT
and
4 Q RT 4 SPT ASA
and thus
RT D P T:

Hence the diagonals bisect each other.

 50

These properties of parallelograms are interdependent. Each one implies the others, and hence in any quadri-
lateral, if we have any one of the following conditions the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

I Opposite sides are equal.

I Opposite angles are equal.

I Each diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent triangles.

I The diagonals bisect each other.

In the following example we show that one of these conditions implies that the quadrilateral is a parallelo-
gram.

EXAMPLE 1.2.4

In quadrilateral ABC D we have AB D C D and AD D C B:

Show that ABC D is a parallelogram.

SOLUTION

We sketch ABC D; and draw the diagonal D B:

D C

A B

In 4 AB D and 4 C D B we have
BD D DB Common to both triangles.
AB D C D
AD D C B:
Thus
4 AB D 4 C D B: SSS

Since the triangles are congruent, all pairs of corresponding angles are equal. Hence A BO D D C DO B: Thus
DC k AB: (If alternate angles are equal the lines are parallel.)

Similarly A DO B D C BO D and hence AD k BC:

Since opposite sides are parallel, ABC D is a parallelogram.

We have several special parallelograms.

 51 MAT0511/001

Rhombus

If all sides of a parallelogram have equal length, the parallelogram is a rhombus. See Figure 1.2.27.

C N

L M

Figure 1.2.27

ACTIVITY 1.2.9

Draw any rhombus. Draw its diagonals. What do you notice about these diagonals?

SOLUTION
S R

P Q

The diagonals S Q and P R bisect each other at right angles, and S Q and P R bisect the vertices. Note that
S Q 6D P R.

We can also prove these facts, once again using congruency.

P QO S D Q SO R Alternate angles equal since P Q k S R:

But
P QO S D P SO Q: PS D PQ
Thus
P SO Q D Q SO R
i.e.

S Q bisects P SO R.

Similarly it follows that S Q bisects P QO R, and that P R bisects S RO Q and S PO Q.

 52

Now, in 4 P ST and 4 R ST
P S D RS
ST D ST
O D R ST:
P ST O The diagonal S Q bisects the vertex S.
Hence
4 P ST 4 R ST SAS
and thus
P T D RT
i.e. we have shown that the diagonal S Q bisects the diagonal P R.
Also
P TO S D R TO S
and thus
P TO S D R TO S D 90 : P TO R D 180 :
Hence the diagonal S Q is perpendicular to the diagonal P R.
In the same way we can show that the diagonal P R is the perpendicular bisector of the diagonal Q S.

Rectangle and square

If one angle of a parallelogram is a right angle, then the parallelogram is a rectangle. If one angle of a
rhombus is a right angle, then the rhombus is a square. See Figure 1.2.28.
S R
D C

A B P Q

Rectangle Square
Figure 1.2.28
ACTIVITY 1.2.10

Show why we only have to specify that if one angle of a parallelogram is a right angle, then the parallelogram
is a rectangle.

SOLUTION
D C

A B
 53 MAT0511/001

O D 90 since the co–interior angles are supple-

ABC D is a parallelogram. Thus AB k DC, and thus A DC
mentary.

O and A BC
Similarly, AD k BC and hence the co–interior angles D AB O are supplementary. Thus A BC
O D 90 :

We can also show that D CO B D 90 :

A rectangle is a quadrilateral in which each angle measures 90 , and thus ABC D

is a rectangle.

Similarily we can show that we need only specify that one angle of a rhombus is a right angle for the rhombus
to be a square.

ACTIVITY 1.2.11

Draw the diagonals of the rectangle and square given in Figure 1.2.28. Do they bisect each other? Do they
intersect at right angles? Do they bisect the vertices?

SOLUTION
S R
D C

A B P Q

We see that in the rectangle

I the diagonals bisect each other

I the diagonals do not intersect at right angles

I the diagonals do not bisect the vertices

I the diagonals have equal length.

In the square

I the diagonals bisect each other

I the diagonals are perpendicular to each other

I the diagonals bisect the vertices

I the diagonals have equal length.

 54

The first three properties follow immediately from the fact that a square is a rhombus.

By using congruency we can prove that the diagonals of a rectangle have equal length.
In rectangle ABC D we have
AB D B A
AD D BC
AO D BO D 90 :
Hence
4 D AB 4 C B A: SAS
Thus
DB D C A
i.e. the diagonals are equal in length.

Similarily we can prove that the diagonals of a square are also equal in length.

In any square or rectangle, we can apply the Theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the length of the diagonal.

ACTIVITY 1.2.12

Calculate the length of D B in the rectangle ABC D sketched below.

12 cm
A B

5 cm

D C

SOLUTION

By the Theorem of Pythagoras we have

D B 2 D AD 2 C AB 2
i.e. we have
D B 2 D .52 C 122 / cm2
D .25 C 144/ cm2
D 169 cm2 :
p
Thus D B D 169 cm D 13 cm, since length cannot be negative.

EXERCISE 1.2

1. (a) Create a design by reflecting a regular octagon with sides 1 cm, in a horizontal line through the
lower edge once, and then translating the resulting shape twice by intervals of 3 cm to the right.
 55 MAT0511/001

(b) Create a tessellation using right triangles.

2.
A

B C
D

Suppose 4 ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB D AC. Show that the altitude AD bisects BC.

3.
A

B C
D

Suppose ABC is an equilateral triangle with sides of length s cm. Show that
p
3
AD D s cm.
2

4. You have seen that the angle sum of a triangle is 180 ; and the angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360 :
Sketch a regular octagon, and calculate the sum of the measures of all the angles.

5. (a) See Activity 1.2.8. How many pairs of congruent triangles are there after you have drawn both
diagonals?

(b) If P Q R S is any quadrilateral such that S Q divides the quadrilateral into two congruent triangles,
namely 4 Q R S and 4 S P Q; show that P Q R S is a parallelogram.

6. Consider the trapezoid C D E F sketched below. F G is an altitude of the trapezoid. C G is a quarter of

the length of C D; and C F is one third of the length of C D:

F E

C D
G

If the length of C D is x cm, calculate the length of F G; in terms of x:

 56

7.
D
A C

In the figure we have

AB D DC
BO D CO
DB ? AC:

Is 4 EC D 4 EC D? Give reasons for your answer.

8. Sketch a kite in which the pairs of adjacent sides are such that the shorter sides are half the length of
the longer sides.

(a) Draw the longer of the two diagonals. Show that it cuts the kite into two congruent triangles.
(b) Draw the shorter diagonal. Show that the longer diagonal bisects the shorter diagonal.

9.
D

C A

P Q

In 4 D P Q and 4 DC A; C A k P Q:
Also, D A D AQ; DC D C P.
1
Show that 4 D P Q jjj 4 DC A, and that C A D 2
P Q:
 57 MAT0511/001

10. Complete the following table.

Polygon(regular) Number Number Number Angle

of of of sum
sides vertices diagonals
Triangle
Quadrilateral
Pentagon
Hexagon
Octagon

11. Complete the following statements.

(a) The lengths of the diagonals of a rectangle are .......... .

(b) The diagonals of a rhombus make angles of ......... with each other at their point of intersection.

(c) The diagonals of a ......... and a .......... bisect the vertices as well as each other.

(d) (Complete the statement by choosing one of the options suggested.) A parallelogram with diag-
onals that are almost the same length will “lean” over (further than /less than) a parallelogram in
which one diagonal is considerably longer than the other.

1.3 Circles
SOME BASIC FACTS ABOUT CIRCLES

A circle is a figure in a plane consisting of all points which are the same distance from a fixed point called
the centre of the circle. Any line segment from the centre to any point on the circle is called a radius of
the circle. The plural of radius is radii. It should be obvious that all radii of the same circle have the same
length.

Figure 1.3.1

In Figure 1.3.1 the circle has centre O and radius O P.

When two or more circles have the same centre they are called concentric
 58

circles. Each of the circles in Figure 1.3.2 has the same centre, C.

Figure 1.3.2

If we move along a circle from one point to another, we move along an arc of the circle.

If we join any two points on a circle by means of a line segment, the line segment is called a chord. A chord
which passes through the centre of the circle is called a diameter of the circle. A diameter thus consists of
two radii, and hence the length of the diameter is twice the length of the radius. Algebraically we express this
as
d
d D 2r , or r D
2
where d and r represent the lengths of the diameter and radius, respectively. Any diameter divides the circle
into two semi–circles.

A tangent or tangent line to a circle is any line that touches the circle at exactly one point, i.e. it is a line that
that contains exactly one point of the circle.

F
C
B
E

O
A

D
Figure 1.3.3

In Figure 1.3.3 we have a circle with

I centre O

I arc AB (also arcs AC; C B; B D; D A; DC; etc.)

I chord AB
 59 MAT0511/001

I diameter C D

I radius OC (also radius O D)

I tangent E F which touches the circle at C.

In Figure 1.3.3 we note that C D ? E F. In fact, in any circle, the radius (or diameter) is always perpendicular
to the tangent to the circle at the point of contact.
A B

P
E C

D
Figure 1.3.4

Consider Figure 1.3.4 above. The arcs AB, BC, C D, D E and E A are equal in length. If we join each of the
points A, B, C, D and E on the circle to the centre P, then we obtain five central angles. We say that angle
O is subtended by arc BC. By this we mean that we draw the radii P B and PC and thus create an angle
B PC
O Equal arcs subtend equal central angles. Thus
at the centre, namely B PC.

A PO B D B PC
O D C PO D D D PO E D E PO A:

You can verify this yourself by drawing any circle, marking off equal arcs and then measuring the central
angles subtended by these arcs.

EXERCISE 1.3

1. Draw any right triangle ABC with right angle at B and find the midpoint of the hypotenuse, AC. Draw
a circle using the midpoint of the hypotenuse as centre, and the hypotenuse as diameter.

(a) Does B lie on the circle?

(b) Join A and C to any other point D on the circle, on the opposite side of the circle to B. What
O appear to be?
does the measure of A DC

2. Use a pair of compasses (if you have one) or draw freehand as accurately as possible, a circle with
radius 4 cm, and, using the same centre, a circle with radius 2,5 cm. For the smaller circle, draw two
diameters AB and C D perpendicular to each other. Mark the endpoints of the two diameters by means
of A and B; C and D. Extend AB in both directions to cut the bigger circle at Z and T . Extend C D
in both directions to cut the bigger circle at Q and W . Draw lines parallel to Z ABT , through C and
through D. Draw lines parallel to QC DW , through A and through B. Write down as many as you can
find of the congruent figures that have been created.
 60

UNIT SUMMARY

Transformation

B Translation (shifting)
– shifting an object in any given direction (e.g. horizontally or vertically) over any given dis-
tance
B Symmetry
– axis of symmetry:

vertical

horizontal

– reflection (or line) symmetry: creating a mirror image of a given object in a vertical or
horizontal line
– rotational symmetry: object remains identical after rotation
through any given angle less than 360

Lines

B A line is a collection of points. It extends indefinitely in two directions.

B A line segment is part of a line, and has two endpoints. The distance between the two endpoints
is its length.
B A ray is part of a line. It extends indefinitely in one direction, and has one endpoint.
B Points of intersection
– infinitely many (the lines are coincident)
– none (the lines are parallel)
– only one (the lines may be perpendicular)

Angles

B An angle is formed when a ray is rotated about a fixed endpoint, called the vertex. The amount
of rotation is the measure of the angle, expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds.
 61 MAT0511/001

B Classification of angles according to measure

(Suppose the measure of the angle is x, where x represents a certain number of degrees.)
– one revolution 360
– reflex angle 180 < x < 360
– straight angle 180
– obtuse angle 90 < x < 180
– right angle 90
– acute angle 0 < x < 90
B Relationships between angles
– adjacent angles share a common vertex and a common ray
– supplementary angles have measures that add up to 180
– complementary angles have measures that add up to 90
– vertically opposite angles are equal
– when parallel lines are cut by a transversal line, then:
corresponding angles are equal
alternate angles are equal
co–interior angles are supplementary

Polygons (in general)

B Congruent polygons have exactly the same shape and size.

B Similar polygons have exactly the same shape but different sizes. The corresponding sides of
similar polygons are in proportion.
– Scale factor: the number that represents the amount by which an object is enlarged or
reduced so that it is similar to the original.
B Polygons have
– vertices: the corners of the polygon
– diagonals: line segments whose endpoints are non–adjacent vertices
– altitudes: line segments from any vertex to an opposite side, perpendicular to that side

Triangles: polygons with three sides

B Angle sum is 180 :

B Classification of triangles according to lengths of sides
– scalene: no sides with equal length (and hence no equal angles)
– isosceles: two equal sides (and hence two equal angles)
– equilateral: three equal sides (and hence three equal angles, all measuring 60 )
B Classification of triangles according to angle measure
– acute angle triangle: all angles acute
– obtuse angle triangle: one angle obtuse
 62

– right angle triangle: one angle a right angle (the hypotenuse is the side opposite the right
angle)

Congruency of triangles

B Conditions for congruency

– side, side, side (SSS)
– side, angle, side (SAS)
– angle, angle, side (AAS or ASA)
– right angle, hypotenuse, side (RHS)

Similar triangles

B Similar triangles have equal angles, and corresponding sides in proportion.

Quadrilaterals: polygons with four sides

B Kite: pairs of adjacent sides have equal length

– the diagonals cut each other at right angles, and the longer of the two diagonals bisects the
shorter one
B Trapezoid: two sides are parallel
B Parallelogram: both pairs of opposite sides are parallel
– opposite sides have equal length
– opposite angles have equal measurement
– each diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent triangles
– the diagonals bisect each other
B Rhombus: a parallelogram in which all sides have equal length. In addition to all the properties
of parallelograms it is also true that
– the diagonals bisect each other at right angles
– the diagonals bisect the angles from which they originate (i.e. the vertices).
B Rectangle: a parallelogram in which one angle is a right angle. In addition to all the properties
of parallelograms it is also true that
– the diagonals have equal length.
B Square: a rhombus in which one angle is a right angle. In addition to all the properties of a
rhombus, it is also true that
– the diagonals have equal length.

Circles: a plane figure consisting of all points equidistant from a fixed point called the centre. Different
circles with the same centre are called concentric circles.

B Radius: any line segment from the centre to any point on the circle
 63 MAT0511/001

B Chord: any line segment joining any two points on the circle
B Diameter: a chord through the centre, dividing the circle into two semi–circles
B Arc: any path along the circle from one point to another. An arc from one endpoint of a diameter
to the other endpoint is a semi–circle. An angle at the centre subtended by a chord or arc is a
central angle.
B Tangent: a line which touches the circle at exactly one point

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

1.1 Lines and angles

1. Create patterns by translating an object in a given direction, over a given distance.

Examples 1.1.1, 1.1.3

2. Create patterns by reflecting an object, for example in a vertical or horizontal line. Recognise objects
that have reflection symmetry.
Examples 1.1.2, 1.1.3; Activity 1.1.1

3. Recognise objects that have rotational symmetry. Create patterns by rotating an object through a given
angle between 0 and 360 .
Examples 1.1.4, 1.1.5; Activity 1.1.1

4. Define the following concepts: line, line segment, ray, angle.

Definitions 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3 and 1.1.4

5. Recognise lines that are coincident, parallel, perpendicular.

Figures 1.1.11, 1.1.16

6. Classify angles according to measure or relationship with other angles.

Pages 17–19; Activity 1.1.3

7. Recognise the relationship between parallel lines cut by a transversal line and the resulting correspond-
ing, alternate and co–interior angles.
Page 20; Example 1.1.6; Activities 1.1.2, 1.1.3

1.2 Polygons

1. Create patterns by means of tessellating polygons.

Figure 1.2.4

2. Draw the diagonals (if they exist) and altitudes of any polygon.
Example 1.2.1
 64

3. Recognise polygons that are congruent, and identify corresponding sides or angles of congruent poly-
gons.
Activity 1.2.1

4. Recognise polygons that are similar. Show that corresponding sides of similar polygons are in propor-
tion.
Activity 1.2.2

5. Use the property of similarity of polygons to determine the scale factor required when a given object
needs to be enlarged or reduced.
Activity 1.2.3

6. Classify triangles according to the lengths of their sides or the measures of their angles.
Figures 1.2.9, 1.2.10, 1.2.11, 1.2.12, 1.2.13, 1.2.14; Activity 1.2.4

7. Use the Theorem of Pythagoras.

Activities 1.2.5, 1.2.12

8. Know and apply the four sets of conditions that triangles must satisfy in order to be congruent. The
conditions are referred to as SSS, SAS, AAS (or ASA) and RHS. You do not need to prove that each
of these conditions implies congruency.
Figures 1.2.15, 1.2.16, 1.2.17, 1.2.18 and related discussion; Example 1.2.2; Activity 1.2.6

9. Recognise triangles that are similar. Use the fact that corresponding sides of similar triangles are in
proportion to calculate distance or length.
Figure 1.2.20 and related discussion; Example 1.2.3

10. Classify quadrilaterals according to whether opposite sides are parallel, or equal in length.
Figures 1.2.24, 1.2.25, 1.2.27, 1.2.28 and related discussion.

11. Use congruency of triangles to prove certain properties of quadrilaterals.

– In a kite prove that

the diagonals intersect at right angles, and the longer of the diagonals bisects the shorter
diagonal.
Activity 1.2.7
– In a parallelogram prove that
the diagonals bisect each other
opposite sides have equal length
opposite angles have equal measure.
Activity 1.2.8 and the discussion that follows; Example 1.2.4
– In a rhombus (in addition to the properties of parallelograms) prove that
the diagonals bisect each other at right angles
the diagonals bisect the vertices.
Activity 1.2.9 and the discussion that follows
 65 MAT0511/001

– In a rectangle (in addition to the properties of parallelograms) prove that

the diagonals have equal length.
Activity 1.2.11 and the discussion that follows
– In a square (in addition to the properties of a rhombus) prove that
the diagonals have equal length.
Activity 1.2.11 and the discussion that follows

1.3 Circles

1. Use the terminology of circles: centre, radius, chord, diameter, arc, semi– circle, tangent, central angle
subtended by an arc.
Figures 1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.3.3, 1.3.4 and related discussion
 66

UNIT 2: Perimeter, Area and Volume

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

2.1: Permeter and Area (Measurement)

I Calculate the perimeters of various polygons.

I Calculate the circumference of a circle.

I Calculate the horizontal distance covered by a point on a circular object.

I Calculate the areas of various regular polygons.

I Calculate the area of a circle.

I Calculate areas involving a combination of polygons and circles.

2.2: Surface Area and Volume of 3-D objects

I Draw the net for several familiar three–dimensional objects, i.e. a pyramid, rectangular prism, cube,
right circular cylinder.

I Calculate the surface area of a pyramid, rectangular prism, cube.

I Calculate the surface area of a right circular cylinder and the surface area of a right circular cone.

I Calculate the surface area of a sphere.

I Calculate the surface area of irregularly shaped objects.

I Calculate the volume of familiar three–dimensional objects, i.e. rectangular prism, cube, right circular
cylinder, right circular cone, sphere.

I Calculate the volume of irregularly shaped objects, or objects that are combinations of other solids.
 67 MAT0511/001

2.1 Measurements of Perimeter and Area

PERIMETER AND AREA OF TWO–DIMENSIONAL
OBJECTS

Perimeters of polygons

We use the word perimeter to describe the total length of the edges or sides of any polygon. In the case of a
polygon that is not regular, we need to measure the lengths of all the sides and add the measurements. For all
polygons the perimeter is the sum of the lengths of all the sides. In the case of regular polygons, we often
have a formula that we can use to calculate the perimeter.

In Table 2.1.1 we now state, without proof, the formulas for the perimeters of the polygons we encounter
most often (It is important to know these formulas by heart.)

Polygon Perimeter

Triangle (scalene) s1 C s2 C s3 The triangle has three sides of different

lengths, s1 ; s2 and s3 units.

Triangle (isosceles) 2s1 C s2 We denote the length of each of the two

equal sides by s1 units;
the length of the third side is s2 units.

Triangle (equilateral) 3s The three sides all have the same length,
s units.

Quadrilaterals (in general) s1 C s2 C s3 C s4 The four sides may have different lengths,
namely s1 ; s2 ; s3 and s4 units.
Special quadrilaterals

B Rectangle 2 .l C b/ The length is l units.

The breadth is b units.
B Square 4s Each of the four sides measures s units.
B Parallelogram 2 .l C b/ The length of one of the sides is l units;
the length of the adjacent side is b units.
B Rhombus 4s The four sides all have the same length,
s units.
B Kite 2 .s1 C s2 / Two sides each measure s1 units and the
other two sides each measure s2 units.

Table 2.1.1
 68

From the formulas given in Table 2.1.1 for the perimeter of an equilateral triangle, a square and a rhombus, it
is clear that, in general, the perimeter of any regular polygon is ns units, where n is the number of sides, and
s is the length of a side.

EXAMPLE 2.1.1

Calculate the perimeter of each of the following shapes.

6m
5m
7m
2m 1m

Scalene triangle Rectangle

8 cm
2 cm
3 cm 2 cm 5 cm
2 cm
3 cm

4 cm

Regular Regular Irregular polygon

pentagon hexagon

SOLUTION

Triangle: Perimeter D .2 C 6 C 7/ m D 15 m.
Rectangle: Perimeter D 2 .5 C 1/ m D 12 m.
Pentagon: Perimeter D .5 3/ cm D 15 cm.
Hexagon: Perimeter D .6 2/ cm D 12 cm.
Irregular polygon: We deduce the lengths of the remaining edges from the
given measurements, and the fact that opposite sides are
parallel.
8 cm
2 cm
2 cm 5 cm

7 cm 3 cm

4 cm

13 cm
 69 MAT0511/001

We then have
Perimeter D .7 C 2 C 2 C 8 C 5 C 3 C 4 C 13/ cm D 44 cm.

Circumference of a circle
In the case of a circle, the perimeter of a circle is called the circumference of the circle. The formula for the
circumference of a circle is d or 2 r , where d and r are respectively the lengths of the diameter and radius.
We also speak of the “radius” and “diameter” instead of the lengths of the radius and diameter, respectively.

In this module we first mentioned in connection with irrational numbers. The Greek mathematicians
noticed that in any circle with circumference c and diameter d, the ratio dc is always a constant. They gave
this constant the name , and from this the formula c D d developed. The fact that the ratio c : d is always
constant tells us that the circumference and diameter of a circle are always in direct proportion to each other.

22
Remember that is irrational. We may approximate it by 3; 14 or 7
, but it is important to remember that
these numbers are not exactly the same as .

EXAMPLE 2.1.2

Calculate the circumference of a circle with radius 5 cm. Give your answer correct to one decimal place.

SOLUTION

Circumference D 2 r
D 2 5 cm
D 10 cm
31; 4 cm

Thus the circumference is approximately 31; 4 cm.

the formula for the circumference of a circle is useful to determine the distance covered by a point on a wheel.

EXAMPLE 2.1.3

The diameter of a wheel is 40 cm. How far does a point on the wheel travel when it revolves completely, 200
times? (Assume the wheel moves smoothly and does not slip.) Leave the answer in terms of .

SOLUTION

In one revolution any point on the wheel covers a distance equal to its circumference. (If you are not sure that
this is so, experiment with a coin, or saucer, or any small circular object.)

Circumference D d cm
D 40 cm
D 40 cm
 70

Thus in one revolution a point on the wheel travels 40 cm, and in 200 revolutions it travels .200 40 / cm,
i.e. 8 000 cm, i.e. 80 m.

Areas of polygons

For any polygon we can determine “how much space in the plane” it covers. This intuitive sense of taking up
space is made more exact in the concept of area. We represent area in terms of square units. Suppose the
figure below is a rectangle, with dimensions 10 cm by 6 cm. We use the word dimensions to denote length
and breadth.
10 cm

6 cm

Figure 2.1.1

If we divide the rectangle into equal squares with sides of 1 cm, we will have 60 such squares. We say that
the area of the rectangle is 60 square centimetres. We denote square centimetres by cm2 ; and the area of the
rectangle represented in Figure 2.1.1 is thus 60 cm2 .

In the following table (Table 2.1.2) we give the formulas for the areas of the polygons we considered earlier.
We do not have a general formula for the area of any polygon. However, we can consider irregularly shaped
polygons as a combination of rectangles, triangles, etc., and calculate each of these areas separately before
combining them to obtain the total area. (Learn to know these formulas.)
 71 MAT0511/001

Shapes Polygon Area A (in square units)

Triangle (all types) A D 12 base altitude

(We use altitude for perpendicular height.)
A

B C
D
1
Area of 4 ABC D 2
BC AD

Square A D length of side length of side

D .length of side/2
D C

A B
a
Area of ABC D D .AB/2 D a 2

Rectangle A D length breadth

S R

P Q
Area of P Q R S D P Q RQ

Parallelogram A D base altitude

D C

A E B
Area of ABC D D AB DE
 72

Shapes Polygon Area A (in square units) (Table continue)

Rhombus A D base altitude

S R

P T Q
Area of P Q R S D P Q ST

1
Kite AD 2
length of first diagonal
length of second diagonal

K M

N
1
Area of K L M N D 2
LN KM

1
Trapezoid AD 2
sum of parallel sides altitude

M L

J N K
1
Area of K L M J D 2
.M L C J K / MN

Table 2.1.2
 73 MAT0511/001

Area of a circle

We also need to consider the area of a circle. You may know that

Area of a circle D r2

or
d 2
Area of a circle D
2
where r represents the radius and d represents the diameter of the circle. You may be interested to see how
the derivation of this formula can be illustrated.

The circle with centre C and radius r is divided into 8 congruent sectors. See Figure 2.1.2.
P

W Q

C
V R

U S

T
Figure 2.1.2

We cut up the circle and arrange the sectors as shown in Figure 2.1.3.

R S T U V

r r

R Q P W V
Figure 2.1.3
The object in Figure 2.1.3 has two “wavy” sides, both denoted by RV . The distance from R to V is half the
circumference of the circle, i.e. r units. The length R R (or V V ) is the same as the radius of the circle, i.e. r
units. We can repeat this process, and cut the circle into a large number of much smaller sectors. The smaller
we make the sectors, the less curved will be the arcs that make up the long sides of the object similar to that
in Figure 2.1.3.
 74

Thus we will eventually have an object that is almost identical to a rectangle. The formula for the area of a
rectangle is l b. In this case we have l D r units, and b D r units. Thus, the area of the “circle” (even
though it is no longer a circle in shape we have not changed its area) is

.l b/ square units D . r r / square units

i.e. we have
area of circle D r 2 square units.

Note: It is not necessary to be able to deduce this formula for examination purposes.

EXAMPLE 2.1.4

22
Calculate the approximate area of a circle with diameter 42 cm. (Let 7
.)

SOLUTION

Area D r2
22
.21/2 cm2 Since d D 42 cm we have r D 21 cm
7
D 1 386 cm2

Thus the area of the circle is approximately 1 386 cm2 .

EXAMPLE 2.1.5

Calculate the area of the figure on the following page. The numbers indicate lengths, in centimetres. All
angles are 90 :
4
P W

V 7
U
3
T
S

Q R
 75 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

For convenience we include an additional line segment, namely the line segment joining V and S.

4
P W

V 7 U

T
S

Q R

Area of the figure D Area of rectangle P Q RW

C Area of rectangle ST U V
D .P Q P W / C .ST UT/
D ..13 4/ C .7 3// cm2
D .52 C 21/ cm2
D 73 cm2

Thus the total area of the figure is 73 cm2 : Note: P Q D .5 C 3 C 5/ cm, since all angles are right angles.

ACTIVITY 2.1.1

A landscape gardener wants to lay paving around a pond in a garden. The area requiring paving is the shaded
region shown in Figure 2.1.4. What is the approximate area, correct to two decimal places, of the section to
be paved. (Let 3; 14.)

1,2 m

5m

12 m
Figure 2.1.4
 76

SOLUTION

Paved area D Area of rectangle Area of circle

D .12 5/ .1; 2/2 m2
D .60 .1; 44// m2
.60 .3; 14/ .1; 44// m2
D .60 4; 5216/ m2
D 55; 4784 m2
55; 48 m2 (correct to two decimal places)

Thus the approximate area to be paved is 55; 48 m2 :

EXAMPLE 2.1.6

Find a formula for the area of a regular hexagon in terms of the length of one of its sides.

SOLUTION
s

T
r

A B

Sketch a regular hexagon, with sides of length s cm. Draw the diagonals. The diagonals intersect in only
one point, T , and the lengths of the line segments joining the vertices and T are all the same, say r cm.

The hexagon thus consists of six congruent triangles, the reason for congruency is SSS? In any one of the
triangles, draw an altitude from T to the base. Say its length is a cm. This will be true for each triangle, since
the triangles are congruent.

Area of hexagon D 6 area of 4 AT B

D 6 1
2
base height cm2
D 6 1
2
s a cm2
D 3as cm2

We now express a in terms of s. Triangle AT B is isosceles, since AT D BT D r . Also, A TO B D 360

6
D 60
O D T BO A D 60 , and hence 4 AT B
since there are six congruent triangles with common vertex T . Thus T AB
is an equilateral triangle. Thus r D s.
 77 MAT0511/001

p p
3 3
From Question 3 of Exercise 1.2 we have a D 2
s. Thus the area of the hexagon is 3 2
s s cm2 , i.e.
p
3 3 2
2
s cm2 :

EXERCISE 2.1

1. What is the area of a kite with one diagonal that is one metre long, and the other diagonal half a metre
long?

2. The following diagram shows a circular pool with diameter 5 m.

The shaded area represents paving around the pool. The paving is 0; 5 m wide. What is the area of the
paved section? Give your answer correct to one decimal place.

3. Find the perimeter and area of each of the following figures, correct to 2 decimal places if the answers
are not exact. Assume angles drawn to look like right angles are right angles. Assume measurements
are in centimetres.
(a)
A F

3
5 E 2
D
2
C
B 9
(b)
D
6 4

12
C
6
4
6
A
6
2+ 2 B
4
 78

(c)
3
3 3
A C

9 9

B
(d)
I
4 4

A 2 J H2 G

D
5 5

B 2 C E 2 F

4. What is the area of the shaded section in the following figure? You may assume that AC is a diameter
of the circle. Give your answer correct to the nearest square metre.

B 6m D

5. On a vacant piece of land with area 25 000 m2 , a sports club plans to build an athletics track, with the
shape shown in the following figure.

ym

xm

In the figure, the two curved sections are both semi–circles. In order to accommodate competition
 79 MAT0511/001

races, the lengths of the lanes in which runners will compete must be 400 m. One such lane is shown
by means of a dashed line on the sketch. (The starting positions of the runners are staggered so that
each runner covers the same distance.) The outer boundary of the athletics track is shown here as the
solid line. It must measure 420 m, and each of the long straight sides must be twice as long as the
diameter of each of the curved sides.

(a) What values of x and y satisfy these requirements? Give your answer correct to two decimal
places.
(b) The club wants to plant trees in the outer section surrounding the track. They have been advised
that they should allow 50 m2 for each tree. What is the maximum number of trees that they can
plant?

6. A truck wheel (including the tyre) has a diameter of 140 cm. If the tyre picks up a stone, approximately
22
how far does the stone travel, if the wheel revolves completely, 500 times? (Use 7
in this
question.)

7. Consider a circle with diameter d1 , and area a1 : Double the diameter. Calculate the relationship
between the new area .a2 / and the original area .a1 /. Repeat the process 4 more times and note your
results in a table (like the one shown below). How would you describe the relationship between each
bigger area and the original area?

Diameter Area ai Relationship

.i D 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6/ between ai
and a1 for
i D 2; 3; 4; 5; 6
d a1 D
2d a2 D
4d a3 D
8d a4 D
16d a5 D
32d a6 D

8. Calculate the area of trapezoid ABC D which is sketched below.

A 3 km D

2 km

B E C
7 km

9. A circle has an area of 64 cm2 . Find the length of the diameter (correct to one decimal place).

10. Suppose a farmer has 500 m of fencing. Will a square field or a circular field fenced with this length of
fencing give him more planting space?
 80

11. Show how the formula for the area of a triangle can be derived, if we know the formula for the area of
a rectangle.

12. Find the area of each of the following symmetrical figures. Measurements are given in centimetres. If
answers are not exact, give them correct to one decimal place.
(a) (b)

4 1
9
2

5 2
13. Find the area (correct to one decimal place) of the shaded region in the sketch below. The shaded
portion represents what is left when a circle with diameter 5 cm is cut from a square with sides 5 cm.

2.2 Surface Area and Volume of Three Dimensional Objects

The branch of geometry that deals with the study of figures in space (i.e. three–dimensional figures) whose
faces or cross sections are for example polygons or circles, is called solid geometry. This does not mean that
an object has to be solid. For example in solid geometry we may study an empty rectangular box, or a solid
wooden cube.

SOME THREE–DIMENSIONAL OBJECTS

Before we consider formulas for calculating volume and surface area we need to know the names and
characteristics of various objects. Table 2.2.1 on the next page summarises some of the well–known three–
dimensional objects we encounter. Many three–dimensional objects arise from the two–dimensional polygons
we have already considered. When we create a three–dimensional object from two–dimensional polygons,
we call the two–dimensional polygons the faces of the three–dimensional object. We do not only need to
use polygons to create three–dimensional objects. We also have objects whose faces are circles as well as
polygons.

It is useful to create a net from which the three–dimensional object can be made. The net of an object is
created by theoretically opening out the three–dimensional object so that it becomes a flat surface.
 81 MAT0511/001

Name and Description Net Object

Pyramid
Square base:
Four triangular sides, where the triangles
are congruent and have a common vertex.
The base of a pyramid may be any polygon,
not necessarily a square.

Rectangular prism
Two congruent and parallel rectangular faces
(called bases); the other faces are also Base
rectangles, formed by joining corresponding
vertices of the bases.
Base

Cube
A rectangular prism in which all faces are
congruent squares.

Right circular cylinder

Two circular faces (called bases), with a
rectangle forming the curved sides in such
a way that the sides are perpendicular
to the circular base.

Table 2.2.1

We can make models of many three–dimensional shapes by drawing the relevant net onto a piece of cardboard
or paper, cutting it out and folding it along its edges. We then need to stick the edges together.
 82

EXAMPLE 2.2.1

Copy an enlarged version of the net shown in the figure below, onto a piece of flexible cardboard. Cut it out
and fold it into a three–dimensional shape.

Figure 2.2.1

SOLUTION

Your shape will look like this.

Figure 2.2.2

SURFACE AREA

The value of being able to identify the nets from which three–dimensional objects are created is that they
enable us to see, in two dimensions, the shape of each of the object’s faces. Nets are two–dimensional
representations of three–dimensional objects. This in turn helps us to identify the different components we
need to consider when we calculate the surface area of the object.

Surface area is exactly what the term suggests. It is the combined areas of the individual surfaces that are
the faces of an object.

In Table 2.2.2 we give three familiar objects, together with their surface areas. You can refer to the nets given
in Table 2.2.1 if you are not sure how these areas are determined.

Suppose a; b; c; etc. indicate lengths, in centimetres. Then in each case S represents surface area, in square
centimetres.
 83 MAT0511/001

Object Surface area S (square centimeters)

Pyramid

S D 4(area of triangular face) C 1(area of square base)

D 4 12 b h C .b b/
h D 2bh C b2
D b .2h C b/
b

Rectangular prism

S D 2(area of base) C 2(area of long side)

c C 2(area of short side)
D 2 .ab/ C 2 .ac/ C 2 .bc/
b
D 2 .ab C ac C bc/
a

Cube

S D 6(area of face)
D 6a 2

Table 2.2.2

Do not try to memorise these formulas. You can always calculate surface areas of different objects by finding
the area of each of the faces, and then adding the areas.

ACTIVITY 2.2.1

How much tin sheeting will you need to make an open cylinder with a height of 20 cm and a base that has a
diameter of 10 cm? Give your answer in square metres, correct to two decimal places.

Note:
By open cylinder, we mean a cylinder with a closed base, and open top.
 84

SOLUTION

We first sketch the object, and the net on which it is based.

A cylinder such as this is called a right circular cylinder, because the base is a circle, and the sides are
perpendicular to the base.

20 cm

20 cm

5 cm

5 cm

Surface area D area of circle C area of rectangle whose breadth is the circumference of the base of the
cylinder, and whose length is the height of the cylinder. Remember that the circumference of a circle is given
by 2 r .

Thus

SD .5/2 C 2 .5/ 20 cm2 Diameter D 10 cm

and hence radius D 5 cm.
D .25 C 200 / cm2
D 225 cm2
706; 86 cm2 Using a calculator.
2
707 cm : To the nearest square centimetre.

You will thus need approximately 707 cm2 of tin sheeting, i.e. 707 10 4 m2 , i.e. 0; 0707 m2 , i.e. ap-
proximately 0; 07 m2 of tin sheeting. Do you remember how to convert cm2 to m2 ? If not, see Module
1.

Right circular cylinder

From Activity 2.2.1 can you deduce the general formula we use to calculate the surface area of an open right
circular cylinder? We know that

Surface area D area of circular base C area of “rectangle”.

 85 MAT0511/001

Hence, for an open right circular cylinder where the radius of the base is r units and the height is h units, we
have surface area
S D r 2 C 2 r h square units.
See Figure 2.2.3 on the next page.
r

Figure 2.2.3

The surface area of a closed right circular cylinder is .2 r 2 C 2 r h/ square units.

Right circular cone

We now consider another object that has a circular base. This is a right circular cone, which is illustrated in
Figure 2.2.4.

Figure 2.2.4

We call this a right circular cone because it is symme-trical about a line through the vertex, perpendicular to,
and through the centre of, the circle that forms the base.

Let us now try to draw a net for this object. We need to do this if we want to use paper to make party hats
in this shape. If the radius r of the base is 10 cm and the height h is 12 cm then we can use the theorem of
Pythagoras to find the length of the slanting side AB. See Figure 2.2.5.
A

h = 12 cm

r = 10 cm
B

Figure 2.2.5
 86

By Pythagoras we find
p
AB D h2 C r 2
p
D 144 C 100 cm
p
D 244 cm
15; 62 cm:

If we cut the hat along AB and flatten out the paper, we obtain the following net.

h 2 + r 2 cm

2 π r cm

p
The paper is now in the shape of a sector of a circle, with radius h 2 C r 2 cm.
p p
In general, when the slanting side has length h 2 C r 2 units, then the area of this sector is r h 2 C r 2
square units. At this stage you may not know how this formula has been obtained. However, if you continue
with mathematics and study trigonometry, you will be able to work out an area such as this.

Hence the lateral surface area (i.e. excluding the base) of a right circular cone with radius r and height h is
p
r h2 Cr2 square units, whereas the surface area of the closed right circular cone (i.e. including the base)
p
is . r2 C r h2 Cr2 square units.

Sphere

We now consider a sphere. A sphere consists of a set of points in space that are all the same distance from
a fixed point called the centre. The length of a line segment from any point on the sphere to the centre is the
radius of the sphere. A line segment through the centre joining two points on the sphere is the diameter of the
sphere.

Figure 2.2.6

We cannot draw a net for a sphere and use it to find the surface area. The derivation of the formula for the
 87 MAT0511/001

surface area of a sphere is also beyond the scope of this module. If a sphere has radius r units, then

Surfacearea D 4 r2 square units.

EXAMPLE 2.2.2

22
How much leather is required for a soccer ball that has a diameter of 21 cm? Use 7
as an approximation for
, and give your answer to the nearest square centimetre.

SOLUTION

21
We assume that the soccer ball has the shape of a sphere. Since the diameter is 21 cm, the radius is 2
cm.
Thus

Surface area D 4 r 2
22 21 21
4 cm2
7 2 2
2
D 1 386 cm :

Thus the ball requires approximately 1 386 cm2 of leather.

The answer to Example 2.2.2 is not really as simple as the solution makes it appear. A soccer ball is usually
made up of a pattern of leather pentagons and hexagons, as shown in Figure 2.2.7.

Figure 2.2.7

Additional leather is needed for the seams, and some of the original flat piece is wasted when the pentagons
and hexagons are cut out.

ACTIVITY 2.2.2

Calculate the surface area of the container shown in Figure 2.2.8. All corners are right angles.

5 cm
6 cm 3 cm
4 cm
9 cm

Figure 2.2.8
 88

SOLUTION
t1
s2
t2
s1
f1 s3

For convenience we call the face looking towards us the front (denoted by f 1 ); the corresponding side facing
away from us is the back (denoted by f 2 ). The other vertical faces (sides) are denoted by s1 ; s2 and s3 I the
horizontal faces on the top are t1 and t2 , and the base of the container is denoted by b.

The net of the container is sketched below.

6 9

4 back ( f2 )

7 3 3 9 4

5 s1 t1 s2 t2 s3

4 front ( f1 )

5 base ( b )

15

Once we have allocated the different dimensions to the different parts of the net it is straightforward to
calculate the separate areas, and then to add them to get the surface area of the container.

Area of f 1 D ..3 6/ C .4 15// cm2 D 78 cm2 D Area of f 2

Hence we have the following.

Area of f 1 and f 2 D 2 78 cm2 D 156 cm2

Area of base b D 5 15 cm2 D 75 cm2
Area of s1 D 5 7 cm2 D 35 cm2
Area of t1 D 5 6 cm2 D 30 cm2
Area of s2 D 3 5 cm2 D 15 cm2
Area of t2 D 5 9 cm2 D 45 cm2
Area of s3 D 4 5 cm2 D 20 cm2

Hence the total surface area is 376 cm2 :

 89 MAT0511/001

VOLUME
The volume of a solid is the number of unit cubes it contains. Suppose the block shown below has width,
height and length all 10 cm.

10 cm

10 cm

10 cm

10 cm

Figure 2.2.9

It should be easy for you to see that if we cut up the block along the lines shown here, we will have 1 000
small blocks, or cubes, all congruent to the shaded block in the figure above. Thus we say that the volume of
the block is the number of cubes of unit length (unit length in this case means 1 cm). There are thus 1 000
such cubes, each measuring 1 cm across, 1 cm wide and 1 cm in height. Since there are 1 000 cubes, all
measuring 1 cm by 1 cm by 1 cm, we say that the volume of the block is 1 000 cubic centimetres. There are
1 000 cubes, and 1 000 D 10 10 10.

While it is not practical to try to divide all objects into unit cubes, we give all volumes in terms of cubic units,
i.e. cubic centimetres, or cubic metres, etc. Hence the volume of the block shown in Figure 2.2.10 is 30 cubic
centimetres. There are 30 cubes, all measuring 1 cm by 1 cm by 1 cm, and 30 D 5 3 2.

5 cm

2 cm
3 cm
Figure 2.2.10

In the same way that we denote square centimetres (or square metres, etc.) by cm2 (or m2 , etc.), we also
denote cubic centimetres (or cubic metres, etc.) by cm3 (or m3 , etc.). It is beyond the scope of this module to
derive the formulas for volume, so we now state the volume formulas for the more common solids.
 90

Object Volume V (in cubic units)

Rectangular prism
V Dl w h
h D .l w/ h
i.e. V D area of base height
w
l

Cube
V D a3
D a2 a
i.e. V D area of base height

Right circular cylinder

r V D r 2h
i.e. V D area of base height

Right circular cone

1
V D 3
r 2h
1
i.e. V D 3
volume of right circular cylinder
h

Sphere
4
V D 3
r3

Note:
These formulas should be understood
and remember for exam purposes.
r

Table 2.2.3
 91 MAT0511/001

When solids are irregular we need to identify the separate components before trying to calculate the volume.

EXAMPLE 2.2.3

Calculate the volume of the container given in Figure 2.2.8.

SOLUTION

We can consider the container as a combination of two separate rectangular containers. One of them, with
volume V1 , has faces s1 , t1 , s2 and parts of f 1 , f 2 and b; the other, with volume V2 ; has faces t2 ; s3 and parts
of f 1 ; f 2 and b.

Hence

Volume V D V1 C V2
D .6 5 7/ C .5 9 4/ cm3
D .210 C 180/ cm3
D 390 cm3 :

In Example 2.2.3 we considered the container as a combination of two rectangular containers. In the next
activity the container consists of a combination of rectangular and cylindrical containers.

ACTIVITY 2.2.3

Calculate the volume of the container shown in Figure 2.2.11. It is a rectangular box, with a curved lid that
is a cylinder sliced down the middle. Give your answer to the nearest cubic centimetre.

SOLUTION

6 cm

8 cm
10 cm
Figure 2.2.11
 92

Volume D Volume of box C Volume of half–cylinder

1
D .l b h/ C r 2h
2
The diameter of the cylin-
1 2 3
D .10 8 6/ C .4/ 10 cm der is 8 cm, hence its ra-
2
dius is 4 cm.
D .480 C 80 / cm3

731 cm3

When we consider how much liquid a container holds, we often refer to the volume in millilitres (ml), or
litres (` ) instead of cubic centimetres. We have the relationships

1 ` D 1 000 ml D 1 000 cm3

i.e.
1 ml D 1 cm3 and 1 ` D 1 000 cm3 D 10 3
m3

In the next activity we also need to calculate the volume of an irregular container, in this case a swimming
pool. We noted in Table 2.2.3 that we can determine the volume of certain objects by calculating

area of base perpendicular height.

In the next activity, think carefully about the following.

I Separating the solid into two or more appropriate solids whose volumes we can find. We use the word
solid to describe the object whose volume we want to find.

I Considering what “base” we should use for each of the solids identified.

ACTIVITY 2.2.4

Calculate the volume of water needed to fill a swimming pool with the dimensions shown in the figure on the
next page.

10 m
6m

1m 2m
5m
 93 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

We divide the pool into two separate parts, namely the shallow part (with volume V1 ):

6m

1m

5m

and the deeper part (with volume V2 ):

6m 5m
C
B
1m 2m
A

Now, volume of pool D V1 C V2 :

We draw the deep end of the pool again so that one of the sides becomes the base.

1m 2m
5m
6m 6m
6m

A D
1m
2m
B 5m C

The “base” is a trapezoid with parallel sides 1 m and 2 m, and height 5 m (the side that is 5 m long is
perpendicular to the sides that are 1 m and 2 m long). (Do not confuse the height, or altitude, of the base,
with the height of the solid itself.) The area of a trapezoid is given by
1
AD h .a C b/
2
where a and b are the lengths of the parallel sides and h is the perpendicular height, or altitude. We thus have
1
AD .5/ .1 C 2/ m2 D 7; 5 m2 :
2
Thus

V2 D Area of base perpendicular height

3
D .7; 5 6/ m
3
D 45 m :
 94

We also have

V1 D l b h
D .5 6 1/ m3
D 30 m3 .

3
Since 1 ` D 10 m3 we have 1 m3 D 103 `.

Hence the volume of the pool is

V D V1 C V2 D 75 m3 :

Thus in order to fill the pool to the top we need 75 m3 of water, i.e. 75 103 litres of water.

EXERCISE 2.2

Where necessary, round answers to one decimal place.

1. A circular pipe has a diameter of 3 m. How many litres (to the nearest litre) of oil can fit into a section
of pipe that is 50 m long.

2.

1 cm 15 cm

5 cm

The metal block shown above has a cylindrical hole bored through the centre. The open ends have
square faces and the remaining four sides are rectangular. How much liquid (to the nearest cubic
centimetre) can the block hold at any given time.

3. Consider two cylinders, cylinder C1 with radius r1 cm and height h 1 cm; and cylinder C2 with radius
r2 cm and height h 2 cm. If C2 must have the same height as C1 , but contain twice the volume of C1 ,
how much bigger must r2 be than r1 ?
 95 MAT0511/001

4. Consider the two cubes shown below.

ks1
s1

The sides of the smaller cube measure s1 units. The sides of the bigger cube measure ks1 units, where
k is a constant. Find the value of k so that the bigger cube will have double the volume of the smaller
cube.

5. An office has a water dispenser with paper cups in the shape of cones, with diameter 6 cm and depth 8
cm. How many times must one paper cup be used to fill an empty kettle up to the 2 ` mark?

6. A milk carton contains 500 ml of milk. The carton is damaged and the contents must be poured into a
can that is 8 cm across and 9 cm high.
Will all the milk fit into the can? If not, how much milk (in ml) will be left?

7. 24 cheese wedges are packed into a box, in three layers. The cheese wedges are 0; 5 cm thick, and
2; 5 cm along the straight edges. Assume no space is left between the wedges, or between the top and
bottom layers, and the box. The cardboard used to make the box is 1 mm thick. What is the surface
area of the box?

2,5 cm

8. How much wood is wasted if we carve a ball with diameter 9 cm out of a block of wood in the shape
of a cube, with sides 10 cm?
 96

UNIT SUMMARY

Perimeters of polygons
If the lengths of the sides are denoted by s; s1 ; s2 ; s3 and s4 , where the lengths are measured in units
such as centimetres, then we have the following formulas.

B Triangle:
– scalene triangle: Perimeter D s1 C s2 C s3
– isosceles triangles: Perimeter D 2s1 C s2
– equilateral triangles: Perimeter D 3s
B Quadrilateral: Perimeter D s1 C s2 C s3 C s4
– rectangle and parallelogram: Perimeter D 2 .s1 C s2 /
– square and rhombus: Perimeter D 4s
– kite: Perimeter D 2 .s1 C s2 /
B Pentagon (regular): Perimeter D 5s
B Hexagon (regular): Perimeter 6s
B Irregular figures: Perimeter D sum of the lengths of all the sides

Circumference of circles
Circumference D 2 r D d, where r is the radius, d is the diameter, and is an irrational number, at
times approximated by 22
7
or 3; 14.

Areas of polygons

B Triangle: Area D 1
2
base altitude
B Rectangle: Area D length breadth
B Square: Area D .length of side/2
B Parallelogram and rhombus: Area D base altitude
B Kite: Area D 1
2
length of first diagonal length of second diagonal
B Trapezoid: Area D 1
2
sum of parallel sides altitude
B Hexagon (regular): Area D 6 1
2
base altitude (where base and altitude refer to the
p
base and altitude of any one of the six congruent triangles that make up the hexagon) D 3 2 3
. length of side/2 . Note: This formula for the area of an hexagon need not be memorised.
B Irregularly shaped polygons: We can break them up into triangles and quadrilaterals, whose
areas are easy to calculate.
B Circles
d 2
Area D r2 D 2
, where r is the radius and d the diameter.
 97 MAT0511/001

Three–dimensional objects: some examples

B Pyramid (square base): has four sides that are congruent triangles with one common vertex.
B Rectangular prism: has two congruent and parallel rectangular faces called bases; the other
sides are also rectangles formed by joining corresponding vertices of the bases.
B Cube: a rectangular prism in which all faces are congruent squares.
B Right circular cylinder: a circular top and base, with a rectangle forming the curved sides, in
such a way that the sides are perpendicular to the base.
B Right circular cone: an object with vertex directly above the centre of its circular base, symmet-
rical about the perpendicular line joining the vertex to the circular base.
B Sphere: an object in which each point is equidistant from a fixed point called the centre.

Surface area of three–dimensional objects

B Pyramid: Surface area D 4 area of triangle C area of square base

B Rectangular prism: Surface area D 2 area of base C 2 area of long side C 2 area of short
side
B Cube: Surface area D 6 area of one face
B Right circular cylinder (closed):
Surface area D 2 area of circle C area of rectangle
In an open right circular cylinder:
Surface area D 1 area of circle C area of rectangle
In both cases note that the breadth of the rectangle is equal to the circumference of the circle.
p
B Right circular cone: Lateral surface area D r h 2 C r 2 , where r is the radius of the circle
forming the base and h is the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the centre of the base.
p
In a closed right circular cone: Surface area D r h 2 C r 2 C r 2 Note: It is not necessary to
memorise the surface area of a right circular cone.
B Sphere: Surface area D 4 r 2 , where r is the radius of the sphere.
B Irregularly–shaped object: We break it up into several shapes whose surface areas we can
calculate, and combine the separate areas.

Volume of three–dimensional objects

B Rectangular prism: Volume D area of rectangular base height

B Cube: Volume D .length of side/3
B Right circular cylinder: Volume D area of circular base height
B Right circular cone:
V D 31 (volume of cylinder with the same circular base and height)
D 31 r 2 h, where r is the radius of the circular base and h is the height.
B Sphere: Volume D 4
3
r 3 , where r is the radius.
B Irregularly–shaped object: We break the object into several objects whose volumes we can
calculate, and combine the separate volumes.
 98

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

2.1 Perimeter and Area (Measurement)

1. Calculate the perimeters of various polygons.

Table 2.1.1, Example 2.1.1

2. Calculate the circumference of a circle.

Example 2.1.2

3. Calculate the horizontal distance covered by a point on a circular object.

Example 2.1.3

4. Calculate the areas of various regular polygons.

Table 2.1.2

5. Calculate the area of a circle.

Example 2.1.4

6. Calculate areas involving a combination of polygons and circles.

Examples 2.1.5, 2.1.6; Activity 2.1.1

2.2 Surface Area and Volume of 3-D objects

1. Draw the net for several familiar three–dimensional objects, i.e. a pyramid, rectangular prism, cube,
right circular cylinder.
Table 2.2.1, Example 2.2.1

2. Calculate the surface area of a pyramid, rectangular prism, cube.

Table 2.2.2

3. Calculate the surface area of a right circular cylinder and the surface area of a right circular cone.
Activity 2.2.1; Figures 2.2.3, 2.2.4, 2.2.5 and the related discussion

4. Calculate the surface area of a sphere.

Figure 2.2.6 and the related discussion; Example 2.2.2

5. Calculate the surface area of irregularly shaped objects.

Activity 2.2.2

6. Calculate the volume of familiar three–dimensional objects, i.e. rectangular prism, cube, right circular
cylinder, right circular cone, sphere.
Table 2.2.3

7. Calculate the volume of irregularly shaped objects, or objects that are combinations of other solids.
Example 2.2.3; Activities 2.2.3, 2.2.4
 99 MAT0511/001

ANSWERS
UNIT 1

Exercise 1.1

1.
A A1

B B1

4 A1 B1 C is the mirror image of 4 ABC in the vertical line through C.

2. (a)
A
C

(b)
B

C A

3. O is adjacent to C PO B:
(a) D PC
C PO B is adjacent to B PO A:
(b) C PO D D 22 300
(c) A PO B C B PC
O C C PO D D 90

(d) E PO A D 112 300 (Since E PO A D 180 A PO B C B PC

O
D 180 45 C 22 300
D 112 300 :/
 100

4. (a) 28 390 000 (b) 90 30 1800

(c) 30 480 000 (c) 100 60 000

5. (a) (i) 90
(ii) 45
(iii) 45
(b) Pairs of co–interior angles:
A QO P and C PO Q
B RO P and D PO R
R QO P and D PO Q
A RO P and C PO R
Note that it is possible to denote the angles differently: for example A QO P and A QO F refer to the
same angle, similarly A RG O and Q RO P refer to the same angle.

(c) A RO P and D PO R
(d) A QO R is a straight angle.
(e) (i) G PCO
(ii) G PO Q or F PO R

6. The flower has rotational symmetry. It can be rotated through 90 , 180 and 270 about its central
point without any change taking place. It also has reflection symmetry. It can be reflected in any one
of the four dashed lines shown.

The face has reflection symmetry. It can be reflected in a vertical line through the centre of the face.

However, it does not have rotational symmetry, since rotation through any number of degrees results in
a different picture. For example, rotation through 180 gives the same face, but upside down.
 101 MAT0511/001

Exercise 1.2

1. (a)

(b)

2. 4 AB D 4 AC D RHS: AB D AC
BD D BD
A DO B D A DC
O D 90
Hence B D D C D.

3. AB D BC D AC D s since 4 ABC is equilateral.

AD bisects BC. (See question 2 above, or the discussion that follows Activity 1.2.6.)
Hence B D D C D D 21 s cm.
According to the Theorem of Pythagoras

AD 2 D AB 2 B D2

i.e. we have
1
AD 2 D s 2 . s/2
2
1 2
D s2 s
4
3 2
D s
4

and hence
r
3 2
AD D s
4
p
3
D s:
2
 102

4.

The octagon consists of eight congruent triangles.

The angle sum of each triangle is 180 .
Thus the angle sum of all eight triangles is

8 180 D 1 440 :

But the sum of the central angles of the triangles is 360 . Hence the angle sum of the octagon is

1 440 360 D 1 080 :

5. (a) There are four pairs of congruent triangles:

4 ST P 4 QT R
4 ST R 4 QT P
4 SRQ 4 QPS
4 PSR 4 RQP
(b)
P Q

S R

4 Q RS 4 SPQ
Thus Q SO R D S QO P.
Hence P Q k R S. Alternate angles are equal.
Similarly P SO Q D R QO S.
Hence P S k R Q. Alternate angles equal.
Hence P Q R S is a parallelogram. Opposite sides are parallel.
 103 MAT0511/001

6. By Pythagoras
F G 2 C C G 2 D FC 2 :

Hence

F G 2 D FC 2 C G2
1 2 1 2
D 3
CD 4
CD
2
x 2 x
D m2
3 4
x2 x2
D m2
9 16
16x 2 9x 2
D m2
144
7x 2
D m2
144
and thus
x p
FG D 7 m2 :
12
7. 4 AB D 6 4 EC D: If 4 AB D 4 EC D then AB D EC. Since EC is the hypotenuse of 4 E BC
it follows that EC > DC. Hence EC > AB since DC D AB. Consequently 4 AB D 6 4 EC D:

8. (a)
A
x
B D

2x

In 4 ABC and 4 ADC

AB D AD
BC D DC:

AC is common to both.
Thus
4 ABC 4 ADC. SSS
 104

(b)
A

E
B D

Consider 4 B AE and 4 D AE.

Since 4 ABC 4 ADC it follows that

O D D AE:
B AE O

Since AB D AD and AE is common to both triangles we have

4 B AE 4 D AE. SAS
Hence
BE D ED

i.e. diagonal AC bisects diagonal B D:

9. In 4 DC A and 4 D P Q
D CO A D D PO Q and D AC
O D D QO P. Corresponding angles are equal.
DO is common to both triangles.
Thus
4 DC A jjj 4 D P Q:

Because the triangles are similar, the corresponding sides are in proportion, and thus
DC CA DA
D D :
DP PQ DQ
Let DC D x.
We then have
x CA
D ;
2x PQ
i.e. we have
CA 1
D
PQ 2
and hence
C A D 12 P Q:
 105 MAT0511/001

10.
Polygon Number Number of Number of Angle
(regular) of sides vertices diagonals sum
Triangle 3 3 0 180
Quadrilateral 4 4 2 360
Pentagon 5 5 5 540
Hexagon 6 6 9 720
Octagon 8 8 20 1 080

11. (a) the same

(b) 90
(c) rhombus square
(d) less than

Exercise 1.3

1.

B C

(a) B lies on the circle

(b) We choose D on the circle and draw AD and DC.

O D 90 :
Then A DC
 106

2.
Q
P R

K C J
N S

Z T
A O B

Y U
L D M

X V
W

We label all points where the lines described intersect with the outer circle by means of the letters
N ; P; Q; R; S; T; U; V; W; X; Y and Z . The additional points of intersection of the lines are
denoted by J ; K ; L and M. We see that the figures bounded by
line segments AK ; K C; and arc AC
line segments B J; J C; and arc BC
line segments M B; M D; and arc B D
line segments DL ; L A; and arc AD:
are all congruent.
Similarly the figures bounded by
arc N Z and line segments N K ; K A and AZ
arc Y Z and line segments Y L ; L A and AZ
arc U T and line segments U M; M B and BT
arc ST and line segments S J; J B and BT
arc P Q and line segments P K ; K C and C Q
arc R Q and line segments R J; J C and C Q
arc X W and line segments X L ; L D and DW
arc V W and line segments V M; M D and DW
are all congruent.
We also have the congruent figures bounded by
arc Y X and line segments Y L and L X
arc U V and line segments U M and M V
arc RS and line segments R J and J S
arc P N and line segments P K and N K .
 107 MAT0511/001

We also have the four congruent circle sectors,

AOC; B OC; B O D and AO D:

There are many other congruent figures which are formed by combining certain smaller congruent
figures. For example, Z X A; T V B; Z P A; and T R B are all congruent.

UNIT 2

Exercise 2.1

1.
A

_1
2 m
B D
1m E

Area of kite D area of 4 ABC C area of 4 ADC

D 2 .area of 4 ABC/ : 4 ABC 4 ADC:

Thus

1
Area of kite D 2 2
.base/ altitude
1
D 2 2
AC EB
D 2 1
2
.1/ 1
4
m2 AC bisects B D:
1 2
D 2 8
m
D 1
4
m2

1
i.e. the area of the kite is 4
m2 .

2.

Paved area D total area area of pool

D .3/2 .2; 5/2 m2
D . .9 6; 25// m2
D 2; 75 m2
8; 6 m2
 108

3. (a)
7
A F

3
E 2
5 G D
2
C
B 9

Perimeter D .5 C 9 C 2 C 2 C 3 C 7/ cm
D 28 cm
Total area D area of rectangle AG E F C area of rectangle G BC D
D .21 C 18/ cm2
D 39 cm2

(b)
D
6 4

12
C
6
4
6
A
6
2+ 2 B
4

Perimeter D AB C BC C C D C D A
p
D 62 C 42 C 6 C 4 C 12 cm
p
D 22 C 52 cm
.22 C 7; 21/ cm
D 29; 21 cm
Total area D area of 4 AB D C area of 4 D BC
D 1
2
.12 4/ C 21 .6 4/ cm2
D 36 cm2

(c)
3
3 3
A C

9 9

B
 109 MAT0511/001

Perimeter D semi–circle AC C BC C B A
D . .3/ C 9 C 9/ cm
27; 42 cm
Total area D area of semi–circle C area of 4 ABC
D 1
2
.3/2 cm2 C 21 .6/ .B D/
p p
By Pythagoras, B D D 92 32 D 72 8; 485 cm.
Hence

Total area 9
2
C 3 .8; 485/ cm2
.14; 137 C 25; 455/ cm2
D 39; 592 cm2
39; 59 cm2 :

(d)
I
4 4

A 2 J H2 G

D
5 5

B 2 C E 2 F

Perimeter D 34 cm
J H D C E since J C E H is a rectangle. Thus
4 JHI 4 C E D. SSS
Hence
total area D area of rectangle AB F G

i.e.
total area D AG AB:

By Pythagoras
p
JH D J I 2 C I H 2 cm
p
D 16 C 16 cm
p
D 32 cm:
 110

Hence
p
AE D 32 C 2 cm
2C
p
D 4 C 32 cm.
p
Total area D 5 4 C 32 cm2
p
D 20 C 5 32 cm2
.20 C 28; 284/ cm2
48; 28 cm2

4.
A

B 6m D

ABC D is a parallelogram.
Hence AD D BG:
But BC D AB (given), hence ABC D is a rhombus.
O and A DC
From the answer to question 1 of Exercise 1.3, we know that since AC is a diameter, A BC O
are both right angles.
Hence ABC D is a square.
By Pythagoras
AB 2 C BC 2 D AC 2
i.e.
2 .AB/2 D 36 m2 :
Thus
AB 2 D 18 m
i.e.
p
AB D 18 m.

Shaded area D area of circle area of square

p p
D .3/2 18: 18 m2
D .9 18/ m2
10; 27 m2
10 m2
 111 MAT0511/001

5. (a) We have x D 2y and the perimeter D 420 m.

y
Hence 2 2
C .2x/ D 420.
But x D 2y, and thus
y
2 C .2 2y/ D 420:
2
Now
y
2 C 4y D 420
2
, y C 4y D 420
, y . C 4/ D 420
420
, yD :
C4
Thus
y 58; 81:

Hence x 117; 62 and y 58; 81.

(b)

Total area D 25 000 m2

Track area D area of circle C area of rectangle
y 2
D C x y m2
2
!
2
58; 81
C .117; 62 58; 81/ m2
2
.2 716; 39 C 6 917; 23/ m2
D 9 633; 62 m2
9 634 m2

Area available for trees D total area track area

.25 000 9 634/ m2
D 15 366 m2

Maximum number of trees that can be planted

tree area
D
area required for one tree
15 366
50
307
 112

6. Over one revolution of the wheel the stone covers a distance equal to the outer circumference of the
wheel (i.e. circumference of wheel together with the tyre).
Distance covered over one revolution D 2 .70/ cm
Distance covered over 500 revolutions

D 500 2 70 cm
22
500 2 70 cm
7
D 220 000 cm
D 2 200 m

7.
Diameter Area ai Relationship between
.i D 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6/ ai and a1
for i D 2; 3; 4; 5; 6
d 2
d a1 D 2
D 4 d2

2d 2
2d a2 D 2
D d2 a2 D 4a1

4d 2
4d a3 D 2
D 4 d2 a3 D 16a1

8d 2
8d a4 D 2
D 16 d 2 a4 D 64a1

16d 2
16d a5 D 2
D 64 d 2 a5 D 256a1

32d 2
32d a6 D 2
D 256 d 2 a6 D 1 024a1

From the pattern

a2 D 4a1
a3 D .4/2 a1
a4 D .4/3 a1
a5 D .4/4 a1
a6 D .4/5 a1

we see that each time the diameter is doubled, the area increases by a factor of 4.
1
8. Area D 2
.AD C BC/ D E D 10 km2
d 2
9. Area of circle D r 2 D 2
 113 MAT0511/001

d 2
Thus, if 2
D 64 cm2 , we have
2
d 64
D cm2
2
i.e.
d 8
D p cm
2
i.e.
16
dDp 9; 0 cm.

10. If the perimeter of a square is 500 m, each side has length 125 m. Hence

area of square D 15 625 m2 :

250
If the circumference of a circle is 500 m, its radius is m.
2
250
Area of circle D m2
62 500
D m2
19 894; 37 m2

Thus a circular field provides more planting space than a square field.

11.
F A E

B D C

ABC is a triangle, and BC E F, B D AF and DC E A are rectangles.

Now

Area of 4 ABC D Area of 4 AB D C Area of 4 ADC

and
Area of F BC E D Area of F B D A C Area of DC E A:
Also
Area of 4 AB D D 21 Area of F B D A
and
Area of 4 ADC D 12 Area of DC E A:
 114

Hence
Area of 4 ABC D 21 Area of F BC E
D 12 BC FB
D 12 BC AD:

12. (a) 19 cm2

(b) 39 cm2

13.
Shaded area D area of square area of circle
5 2
D 25 2
cm2
5; 4 cm2

Exercise 2.2

1. The circular pipe has the shape of a cylinder with diameter 3 m. We are interested in a 50 m length of
pipe, i.e. we regard 50 m as the height of the cylinder.
Volume of cylinder D r 2h
3 2
D 2
50 m3
353; 42917 m3

Since
1 m D 100 cm D 102 cm
we know that

1 m3 D 1 000 000 cm3 D 106 cm3 :

Also
1 ` D 1 000 ml D 1 000 cm3 :

Hence
1 m3 D 1 000 ` D 103 `:
Hence
353; 42917 m3 D 353; 42917 103 `
353 429 `:

Thus the pipe contains approximately 353 429 litres of oil.

 115 MAT0511/001

2. Volume of cylindrical hole D r 2h

Square faces have sides of 5 cm, but there is a space of 1 cm between the hole and each of the edges of
the block. Thus the diameter of the hole is 3 cm. The length of the hole is 15 cm. Hence

3 2
Volume D 2
15 cm3
106 cm3

3.

Volume of C1 D V1 D .r1 /2 h 1
Volume of C2 D V2 D .r2 /2 h 2

We must have
V2 D 2V1

i.e.
.r2 /2 h 2 D 2 .r1 /2 h 1 :

Since h 2 D h 1 we have
.r2 /2 D 2 .r1 /2

i.e.
p
r2 D 2r1 :
p
Thus r2 must be 2 times bigger than r1 :

4. Volume of bigger cube D Vb D .ks1 /3 cubic units D k 3 s13 cubic units

Volume of smaller cube D Vs D s13 cubic units
If
Vb D 2Vs

then
k 3 s13 D 2s13

i.e. we have
k3 D 2

i.e. we have
p
3
kD 2:
p p
Thus if the constant k is the number 3 2 then the bigger cube will have sides 3 2 times bigger than the
sides of the smaller cube, and the volume of the bigger cube will be double the volume of the smaller
cube.
 116

5.

Volume of one cup D 1

3
r 2h
D 1
3
.3/2 8 cm3
D 24 cm3
D 24 ml

Now the kettle requires 2 ` of water, i.e. 2 000 ml of water.

2 000
Number of cups required D
24
26; 53

Hence we need to use the paper cup 27 times to fill the kettle, 26 times using a full cup and once using
just over half a cup.

6.

Volume of can D r 2h
D .4/2 9 cm3
452 cm3
D 452 ml

The milk will not fit into the can. There will be approximately
.500 452/ ml, i.e. approximately 48 ml, of milk left.

7.

Surface area D area of sides (including thickness of cardboard)

Carea of top (including thickness of cardboard)
Carea of bottom (including thickness of cardboard)
D .2 r 1; 7/ C r 2 C r 2 cm2
D .2 2; 6 1; 7/ C 2 .2; 6/2 cm 2
.27; 77 C 42; 77/ cm2
D 70; 54 cm2
 117 MAT0511/001

8.

Volume of cube D .10 10 10/ cm3

D 1 000 cm3

Volume of ball D 4
3
r3
D 4
3
.4; 5/3
381; 7 cm3

Wasted wood .1 000 381; 7/ cm3

D 618; 3 cm3
 118

REFERENCES

1. Eves, H.: An Introduction to the History of Mathematics (4th edition), Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1976.

2. Freeman, R.: How to Learn Maths, National Extension College, 1994.

3. James G. and James R.C.: Mathematics Dictionary (3rd edition), D. van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
1968.

4. Poole, B.: Basic Mathematics, Prentice–Hall, 1994.

5. Sykes, J.B.: The Concise Oxford Dictionary of current English (6th edition), Oxford University Press,
1976.