Thesis Writing

16
Discussion of Results and Reporting

Module 016 Presentation, Analysis, and

Interpretation of Data

Objectives
1. To discuss the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data
2. To formulate the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of
research data

Introduction
This part of the thesis is titled differently by educational institutions.
Some of the headers used are Results and Discussion, Presentation and
Discussion, and Analysis of Findings. The presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data is usually featured in Chapter IV but in the APA format,
this section appears under Results and Discussion.

Major Elements:
1. Presentation of Data- This part showcases the data for easy
understanding of the reader. The data re usually presented in charts,
tables, or figures with verbal interpretation.
2. Analysis- This intelligence and logical understanding of the researcher is
required in this part in which important data are given enough attention.
The analysis will be the basis of the final results of the study.
3. Interpretation- Comprehensible statements are made after translating
the statistical data.
4. Discussion-After the analysis and interpretation of the data, the
discussion or explanation of the results is needed to establish a more
logical and empirical basis of the conclusion. In this part, the results of the
investigation are compared and contrasted with the reviewed literature
and studies.

Presentation Data
The data can be presented in various forms (APA, 1999);
1. Table. It provides exact values and can illustrate effects efficiency
as it enables the researcher to present a large amount of data in a
small amount of space. The data, usually shown as specific
numerical values, are arranged in an orderly display of rows and

Course Module
columns to aid in comparison. The readability of both the results
and analyses of various is therefore enhanced.
The following must be observed in the use of a table:
a) Precise values are better than rounded-off values for they
may display patterns and exceptions;
b) Comparing numbers down a column is better that across a
row; and
c) Column and row averages can provide a visual focus that
allows the reader to inspect the data easily.
Example 1:
Table X
Errors for Younger and Older Groups by Level of Difficulty

Difficulty Younger Older

M SD n M SD n

Low 0.05 0.08 2 0.14 0.15 18

Moderate 0.05 0.07 15 0.17 0.15 12

High 0.11 0.10 16 0.26 0.21 14

Example 1:
Table X
Intercorrelations Between Subscales for Students and Older
Students

Subscale 1 2 3 4

Students (n= 200)

Tranquility - 0.93 -0.09 0.73

Good will - -0.34 0.62

Happiness - 0.14

Elation -

Older Adults (n=189)

Tranquility - 0.42 -0.07 0.52

Good will - -0.43 0.62

Happiness - 0.47

Elation -

Tables should be numbered with Arabic numerals. Don’t us

suffix letters to number tables like Table 5a, 5b, etc.
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Discussion of Results and Reporting

2. Figure. A figure can be in the form of a chart, graph, drawing or

picture which is used to best illustrate interactions, non-linear
relations, and general comparisons.
Characteristics of Good Figure
a. It augments rather than duplicates the text.
b. It conveys only essential facts.
c. It omits visually distracting details.
d. It is easy to read- its elements (types, lines, labels, symbols,
etc.) are large enough to be read with ease.
e. It is easy to understand- its purpose is readily apparent.
f. It is consistent with and is drawn in the same style/ similar
figure in the same article, that is, lettering is of the same
size and typeface. And lines are of the same weight.
g. It is carefully planned and prepared.

Types of Figures
a. Graph. It shows relations- comparisons and distributions-
in a set of data like absolute values, percentages, or index
numbers. Lines of a graph should be kept clean and simple
and must eliminate extraneous details. Information in a
graph should be presented on the horizontal and vertical
axes in a clear and systematic manner such as in a
descending or in ascending order.
 Line graph. It is used to show relations between
two quantitative variables. The independent
variable is plotted on the horizontal (x) axis while
the dependent is on the vertical (y) axis.
 Bar graph. It is used when the independent variable
is categorical (example: different experimental
conditions). Each of the solid horizontal or vertical
bars represents one kind of datum. In a subdivided
bar graph, each bar shows two or more divisions of
data.
 Circle or pie graph. Also called a 100% graph, it is
used to show percentages and proportions. The
number of items compared should be limited to five
or less than five. Data should be ordered from the
large to small, beginning with the largest segment at
12 o’clock. Shading the segments in different colors
is a good way to highlight differences.
 Scatter Graph. This graph is composed of single
dots plotted to represent the values of a single
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 events on the two variables scaled on the abscissa
and ordinates. Meaningful clusters of dots imply
correlations.
 Pictorial graph. It is used to represent simple
quantitative differences between groups. All symbol
representing equal values should be of the same
size. The researcher should keep in mind that if one
doubles the height of a symbol, the area becomes
quadruple.
b. Chart. It is used to describe the relations between and
among parts of a group, or object or the sequence of
operations in a process; a chart is usually a box connected
with lines or arrows.
a. Organizational chart. This chart shows the
hierarchy in a group.
b. Flow chart. This chart shows the sequence of steps
in a process.
c. Schematic. It shows the components in a system.
d. Dot map. It shows the population density. A map
should always be prepared by a professional artist
who could clearly indicate the compass orientation
of map, fully identify the map’s location, and provide
the scale to which the map is drawn.
c. Drawing. This presentation is selective and gives the
author the flexibility to emphasize any aspect of an image
or idea.
d. Photograph. This type of figure has an excellent eye
appeal. However, it should be of professional quality and
should be prepared with a background that produces the
greatest amount of contrast.
3. Statistical presentations
a. Inferential statistics. When presenting the t-test, f-test,
and chi-square, the magnitude or value of the tests, the
degrees of freedom, probability level, and the direction of
the effect should be included.
b. Parametric tests of location like single-group or
multiple-group tests of means. The cell means, cell
samples sizes, and measures of variability should be noted.
c. Randomized block layout. The presentation should
include the multivariate analysis of variance, vectors of
cells means and cell samples sizes, and covariance matrix.
d. Correlational analyses like multiple regression, factor
analysis, and structural-equations modeling. These
statistics should be presented with the sample sizes, and
variance-covariance matrix accompanied by other
information specific to the procedure like means, reliability,
and other parameters. The non-parametric analyses like
the chi-square analysis of contingency tables, and order
statistics should include the number of cases per category,
sum of the ranks, and sample sizes in each cell.
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Discussion of Results and Reporting

e. Statistical power associated with test of hypotheses. It

should be presented with the particular alpha level, effect
size, and sample size.
f. Statistical significance of two probabilities. The
statistical presentation should include the a priori
probability called the alpha level, type I error in hypothesis
testing 0.05 and 0.01, and the a posteriori ( a result that os
extreme as or more extreme than the actual value of the
statistics obtained).
Examples:
1. With an alpha level of .05, the effect of age is statistically
significant, F(1, 123)= 7.27, p=0.008
2. The effect of age is not statistically significant, F(1,
123)= the 2.45, p= 0.12.

Tables and Texts Presentation

1. An informative table supplements – not duplicates- the text.
2. In writing the text, refer to every table and tell the reader
what to look for.
3. Discuss only what the table highlights.
4. Each table should be an integral part of the text.
5. All abbreviations should be spelled out and explained.
6. Always identify units of measurements.
7. Refers to tables by their numbers:
Examples:
1. As shown in table 8, the responses were…
2. Children with pertaining (see Table 5)…

Do not write “the table above/below or the table on page 32”

because the position and page number of the table cannot be
determined until a typesetter sets the page.

Analysis of Data
When simply presented, number will not be easily
comprehensible and their significance will not be determined without
a correct analysis. Analysis is a process of breaking the whole into
parts. The researcher must be critical in looking at details and
remarkable data to prove or disapprove a certain theory or claim.
In analyzing data, the following must be considered:

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 1. The highest numerical value such as scores, weighted
means, percentages, variability, etc.
2. The lowest numerical value such as scores, weighted
means, percentages, variability, etc.
3. The most common numerical values like mode, or values
that repeatedly appear.
4. The final numerical value like the average weighted mean,
total score, chi-square value, correlation index, etc.

Discussion of Data
The following must be considered in the discussion of data:
1. The flow of discussion of the results is based on how the problems
are stated.
2. The sequence of discussion of points includes:
a. Introduction of the table
b. Analysis of data (point out the most important and
remarkable result, infer, and discuss the implication)
c. Interpretation of the average or the final statistical results
d. Discussion of findings( in relation to the findings of
previous studies mentioned in the review of related
literature)
e. Implications, inferences, and other important information.

Interpretation of Data
The following are the levels of interpretation to be considered on
organizing the discussion of the results (Ducut & Pangilinan, 2006)
 Level 1. Data collected are compared and contrasted.
Unexpected results, if any, may be mentioned. The researcher
is allowed to comment on certain shortcomings of the study
but should not concentrate too much on the flaws.
 Level 2. The researcher should explain the interval validity of
the results as well as their consistency or reliability. The
causes of or the factors that may have influenced the results
may also be described.
 Level 3. The researcher should explain the external validity of
the results, that is, their generality or applicability to external
conditions.
 Level 4. The researcher should relate or connect the
interpretation of data with theoretical research or with the
reviewed literature.
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Discussion of Results and Reporting

INTERPRETATION OF DATA Example 1 (Cristobal, 2003)

Table 16 shows the distribution of the educational attainment of the
school managers form their bachelor’s degree to the highest educational
attainment.
Table 16. Distribution of School Managers by Educational Attainment

No. Educational Attainment Frequency Percentage

5 Ph. D/ Doctorate 1 2.1

4 With Doctoral units 7 50.0

3 Master of Arts 15 31.3

2 With M.A Units 24 14.6

1 B.S degree 1 2.1

Total 48 100%

Half of the school managers, comprising 24% or 50% of the total

number of respondents, have earned M.A units in education; only one has a
B.S degree and the remaining respondents have M.A degrees and higher
academic degrees. Given that a master’s degree is the minimum educational
qualification for a secondary school principal, this results indicates the value
the institutions place on the relevance of educational attainment in school
leadership. Clearly, the table also shows that the respondents who have
degrees lower than a master’s degree are head teachers.
The data reveal that a higher educational degrees makes an individual
improve himself/herself, and gain competencies. A graduate or post-
graduate degree enables an individual to be in a better position to make
decisions probably because he/she understands the institutional problems.
Also, a higher educational attainment helps a school managers to be abreast
of the different changes in education; Villamor (1992) found that the higher
the educational attainment of the individual, the more refined are his/her
skills, habits and attitudes, and values and ideals.
As stipulated in Article I, Section 3 of the code of Ethics for Public
School Teachers and Officials, one should pursue studies that will improve
his/her efficiency and enhance his/her profession.

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References:
Books and Journals

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Briggs, A.R. J., & Coleman, M. (Eds.). (2002). Research methods in

educational leadership and management. London: Sage Publications

Calmorin, L. P., & Calmorin, M. A. (2003) Methods of Research and thesis

writing. Manila: Rex Bookstore.

Catane, J. A. (2000). Conducting research: A practical application (rev. ed).

Quezon City: JMC Press Inc.

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leadership and management. London: Paul Chaplan Publishing

Glatthorn, A. A. (1998). Writing the winning dissertation. A step-by-step

guide. Corwin Press, Inc.Katkuvienė, L. E., & Šeškauskienė, I. 1999. Writing
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Classroom application and practice (8th ed.) USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Lileikienė, A., Šaparnis, G., & Tamošiūnas, T. (2004). Magistro darbo

rengimo metodika. Šiauliai: Šiaulių universiteto leidykla.

McMillan, J. H. (1996). Educational research: fundamentals for the

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City: Rex Printing Co. Inc.
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Discussion of Results and Reporting

Sevilla, C. G et al. (2003). An introduction to research methods. (rev.ed.).

Quezon City: Rex Publishing Co.

Treece, E. W. & Treece, J. W. (1986). Elements of research in nursing.

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