Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Psychology of Sport and Exercise

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport

Understanding team resilience in the world's best athletes: A case

study of a rugby union World Cup winning team
Paul B.C. Morgan*, David Fletcher, Mustafa Sarkar
School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Objective: Although team resilience research has identified the characteristics of elite sport teams that
Available online 23 August 2014 positively adapt to adversity, further research is required to understand how resilient teams function. The
objective of this study, therefore, was to explore the psychosocial processes underpinning team resilience
Keywords: in elite sport.
Autobiographies Design: Narrative inquiry was employed to better understand team resilience.
Elite sport
Method: The sample consisted of eight members of the 2003 England rugby union World Cup winning
Excellence
team. The autobiographies of these team members were analyzed using three types of narrative ana-
Group
Narrative
lyzes: holistic-content analysis, holistic-form analysis, and categorical-form analysis.
Psychosocial processes Results: Findings revealed five main psychosocial processes underpinning team resilience: trans-
formational leadership, shared team leadership, team learning, social identity, and positive emotions. An
examination of narrative structure within the autobiographies revealed a progressive narrative form
characterized by a collective positive evaluation of setbacks.
Conclusions: This study extends previous team resilience research by going beyond the identification of
resilient characteristics to explaining underpinning psychosocial processes. The team resilience pro-
cesses are discussed in relation to previous research findings and in terms of their implications for
practising sport psychologists. It is anticipated that this study will provide practitioners with a frame-
work to develop team resilience at the highest levels of sport.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Psychological resilience represents an important phenomenon and for this reason sport psychology researchers have begun to
that explains the development of people who positively adapt to investigate resilience in competitive athletes (see e.g., Fletcher &
adverse events. Fletcher and Sarkar recently defined psychological Sarkar, 2012; Galli & Vealey, 2008; Gucciardi, Jackson, Coulter, &
resilience as “the role of mental processes and behavior in pro- Mallett, 2011). In 2008, Galli and Vealey explored individual ath-
moting personal assets and protecting an individual from the po- letes' perceptions and experiences of resilience. The athletes re-
tential negative effect of stressors” (2012, p 675; 2013, p. 16). In the ported that positive adaptation occurred gradually and often
context of the present study, resilience is required in response to required numerous shifts of thought. Moreover, the findings indi-
both adversity, defined as “… negative life circumstances that are cated that the resilience process (described as ‘agitation’ by the
known to be statistically associated with adjustment difficulties” authors) operated over time and involved a variety of factors
(Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000, p. 858), and stressors, defined as “the including personal resources and sociocultural influences. More
environmental demands (i.e., stimuli) encountered by an individ- recently, Fletcher and Sarkar (2012) interviewed twelve Olympic
ual” (Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006, p. 359). champions to explore and explain the relationship between psy-
The ability of individuals and teams to withstand stressors is a chological resilience and optimal sport performance. The findings
prerequisite for sporting excellence (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996) revealed that numerous psychological factors (relating to a positive
personality, motivation, confidence, focus, and perceived social
support) protected the world's best athletes from the potential
negative effect of stressors by influencing their challenge appraisal
* Corresponding author. School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Lough- and meta-cognitions. These processes promoted facilitative re-
borough University, Epinal Way, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK. sponses that preceded optimal sport performance. Resilience
Tel.: þ44 14 9452 2141.
studies in sport have tended to focus on individual resilience and,
E-mail address: P.Morgan@lboro.ac.uk (P.B.C. Morgan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.08.007
1469-0292/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
92 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100

therefore, further research is needed to better understand resil- resilience, future studies should aim to identify the processes that
ience at a group level. underpin the resilience characteristics” (p. 558). The objective of
Resilience researchers, in various subdisciplines of psychology, this study was to address this gap in our understanding of team
have lately turned their focus to the group level (e.g., Carmeli, resilience. It is hoped that this research will advance knowledge in
Friedman, & Tischler, 2013; Stephens, Heaphy, Carmeli, Spreitzer, this area by developing the conceptual scaffold required to build
& Dutton, 2013). Within the sport psychology literature, Morgan, this important team-level phenomenon (cf. Chan, 1998; Morgeson
Fletcher, and Sarkar (2013) conducted the first study of team & Hofmann, 1999). It is also anticipated that this investigation will
resilience in sport. Employing focus groups with members of five advance practitioners' knowledge and understanding of developing
elite sport teams, a definition of team resilience was developed and excellence in elite sport teams. Specifically, practitioners will be
the resilient characteristics of elite sport teams were identified. provided with a framework to enhance team resilience processes at
Specifically, team resilience was defined as a “dynamic, psychoso- the highest levels of sport and will be offered practical ideas for
cial process which protects a group of individuals from the poten- working with team members and staff seeking to develop excel-
tial negative effect of the stressors they collectively encounter. It lence. Indeed, Yukelson and Rose (2014) argued that better
comprises of processes whereby team members use their individ- knowledge and understanding of team resilience is important for
ual and collective resources to positively adapt when experiencing developing a culture of ongoing excellence in elite sport.
adversity” (p. 552). Team resilience was described as a dynamic
phenomenon with participants stating that it was “dependent upon Method
what time of season it is” or “whether there is an injury in the
team”. In terms of its protective function, the participants described Research design
team resilience as akin to “having a barrier round you” and “having
a thick skin”. Furthermore, the participants emphasized that team This study was an exploratory investigation of team resilience
resilience involved a shared experience of stressors (e.g., team that aimed to elicit rich information and hence, qualitative methods
disruptions, low team morale) and this was revealed through were adopted (Silverman, 2006). Ungar (2003) proposed the use of
comments such as “we have been through so many setbacks such methods to extend the knowledge base of resilience as a sci-
together”. Four resilient characteristics of elite sport teams entific construct. Specifically, he suggested that qualitative
emerged from this study: group structure (i.e., conventions that methods offer the potential to discover “unnamed protective
shape group norms and values), mastery approaches (i.e., shared [resilience] processes” (p. 85). To better understand team resilience
attitudes and behaviors that promote an emphasis on team processes in elite sport, the present study specifically employed
improvement), social capital (i.e., the existence of high quality in- narrative inquiry. The premise of this approach is that individuals
teractions and caring relationships within the team), and collective and groups structure their experience through a “constructed form
efficacy (i.e., the team's shared beliefs in its ability to perform a or template which people rely on to tell stories” (Smith & Sparkes,
task). 2009, p. 2). This “constructed form or template” refers to the pat-
Within the organizational psychology literature, group resil- terns contained within stories that make it possible to understand
ience has been conceived as a dynamic process involving contin- the way people create meaning in their lives. Proponents of
uous anticipation and adjustment during challenging conditions narrative inquiry also assert that examining a person's stories can
(see, e.g., Gittell, Cameron, Lim, & Rivas, 2006; Lengnick-Hall, Beck, help explain human cognitions and behavior (Lieblich, Tuval-
& Lengnick-Hall, 2011). Key psychosocial processes facilitate the Mashiach, & Zilber, 1998). Within the context of elite sport, narra-
ability of groups to positively adapt to adversity. To illustrate, tive inquiry has been used to examine the lives of athletes through
leadership processes have been to found to enable pioneering non- their own stories to understand the psychosocial factors that form
profit organizations to survive and thrive over time (see Kimberlin, their experiences (see, e.g., Carless & Douglas, 2013). Smith and
Schwartz, & Austin, 2011). Specifically, these processes consisted of Sparkes (2009) proposed that narrative research encourages “a
effective individual leadership, entrepreneurial flexibility, and focus on the ways relations between people shape, enable, and
calculated risk-taking. Furthermore, connectivity to group mem- constrain lives, and the manner in which such sporting practices
bers has been identified as an important relational mechanism that like team development … arise through a storied process of social
allows top management teams (TMTs) to respond innovatively to interaction” (p. 6). Therefore, to further our understanding of team
continuously changing environmental demands (see Carmeli et al., resilience processes in elite sport, narrative inquiry is an appro-
2013). Relational features of resilience have also been explored in priate method to explore team members' interpretations of
TMTs through a focus on emotional carrying capacity (ECC), a re- meaning during challenging situations that they collectively
lationship's capacity to express emotions constructively (cf. Dutton encounter (cf. Morgan et al., 2013).
& Heaphy, 2003). For example, Stephens et al. (2013) found that
ECC mediated the relationship between trust and team resilience. Sample
The recent developments in resilience research have advanced
psychologists' knowledge of the nature, meaning, and scope of The 2003 England rugby union World Cup winning team was
team resilience. In the sport psychology literature, Morgan et al.'s selected as an appropriate case for a study of team resilience since
(2013) study extended resilience research by providing greater the team positively adapted to numerous adversities on their
definitional clarity of resilience at the team level (i.e., what team journey to success. Rugby union is an interactive, dynamic collision
resilience is) and proposing a framework to profile the resilient sport comprising of 15 players in a team. Competing in rugby re-
characteristics of elite sport teams (i.e., what resilient teams ‘look’ quires the coordination of various positions and roles. The sport
like). Although such knowledge provides descriptive information also involves players having to change frequently between offen-
about the factors that enable teams to withstand stressors, these sive and defensive situations and these structural and strategic
characteristics do not explain how resilient teams function. aspects place numerous demands on a team's resilience. The En-
Importantly, Morgan et al. described team resilience as a “dynamic, gland side was a professional team of full-time athletes with the
psychosocial process” (p. 552), which points to operational aspects team being re-selected every year and often re-selected during
of this construct and how it changes over time. They went on to each season. The players were selected from club teams that
argue that “due to the contextual and temporal nature of team competed in the professional English league. The team competed in
 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100 93

the 1999 and 2003 Rugby Union World Cups, and participated were made about when and where the themes appeared to provide
annually in a competition called the Six Nations (previously the an insight into interpretations of the story (Lieblich et al., 1998).
Five Nations) involving six European sides: England, France, Holistic-form analysis involved assessing the formal structure of
Ireland, Italy, Scotland, and Wales. During the period in question, the narrative contained within each autobiography to reveal par-
England won the Six Nations in 2000, 2001, and 2003. ticipants' perceptions and meaning of team resilience processes (cf.
The sample consisted of eight members from the team, namely Lieblich et al., 1998). Riessman (2008) proposed that this type of
Clive Woodward (Head Coach from 1997 to 2004), Martin Johnson analysis “allows topics and voices to be included in qualitative
(1993e2003, 84 England caps and Captain from 1999), Lawrence research that might be missing otherwise” (p. 80). The holistic-
Dallaglio (1995e2007, 85 England caps and Captain from 1997 to form analysis employed in the present study involved analyzing
1999), Matt Dawson (1995e2006, 77 England caps and occasional the temporal order of the stories (i.e., the sequence and progression
captain during this period), Will Greenwood (1997e2004, 55 En- of events) to reveal the critical “turning points” (Coffey & Atkinson,
gland caps), Richard Hill (1997e2008, 71 England caps), Jason 1996, p.71) and mechanisms that enabled the team to positively
Leonard (1990e2004, 114 England caps, and a record for the highest adapt during challenging situations. Interestingly, Coffey and
number of England rugby union appearances), and Jonny Wilkinson Atkinson (1996) suggested that “how the chronicle is told and
(1998e2011, 91 England caps which is the second highest number how it is structured can … provide information about the per-
of England rugby union appearances; he is also currently the sec- spectives of the individual in relation to the wider social grouping
ond highest points scorer in international rugby union history). … to which that individual belongs” (p. 68). This analysis specif-
Each of the players were active members of the team for all three ically involved an assessment of progression narratives by plotting
phases under investigation in this study (1997/1998 to 1999/2000, team resilience processes over time. Gergen and Gergen (1986)
2000/2001 to 2001/2002, & 2002/2003 to 2003/2004). The seven described progression narratives as either progressive (i.e., the
players (i.e., excluding Clive Woodward) collectively attained 577 story advances steadily), regressive (i.e., there is a course of
international England caps (M ¼ 82.2, SD ¼ 18.2) with an average of decline), or stable (i.e., the plot is steady).
11.1 years' playing experience at international level. Clive Wood- Finally, categorical-form analysis involved assessing the meta-
ward achieved 21 England caps as a player between 1980 and 1984 phorical imagery that supported the interpretation of the psycho-
and in 1997, he became England rugby's first full-time professional social context of team resilience (cf. Lieblich et al., 1998). The
head coach following coaching roles at various English clubs and meaning of resilience revealed through metaphor was examined
England under 21's. through a consideration of what the storyteller was trying to
convey through the use of metaphor (cf. Stewart et al., 2011). For all
three types of analysis, a systematic approach was achieved using
Data collection
Crossley's (2000) narrative research protocols. To illustrate, the first
author carried out the analysis using a structured framework
Team resilience was explored through the examination of eight
comprising key sections such as the temporal phase (e.g., life
published autobiographies, one autobiography for each member of
chapters), key events, progression narrative, significant people, and
the sample (viz. Dallaglio, 2008; Dawson, 2004; Greenwood, 2005;
metaphorical imagery.
Hill, 2006; Johnson, 2004; Leonard, 2004; Wilkinson, 2006;
Woodward, 2004). Autobiographies are documents that consti-
Methodological quality
tute descriptions of an individual's life and typically provide rich
information about psychosocial-related phenomena (Plummer,
The quality of the methodological approach was evaluated using
2001; Smith & Watson, 2001). As naturalistic life stories, autobi-
four main criteria. Firstly, purposive sampling was used in this study
ographies provide insights into deep expressions of experience that
(cf. Ritchie, Lewis, & Elam, 2003) which is often employed in
offer researchers and social scientists “a wonderful source for
narrative research to yield rich, relevant sources of information and
analysis” (Plummer, 2001, p. 28). To date, only three studies within
insights about a particular phenomenon (Riessman, 2008). Since
the sport literature have used autobiographies as a resource for
this investigation involved a case study of team resilience, a team
analysis (see Butryn & Masucci, 2003; Sparkes, 2004; Stewart,
was selected based on their ability to positively adapt to adversity. In
Smith, & Sparkes, 2011). Indeed, Stewart et al. (2011) observed
terms of positive adaptation, the team achieved the highest accolade
that “despite providing a potentially rich source of data within the
in professional rugby union, namely winning the Rugby World Cup.
field of sports-related studies, published autobiographies have, to
The team also consisted of some of the world's best athletes in the
date, been a neglected resource” (p. 582). Since autobiographies are
sport. Importantly for resilience research, all of the participants had
intrinsically social by nature (Bjorklund, 1998), they were consid-
also experienced (individual and collective) adversity during the
ered to be an appropriate resource to shed light on the personal and
period under investigation. Examples of individual adversity
shared understandings of team resilience processes.
included the death of close relatives (e.g., Woodward, Greenwood),
the death of a club team-mate (e.g., Leonard), and career threatening
Data analysis injuries (e.g., Dawson, Wilkinson, Hill). Challenging situations that
the team collectively encountered included a player-led strike, sig-
Data from the autobiographies were analyzed using three types nificant defeats in major international competitions, and various
of narrative analyzes: holistic-content analysis, holistic-form controversies resulting in Lawrence Dallaglio resigning as captain.
(structural) analysis, and categorical-form analysis (Lieblich et al., Secondly, the quality of the study was enhanced through the use of
1998; Riessman, 2008). Holistic-content analysis focused on the consensual validation which is an important aspect of assessing
content of the autobiographies to reveal the psychosocial processes narrative inquiry (Lieblich et al., 1998). During the analysis, regular
underlying team resilience during the course of the team's journey. meetings were held with two ‘critical friends’, namely the co-
In accordance with Lieblich et al. (1998), each autobiography was authors of this study, who were familiar with resilience research
read several times to initially form a general impression of the text and narrative analysis. Emerging findings were regularly presented
and to subsequently identify patterns and to enable the generation to these peers to assist with interpretations and to encourage a
of central themes that captured team resilience processes. These reflective approach (Sparkes & Partington, 2003). Thirdly, the
central themes were identified throughout the story, and notes quality of this study was achieved through the development of
94 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100

“width and comprehensive evidence” (Lieblich et al., 1998, p. 173).

Specifically, this investigation formed a relevant case-study of Team resilience was also strengthened during the early phase by
resilience within the context of elite team sport with numerous learning from the shared experiences of team members. During
quotations and thick description provided for the reader's judg- setbacks, team members referred to the importance of being able to
ment. Fourthly, narrative research was partly employed to offer “learn from it and move on” (Leonard, 2004, p. 182). Team learning
readers a “pragmatic use” (Riessman, 2008, p. 193). Indeed, the processes facilitated a collective mindset that enabled players to
present study is considered to be practically significant (cf. Tracy, “thrive on all the criticism” (Woodward, 2004, p. 251), “confront
2010) for athletes, coaches and support staff operating in elite sport. their failures head-on” (p. 252), and “learn from experiences”
(Dallaglio, 2008, p. 244). The following quote by Martin Johnson
Results (2004) shows how the team learned from their failure at the
1999 Rugby World Cup by changing their approach:
The results, representing the findings from the narrative anal- The [1999] World Cup was undeniably a failure from England's
ysis of the eight autobiographies, present the psychosocial pro- point of view. We should have done better than reaching the
cesses underlying team resilience in the 2003 England rugby union quarter-final. However, it did mark an important turning point
World Cup winning team. To illustrate the dynamic and temporal for us. The tournament became too heavy, too big in our minds.
nature of team resilience, the results are presented across three We were talking about it from five or six months out. Any
phases of the team's seven-season history: early phase (1997/8 to mistake you made in training seemed to be greeted with, ‘If this
1999/2000), middle phase (2000/2001 to 2001/2002), and later was the World Cup final … ’ The pressure on us became so great
phase (2002/2003 to 2003/2004). The holistic content analysis … that it had an effect on our rugby. Clive and the management
yielded 40 initial themes and five main team resilience processes: learned from that and they have tended to back off a little since
transformational leadership, shared team leadership, team [the 1999 World Cup thereby] creating a new England team in
learning, social identity, and positive emotions. The holistic-form the process. (p. 157)
analysis revealed a progressive narrative structure (cf. Gergen &
Gergen, 1986). Specifically, the findings illustrated collective posi-
tive evaluations from team members of setbacks, and a desire to During the latter part of the early phase, the formation of close
make forward progress to achieve the team's goals despite group attachments enhanced team resilience as “the team bonding
encountering numerous stressors. process was taken a stage further … [and] this kind of coming
together happened throughout the squad (Dallaglio, 2008, p. 255).
Individual members of the team aligned their thoughts and actions
Early team resilience phase
to those of the group with the team's emerging social identity
illustrated in this phase through the recognition that “Club England
During the early phase, the Head Coach used a variety of
was born” (Dallaglio, 2008, p. 255). A salient social identity was
inspirational methods to positively influence the motivation,
constructed through the use of mottos, imagery, and symbolic lin-
morale, and performance of team members. These trans-
guistic references such as, “Teamship” (Woodward, 2004, p 210),
formational leadership processes were specifically revealed
“War room” (p. 242), and codes of conduct created within the team's
through Clive Woodward's strategic planning, by being “brave
“Black Book” (p. 215). The following quote by Clive Woodward
enough to think longer term” (Dallaglio, 2008, p. 209) when faced
(2004) reveals the importance given to the team's social identity
with significant team disruption while preparing for a challenging
following a series of setbacks (e.g., losing the final match of the Five
overseas tour in 1998, developing a collective vision and philoso-
Nations Grand Slam against Wales in the last minute) and how this
phy, and managing change effectively. Illustrating the trans-
process was underpinned by a collective attachment to the team:
formational aspects of Woodward's leadership, Matt Dawson
highlighted the “ambition Clive had for England … Here, I thought,
was a man unafraid to speak his mind” (p. 89). Woodward's So when in my darkest moment the players started voicing their
development of the team's vision “challenged the norm” (Hill, support for me, as a coach, it was one of the proudest moments of
2006, p. 129) and, despite the team's 1999 Rugby World Cup fail- my life … Most of the top players had newspaper columns, and
ure, players recognized the importance of Woodward's vision and they were speaking openly about what the new England set-up
the “much-needed changes being made” since they believed that meant to them. They weighed in with their full support, and I
“before long, they would start to bear fruit” (Johnson, 2004, p. 156). think that tipped the balance in my favor. Even if I had been
Indeed, his transformational leadership ensured that “everyone's removed, with their comments I would have considered my time
noses pointed in the right direction” (Woodward, 2004, p. 256). in the England set-up a success. The player's support was positive
During challenging situations, such as the loss of a ‘Grand Slam’ proof that we were finally coming together as one. (p. 255)
decider (i.e., playing the last game of the Six Nations tournament to
finish undefeated), the Head Coach helped players to make sense of Holistic-form analysis revealed team members' anticipation of
setbacks by encouraging them to reflect on the “bigger picture” change and the notion of a long journey ahead: “as we strapped in,
(Dallaglio, 2008, p. 249) of what they were trying to achieve. The gripped the armrests and braced ourselves” (Greenwood, 2005, p.
following quote by Lawrence Dallaglio (2008) illustrates the impact 133). The use of imagery in this phase included references to “a
of Clive Woodward's aspirations and vision despite the team failing voyage of discovery” (Dawson, 2004, p. 91), “a breath of fresh air”
to win during the team's first series of matches in this early phase: (Leonard, 2004, p. 176), and “the start of something special” (Hill,
After my first four matches as England captain [in 1997/1998] 2006, p. 164). A progressive narrative form captured team resil-
there was nothing in the win column. I'd grown tired of ience during this early phase with a recurring theme of “getting
congratulating the opposition … The reason why things were somewhere” (Woodward, 2004, p. 180), “moving forward”
not as bleak as the results suggested was Clive Woodward. His (Dallaglio, 2008, p. 261), and where “the line on the graph pointed
vision for England was more ambitious than anything I'd known steadily up” (Hill, 2006, p. 139) regardless of adversities. This
and he knew what was needed to make us consistently narrative tone of forward progress despite setbacks was captured
competitive against every opposition. (p. 204) by Lawrence Dallaglio (2008) in the following quote:
 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100 95

After our exit in the 1999 World Cup quarter-final, Clive and clearly in the course of our development they have gone
Woodward talked about the team moving on and progressing wrong in major ways on several occasions … when things go
from good to great. Teams change slowly though, and it can be right, that's the time to look through the window and praise
hard to pinpoint any one moment and say, ‘There, that's when it those around you. But when things go wrong, then it's the time
happened.’ But there was one such moment for me, when it was to look in the mirror, shoulder the responsibility and not blame
obvious that something happened and that we had moved up a others. When the England team experience setbacks, all the
notch. I was standing in the South African changing room [June, people in the organization now hold themselves accountable.
2000] … We had lost a tight test match and yet what I saw in (p. 309)
that Springbok changing room convinced me that everything
was shifting … With that thought came the certainty that we
Team learning processes continued to facilitate team resilience
were no longer the old England. (p. 245)
during the middle phase. Specifically, it helped the team to “pull
back from the abyss” (Woodward, 2004, p. 296) by adopting an
approach whereby the team agreed to move on following setbacks
Middle team resilience phase (e.g., harsh criticism in the media after losing another Grand Slam
decider in 2001, a significant defeat to France in 2002, and the
During the middle phase, the team lost several key matches and player strike controversy). Learning from adversity was regarded as
also decided to strike over their pay. Clive Woodward (2004) com- “the making of England” (Wilkinson, 2006, p. 208) where “setbacks
mented on how the media portrayed this latter episode as “England's played a significant part in making the team strong” (Dallaglio,
darkest day” where “the wheels nearly fell off” (p. 292). Although he 2008, p. 262). Team resilience in this phase involved the squad
recognized that the strike “was a disaster waiting to happen” where understanding the perceived benefits of engaging in continuous
“nobody would win” (Woodward, 2004, p. 292), Woodward worked learning during setbacks and applying this knowledge in the future
with his players, despite his own frustrations, to enable the team to as described by Hill (2006):
continue its progress. Holistic content analysis showed that social
Personally, I never doubted myself or the team. On top of that,
identity processes further underpinned the development of team
we always felt we learned something from each of our losses. It
resilience in this middle phase. For example, within the different
may sound strange, but I really think each one [loss] helped us.
areas of the team, Hill (2006) began to recognize that some members
There are always little details that you picked up on and stored
were “taking on the identity of a trio” and “thinking as a unit” (p.162).
in the memory bank. That Lansdowne defeat [the final match
Social identity processes were further illustrated by the team's col-
against Ireland at the Dublin-based stadium to win the Six Na-
lective decision to strike. During this event, the team “were all of one
tions title] definitely influenced our preparations for the next
mind, … were all friends, [and] all believed in one another” (Dawson,
time we played there. (p. 176)
2004, p. 126). Moreover, the team “were brave and stood firm in the
face of all the pressure” (Johnson, 2004, p. 184) which “pulled us
together even tighter as a squad” (Hill, 2006, p. 170). The team's Holistic-form analysis revealed an underlying progressive
strengthening social identity in this middle phase was characterized narrative illustrated by frequent positive evaluations of critical in-
by caring relationships and a realization that team members were cidents which enabled the team to “go from strength to strength”
becoming emotionally bound to each other through their shared (Greenwood, 2005, p. 222). The following quote by Clive Woodward
difficult experiences. For example, after the death of his first child, (2004) shows how team members recognized the fluctuating pro-
Greenwood (2005) returned to training and the following quote by cess of team resilience during a period of improvement toward
him highlights the importance of the team's emotional attachment their eventual goal despite the experience of setbacks:
after the experience of this traumatic event:
The team were gathering momentum and then, once again, due
On Monday I was back in training with England doing fitness to influences for which I wasn't prepared, we suffered a crushing
tests [following the death of his first child] … It was good to be defeat. England were going well, sometimes very well, but not in
distracted, to do something physical as well as something a straight line and the huge highs and lows were like a roller-
reassuring in its familiarity … Although not much was said, I felt coaster. We would fight our way back, but the difference for
comfortable back in the company of my team-mates … The odd England by the time of the Ireland match [in 2001] was that our
shake of a hand, a pat on the back and the occasional look here setbacks were infrequent enough to make huge news. It was as if
and there was all that was needed to let me know people were the ceiling had fallen in. We got piled by everyone. The lessons
looking out for me. Others in the England squad had suffered over the loss to Ireland were many, and building success from
tragedy too. (p. 239) this major setback would be the final springboard to the glory
everyone deserved. (p. 303)
Team resilience was facilitated in the middle phase by individual
members of the team leading each other. Shared team leadership
Later team resilience phase
ensured that the aim was “not just to have one leader in a team of
followers, but to have an exceptional leader in a team of great
During the later phase, the England team became the top ranked
leaders” (Woodward, 2004, p. 308). This was further reinforced by
side in the world (International Rugby Board, 2014) and won the
the players repeated use of the phrase “teamship” (p. 360) to
Rugby World Cup in 2003. Social identity processes remained a
symbolize how team members collectively set their own high
pivotal aspect of team resilience. Players reflected on how their
standards in difficult times. The role of shared team leadership was
individual and collective adversities “pulled us closer together …
evident through the way players took individual and collective
[and] we owed it to each other to win” (Hill, 2006, p. 257). For
responsibility in challenging situations as shown in the following
example, having consistently underperformed in the initial stages
quote by Clive Woodward (2004):
of the World Cup, Greenwood (2005) remarked that “we may not
Perhaps the most significant example of leadership in relation to have been the most talented rugby team at the World Cup, but
the England One Team may be seen when things go wrong e nobody could touch us for camaraderie and looking around us, I just
96 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100

knew that was going to carry us over the finishing line” (p. 241). did what we had to do” (Dallaglio, 2008, p. 299 & 312), the team
Furthermore, despite the adversities he had experienced (e.g., often managed to “edge home” (Hill, 2006, p. 241) and, “perhaps
frequent injuries, fatigue, performance slumps) Wilkinson (2006) the ability to win when not playing well said something about the
stated that “I had such faith in the men around me that I felt like side?” (Dallaglio, 2008, p. 299). The progressive nature of team
I could face my fear [of failure in the 2003 World Cup]” (p. 40). The resilience was illustrated through references to learning processes.
importance of social identity during setbacks was highlighted by For example, Wilkinson (2006) remarked that “all the time we
team members who commented on the team's “character and grit” were learning, filing away the knowledge gained from disap-
(Hill, 2006, p. 269) and a group bound together with a “band of pointment and setbacks” (p. 23). The progressive narrative form
brothers” (Greenwood, 2005, p. 320) mentality. Metaphor further highlighted how team resilience was evident through players
reinforced this close bond through phrases such as “all-for-one, one feeling that their journey was destined toward a successful
for all” (Greenwood, 2005, p. 304) and “I'll put my head in where it outcome despite setbacks as the following quote by Wilkinson
hurts for him” (p. 320). Toward the later phase of the team's (2006) illustrates:
journey, the presence of salient social identity processes e char-
… the way in which we reacted in the quarter-final underlined
acterized by shared experiences of adversity and a deep emotional
to me that we had within us what it would take to win the
attachment to each other e was best illustrated in the following
[2003] World Cup … The matches to come and everything
quote by Greenwood (2005):
which surrounded them would be colossal but I just felt that we
It's almost time to head out [to the World Cup final] and Johnno had been through too much at the tournament to fail. The game
[Martin Johnson, the captain] calls us together into the center of in Brisbane against the Welsh added another coating of steel
the dressing room for his team talk. There is nothing tactical and around us and I don't think we looked back after that. When the
technical in what he says e the coaches have done all that. critics judged another narrow squeak as a sign of fallibility, they
‘We've taken some shit, but there is no other band of lads I'd misread the tealeaves. The more important fact was this: we had
rather walk out into a World Cup final than you lot … ’ I know he come through the examination e our third towering challenge
isn't just talking about throwing away Grand Slam matches or of the tournament e intact and were still afloat, heading for the
tough tours or criticism in the press e he is talking about all the semi-finals. (p. 36)
shit which we have been through as human beings. For me it
means Freddie [his child who died at birth], for Lawrence it may
Shared team leadership processes were a recurring feature of
have meant the death of his sister, for Ben Cohen it may have
team resilience in this later phase with players reflecting on their
been his dad who was murdered in 2000, for Mike Catt, it may
growing ability to take collective responsibility. Metaphorical im-
have been his daughter who was very ill at birth, for all of us it
agery reinforced the presence of shared leadership since players
was Nicky Duncombe [a playing colleague who died playing
were “able to cut the umbilical cord” (Dallaglio, 2008, p. 324) from
rugby]. There is a great electric charge in Johnno's words … it
relying on coaches. This was also highlighted by players describing
speaks directly to all of us. We are bonding very tightly at this
how their ability to share responsibility enabled the team to
moment. (p. 314)
withstand stressors through “a triumph of self-discipline, which is
something we had been working on for years” (Greenwood, 2005,
During the later phase, positive emotions were particularly p. 247). The following quote by Hill (2006) shows that effective
important in underpinning team resilience. For example, Wilkinson shared team leadership meant that the players were able to take
(2006) remarked that “playing international rugby is a serious complete responsibility prior to extra-time in the 2003 World Cup
business but the tension which surrounds it needs a release and final:
often laughter is the answer” (p. 201). Metaphorical imagery
As the whistle went for full time, it dawned on me that we
highlighted the importance of humor in the build-up to the 2003
hadn't scored a single point in the second half. I honestly think
World Cup, with players reflecting that, during their social outings
that a lot of teams might have panicked. Instead, Johnno called
on their summer tour of 2003, they behaved like “naughty
us around in a huddle. Eddie Jones [the opposing Head Coach]
schoolboys [who] needed to let off steam” (Greenwood, 2005, p.
had come down to address his team, but when Clive [Wood-
261). Richard Hill commented that players engaged in “non-stop
ward] arrived Jonno told him to leave everything to him and the
chatter” (p. 141) where there was “plenty of sledging [verbal abuse
players. ‘Clive, no problem, we know what we are doing’ he said.
with other players]” (p. 141). The expression of banter amongst
Clive was an organizer, a facilitator and an original thinker … by
team members is highlighted in the following quote by Hill (2006)
putting together a side full of key players and leaders … Clive
on his return to training after a serious injury:
had made himself redundant as a leader. (p. 260)
Bizarrely and as if by magic, the leg felt 100 per cent the next
day. They held the daily management meeting and Barney [the
team's physio] reported that I seemed to have turned the corner.
Discussion
Shortly after the Wales game, I rejoined the squad training and
was greeted with universal abuse. ‘What are you doing here?
Using narrative analyzes of autobiographies, we explored the
‘Who are you, who's the new kid?’ ‘Holiday's over is it?’ Got
underlying psychosocial processes of team resilience in the 2003
bored of smoking cigars? [The banter] was great to hear. (p. 246)
England rugby union World Cup winning team. Extending previ-
ous research that presented a definition of team resilience and
identified the resilient characteristics of elite sport teams (Morgan
In this later phase, holistic-form analysis highlighted how team et al., 2013), the findings of the present study provide an insight
resilience was facilitated through a progressive narrative form. into the mechanisms that explain how a resilient team functions
This particular narrative structure revealed comments about how particularly illustrating how resilience processes were essential for
the team was succeeding despite frequently performing below the development of excellence at the highest level of sport. Spe-
their expectations. This was illustrated through phrases such as “it cifically, the findings revealed five main psychosocial processes
hadn't been a brilliant performance but a job well done”, “we just that underpinned team resilience in the England team between
 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100 97

1997/8 and 2003/4: transformational leadership, shared team leveraged the team's resilience by influencing group members to
leadership, team learning, social identity, and positive emotions. positively adjust their efforts to achieve team tasks during chal-
The results indicated that these processes enabled the England lenging situations. Moreover, shared leadership appeared to
rugby team to effectively utilize their cognitive, affective, and improve coordination when encountering stressors by promoting
relational resources to act as leverage points for team resilience greater implementation of roles and responsibilities for team
when facing stressors. Furthermore, the findings of this study members' performance (cf. Burke, Stagl, Salas, Pierce, & Kendall,
revealed that team resilience was illuminated through a progres- 2006; Yeatts & Hyten, 1998). To illustrate, the phrase “teamship”
sive narrative form. This was portrayed by team members evalu- was used to reinforce the team's commitment to collective
ating stressors in a positive fashion and focusing on moving accountability and action. The results also highlighted the team's
forward as a team despite setbacks. enhanced coordination through the progressive narrative form
when evaluating setbacks (e.g., “we just did what we had to do”,
Transformational leadership “able to cut the umbilical cord”). Subsequently, shared leadership
appeared to facilitate the team's resilience through members
Transformational leadership involves the building of relation- positively influencing each other to perform for the benefit of the
ships between leaders and followers based on personal, emotional, wider team (cf. Fransen, Coffee et al., in press; Fransen,
and inspirational exchanges, with the aim of creating an environ- Vanbeselaere, De Cuyper, Vande Broek, & Boen, in press; Van der
ment in which followers can achieve their optimal potential (Bass, Kleij, Molenaar, & Schraagen, 2011). Interestingly, the findings of
1985). The findings showed that transformational leadership the present study illustrate that two specific approaches to lead-
emerged as a pivotal team resilience process. Specifically, trans- ership (i.e., transformational and shared team leadership) under-
formational leadership enabled the England team to withstand the pinned the team's resilience. The role of both these leadership
setbacks that they collectively encountered, particularly during the processes should be evaluated in relation to the stage of a team's
early phase, through collective vision development and inspiring development. For example, the role of transformational leadership
players to “start thinking differently and play differently” (Leonard, seemed to be particularly important during the team's early phase
2004, p. 179). A possible explanation for this finding is that trans- due to the significant organizational changes which occurred.
formational leaders enable teams to be “more confident in their Thereafter, team resilience appeared to develop through “a
ability to deal with failure … [and] encourage [them] to take risks continuous ebb and flow” (Ensley et al., 2006, p; 227) between
and to pursue innovative and creative activities” (Peterson, transformational and shared leadership.
O'Walumbwa, Byron, & Myrowitz, 2009 p. 353). Transformational
leadership may have also underpinned the team's resilience
through the construction of a facilitative collective climate (cf. Team learning
Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006). This refers to a shared understanding of
the group environment and perceptions about the strategic direc- The findings of this study also revealed that team learning
tion of the team (e.g., the England rugby team recognized that they processes underpinned the team's resilience. Team members
needed to be innovative and creative to be the top-ranked team in referred to their ability to “file away the knowledge” (Wilkinson,
the world). Specifically, the results of our study suggested that 2006, p. 23) following setbacks and to apply their learning to
transformational leadership influences team resilience through the future challenges. An explanation for this finding is that team
leader's frequent reinforcement of the team's strategic priorities. mental models may have influenced the team's resilience through
Kozlowski and Ilgen (2006) suggested that this process operates harnessing collective sense making during adverse situations (cf.
through “perceptual filtering” (p. 84) whereby people take in new Weick, 1993). Team mental models refer to shared knowledge
information and interpret it, according to prior experiences, to structures relevant to the team's task environment (Kozlowski &
reduce uncertainty about new experiences. In the present study, Ilgen, 2006). According to Lim and Klein (2006), they improve
this process positively influenced team members' collective in- team performance by enabling team members to anticipate one
terpretations of adverse events (e.g., after losing a Six Nations another's actions and to coordinate their behaviors especially un-
Championship, Clive Woodward reminded the team that their der demanding circumstances. Our results suggested that the
mission was to become the best team in the world, not the best team's resilience involved members of the team organizing their
team in Europe). Collectively, these findings appear to resonate knowledge about how to act during challenging situations (e.g.,
with Hodge, Henry, and Smith's (2014) study that found that identifying specific information from significant defeats, such as
transformational leadership was important for the 2011 Rugby the 2001 Grand Slam decider, to positively influence their future
World Cup champion team (see also Hodge & Smith, in press). preparations). The findings reported in this study also suggested
Specifically, after two critical turning points (i.e., negative in- that team learning underpinned the team's resilience through the
cidents) in 2004 and 2007, the New Zealand All Blacks rugby team psychological phenomenon of transactive memory (cf. Wegner,
used several transformational leadership approaches including the 1995). At the team-level, this refers to networked information
employment of a dual-management model, the development of a processing comprising individual memory systems and combined
leadership group, the transference of responsibility to players, and knowledge with a common awareness of such knowledge
the expectation of excellence. (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006). To illustrate, during ‘extra-time’ in the
2003 Rugby World Cup final, players described knowing what to do
Shared team leadership in particular challenging situations, such as the last 2 min of play,
where they “used every last bit of that combined knowledge”
The salience of the theme of leadership was further evident (Wilkinson, 2006, p. 35). Transactive memory appears to explain
through the identification of shared team leadership as an under- how both individual and collective knowledge facilitates team
lying team resilience process. Contrasting with more conventional members' understanding of how and when to apply this knowledge
“vertical” forms of leadership (Ensley, Hmieleski, & Pearce, 2006), in adverse situations. Overall, therefore, team learning appears to
shared team leadership refers to the spread of leadership amongst be an important team-level resilience process that yields the spe-
numerous team members (Carson, Tesluck, & Marrone, 2007). The cific cognitive resources and networked knowledge required during
findings of this study suggest that shared team leadership difficult circumstances.
98 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100

Social identity capital and high quality relations during setbacks. Positive emo-
tions also seemed to buffer the team from the potential negative
Social identity was an important underlying process of team effects of stressors by enabling the team to absorb threat and
resilience for the England rugby union team. Social identity is a possible harm (Cameron et al., 2011), and by facilitating the
process where groups engage in collective action to develop a expression of latent tensions (Hatch, 1997).
picture of what the group represents (Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Hogg,
Abrams, Otten, & Hinkle, 2004). To illustrate, social identity was Strengths and limitations
characterized in this team through the presence of deep collective
emotional bonds. Moreover, the use of imagery such as “Club En- When employing qualitative methods it is important to consider
gland” and “Teamship” symbolized the importance of their shared some of the strengths and limitations of the approach adopted. A
and distinct team identity which was often recalled by team notable strength of this investigation was the appropriateness of
members during setbacks. In this group setting personal identity the selected team for a study on team resilience. Firstly, the par-
(“I”) appeared to give way to social identity (“we”) where team ticipants were part of a team which remain the only England side to
members adjusted their self-concept, thoughts, and behavior to be win the Rugby World Cup. Secondly, the participants' experiences
aligned with those defined by the group (cf. Turner, 1991). In the of both individual and collective adversity provided an authentic
present study, an example of this can be seen when the team representation of team resilience. Another strength of this inves-
collectively decided to strike over pay despite several individual tigation was that the data gleaned from the analysis of the auto-
athletes disagreeing. An explanation for social identity processes biographies contained a wealth of narratives. Douglas and Carless
facilitating the team's resilience is the role of strong emotional at- (2009) suggested that narratives can “illuminate psychological
tachments during adversity (Gittell et al., 2006). Specifically, this processes in socio-cultural contexts” (p. 213). In this study, a key
may operate through affective commitment (cf. Dimmock, Grove, & approach for elucidating the team resilience processes was the
Eklund, 2005) whereby high-quality relations and emotional in- collection of tacit knowledge that “transcends the immediate sur-
tensity positively influence the ability of a team to take effective face of speech, texts, or discursive materials” (Tracy, 2010, p. 843).
action during adversity. This might explain why the participants in We feel that the narrative analysis strategies employed in this study
the present study felt that their individual and shared experiences enabled the researchers to go beneath the ‘surface’ of the stories
of adversity created such strong affective attachments and a “band contained within the autobiographies to reveal a profound insight
of brothers” mentality. Another possible explanation is that the into team resilience processes. Notwithstanding these strengths, it
team's distinctive social identity provided a psychological basis for is important to acknowledge that although autobiographies contain
receiving e and gaining benefits from e the social support of team expressions of personal lives, researchers should recognize that the
members (Haslam, O'Brien, Jetten, Vormedal, & Penna, 2005). recall of past experiences will likely be reinterpreted through
Interestingly, Rees et al. (2013) recently proposed that a salient memory and language. Taking this point into consideration, we
group identity has the potential to act as a psychosocial process analyzed the autobiographies of eight members from the same
which alleviates “performance downward spirals” (p. 400). team which helped to identify any differences in their recall of
Collectively, the results of the present study appear to indicate the shared critical incidents. It should also be acknowledged that the
importance of social identity processes to harness affective and findings in this study represent just one interpretation of team
relational psychosocial resources to promote team resilience. resilience and that narrative researchers should recognize that
‘truth’ is constructed through the researcher's values and beliefs
Positive emotions (Smith, 2010). By using narrative analysis strategies that paid
particular attention to the chronology of incidents, we attempted to
This study identified positive emotions as an important team be faithful to the stories and the subsequent interpretation of the
resilience process for the England rugby team. Resilience re- events (King, 2008).
searchers have proposed that positive emotions are associated with
individual resilience (see, e.g., Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). The Future research
findings of the present study suggested that team resilience is
harnessed by group-level positive emotions which are salient The findings of this study suggest that team resilience processes
during challenging situations. For example, Kaplan, Laport, and are likely to be a promising area for future research. Although this
Waller (2013) proposed that positive emotions, such as vigor and study provided an initial insight into the dynamic and temporal
joy, may be pivotal for team effectiveness during crises. The results aspects of a team's resilience in elite sport, longitudinal research is
in the present study also showed that the England team often used required to further explore the resilience processes identified in
humor (e.g., sledging, banter) following setbacks. For example, on this study. To illustrate, Kimberlin et al. (2011) analyzed organiza-
returning to the 2003 World Cup team following serious injury, tional histories spanning several decades to portray organizational
Richard Hill was greeted by team members directing putdown resilience processes. An important issue to consider when con-
humor at him. This was paradoxically a sign of the team's appre- ducting this type of research is the sociocultural context in which a
ciation of their colleague's return following a challenging period of team operates (cf. Xenikou & Furnham, 2012). More specifically,
the 2003 tournament. Putdown humor may have influenced team scholars need to be sensitive to the sociocultural factors that
resilience by stimulating positive mutual exchanges and interper- contextualize how team resilience is manifested in different prac-
sonal bonds (cf. Terrien & Ashforth, 2002). Furthermore, the tices (cf. Ungar, 2008). Future research efforts should explore the
experience of positivity during adversity has been found to build a link between stress and group processes and how they interact to
durable psychosocial emotional space conducive for team resil- influence team functioning and performance (cf. Levi, 2013; Franz,
ience (cf. Losada & Heaphy, 2004). Another possible explanation is 2012). Subsequently, researchers could investigate the specific role
that positive emotions produce amplifying and buffering effects of each process and how each team mechanism can be developed
which enhances a team's ability to withstand stressors (cf. and maintained. For example, the results of the present study
Cameron, Mora, Leutscher, & Carlarco, 2011). Positive team prac- highlight the need to more fully understand the ebb and flow of
tices (e.g., “behaving like naughty schoolboys”) amplified and transformational and shared leadership within teams (Carson et al.,
reinforced the effects of positive emotions by strengthening social 2007) in facilitating and sustaining resilience. Furthermore,
 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100 99

creative qualitative approaches such as ethnography offer with teams: the sport psychologist himself or herself, the given
intriguing possibilities to study ‘first-hand’ the underlying team tasks and demands, and the social and organizational structure.
resilience mechanisms reported in this study and how they are First, sport psychologists should reflect on the personal resources
developed. Prolonged immersion in a team setting, using partici- they possess to intervene and perhaps most importantly, they
pant observation and a range of interviewing methods, could pave should take time to develop contextual intelligence so as to un-
the path for a pre-intervention evaluation of team resilience as a derstand “what works with which persons in which situations”
precursor for the development of a team resilience training pro- (Brown, Gould, & Foster, 2005, p. 51). Second, the situational tasks
gram (cf. Wagstaff, Fletcher, & Hanton, 2012; Wagstaff, Hanton, & and demands are likely to determine how practitioners work with
Fletcher, 2013). Finally, this research suggests that a resilient teams (cf. Kleinert et al., 2012; Paradis & Martin, 2012). In the
team is likely to be more than a collection of resilient individuals context of the present study, developing team resilience should be
(see also Morgan et al., 2013). For team resilience research and seen as a proactive approach to managing stressors and as part of a
measurement in sport, this indicates that team resilience should be team's long-term development rather than a short-term plan to
operationalized and assessed differently at different levels of address a crisis. Third, the social and organizational structure will
analysis. Specifically, researchers should use multilevel modeling to influence the intervention approach, the method of gaining credi-
disaggregate individuals' perceptions of the team's resilience from bility and trust, and the decisions made (cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff,
team-level resilience. Chan's (1998) typology of composition 2009). Importantly, when developing team resilience, it may be
models provides an excellent framework for organizing, evaluating, easier for a sport psychologist to be accepted when, in team phi-
and developing constructs in multilevel research (e.g., to extend the losophy and style, the practitioner has a recognized place in the
assessment of individual-level resilience to the team-level). team (e.g., because he or she has already worked with the team
during the season).
Practical implications
Concluding remarks
The findings of this study revealed five main psychosocial pro-
cesses, underpinning the resilience of a world champion team, that This study's findings revealed five main team resilience pro-
offer practitioners a framework to build team resilience during the cesses based on a case-study of a rugby union World Cup winning
course of a team's journey. When developing team resilience, team. The psychosocial processes consisted of: transformational
practitioners should consider these processes in relation to the leadership, shared team leadership, team learning, social identity,
stressors that the team is encountering. Moreover, due to the dy- and positive emotions. The underlying processes identified in this
namic nature of team resilience, it is likely that the relative emphasis study explained how team resilience involves the active mobiliza-
and salience of these processes will vary over time due to changes in tion of a team's individual and group resources to withstand
the team environment (e.g., injury, selection decisions) and in stressors in the pursuit of optimal sport performance. The impor-
accordance with the stage of a team's existence. Indeed, teams are tance of sport teams being able to manage adversity over time is
not static entities and the temporal nature of demands and psy- portrayed through the following quote by England's former rugby
chosocial processes is an important consideration when developing union Head Coach, Clive Woodward: “Our success has not been a
a culture of sustainable excellence (cf. Yukelson & Rose, 2014). continual series of victories. We have had a number of devastating
Although the results of this study are based on one elite sport team setbacks; how these are handled is the mark of a great team … It
which may limit the generalizability of the findings, the knowledge has been against all odds, but winning does not happen in a straight
generated through the qualitative methods can still transfer and be line” (Woodward, 2004; xiii). To achieve success at the highest
useful to practitioners working with other populations (cf. Tracy, levels of elite sport, the cultivation of team resilience processes
2010; Ungar, 2003). During the early years of team formation, our appear to be pivotal over time in protecting teams from negative
results suggest that transformational leadership strategies, such as consequences that may be encountered along the pathway to
articulating and reinforcing a compelling team vision, are important sporting excellence.
to focus on to protect groups of individuals from the potential
negative consequences of stressors. During the middle phase, it References
appears that the creation of a leadership group (i.e., shared team
leadership) becomes more of a priority to boost team resilience Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York City,
since it promotes connectivity, ensures that players are ‘on the same NY: Free Press.
Bjorklund, D. (1998). Interpreting the self: Two hundred years of American autobi-
wavelength’ during setbacks, and enforces accountability by taking ography. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
positive action. The facilitation of team learning also seems to be Brown, S. R., Gould, D., & Foster, S. (2005). A framework for developing contextual
beneficial during this phase. To expedite team learning, practi- intelligence (CI). The Sport Psychologist, 19, 51e62.
Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Salas, E., Pierce, L., & Kendall, D. (2006). Understanding team
tioners could hold meetings that require players to reflect on the adaptation: a conceptual analysis and model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91,
new knowledge and benefits gained from experiences of adversity 1189e1207.
(e.g., evaluate stressors as an opportunity for group development Butryn, T. M., & Masucci, M. A. (2003). It's not about the book: a cyborg counter-
narrative of Lance Armstrong. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 27, 124e144.
and mastery) and consider how this information can be used in the Cameron, K., Mora, C., Leutscher, T., & Carlarco, M. (2011). Effects of positive prac-
future. During the latter period of a team's development, our find- tices on organizational effectiveness. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 47,
ings suggest that displays of positive emotions are important to 266e308.
Carless, D., & Douglas, K. (2013). Living, resisting, and playing the part of athlete:
emphasize. Coaches should closely observe the behavior of athletes narrative tensions in elite sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14, 701e708.
during training for signals that may indicate lack of vitality. To Carmeli, A., Friedman, Y., & Tishler, A. (2013). Cultivating a resilient top manage-
stimulate humor, players could create a platform for banter through ment team: the importance of relational connections and strategic decision
comprehensiveness. Safety Science, 51, 148e159.
team rituals (e.g., celebrating moments of resilience) and ‘story-
Carson, J. B., Tesluk, P. E., & Marrone, J. A. (2007). Shared leadership in teams: an
telling’ to explain successes and failures. investigation of antecedent conditions and performance. Academy of Manage-
When developing excellence in teams, practitioners should ment Journal, 50, 1217e1234.
consider utilizing the framework proposed by Kleinert et al. (2012). Chan, D. (1998). Functional relations among constructs in the same content domain
at different levels of analysis: a typology of composition models. Journal of
Specifically, they suggest that three situational components deter- Applied Psychology, 83, 234e246.
mine the procedure, approach, and trust building when working Coffey, A., & Atkinson, P. (1996). Making sense of qualitative data. London, UK: Sage.
100 P.B.C. Morgan et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 16 (2015) 91e100

Crossley, M. L. (2000). Introducing narrative psychology: Self, trauma and the con- Levi, D. (2013). Group dynamics for teams. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
struction of meaning. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R., & Zilber, T. (1998). Narrative research: Reading,
Dallaglio, L. (2008). It's in the blood: My life. London, UK: Headline. analysis and interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dawson, M. (2004). Nine lives. Altrincham, UK: Willow. Lim, B.-C., & Klein, K. J. (2006). Team mental models and team performance: a field
Dimmock, J. A., Grove, J. R., & Eklund, R. (2005). Reconceptualizing team identifi- study of the effects of team mental model similarity and accuracy. Journal of
cation: new dimensions and their relationship to intergroup bias. Group Dy- Organizational Behaviour, 27, 403e418.
namics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 9, 75e86. Losada, M., & Heaphy, E. (2004). The role of positivity and connectivity in the
Douglas, K., & Carless, D. (2009). Abandoning the performance narrative: two performance of business teams. American Behavioral Scientist, 47, 740e765.
women's stories of transition from professional sport. Journal of Applied Sport Luthar, S. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: implications for in-
Psychology, 21, 213e230. terventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 857e885.
Dutton, J. E., & Heaphy, E. D. (2003). The power of high-quality connections at work. Morgan, P. B. C., Fletcher, D., & Sarkar, M. (2013). Defining and characterizing team
In K. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational schol- resilience in elite sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14, 549e559.
arship (pp. 263e278). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler. Morgeson, F. P., & Hofmann, D. A. (1999). The structure and function of collective
Ensley, M. D., Hmieleski, K. M., & Pearce, C. L. (2006). The importance of vertical and constructs: Implications for multilevel research and theory development.
shared leadership within new venture top management teams: Implications for Academy of Management Review, 24, 249e265.
the performance of start-ups. Leadership Quarterly, 17, 217e231. Paradis, K. F., & Martin, L. J. (2012). Team building in sport: Linking theory and
Fletcher, D., Hanton, S., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2006). An organizational stress review: research to practical application. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 3, 159e170.
conceptual and theoretical issues in competitive sport. In S. Hanton, & Peterson, S. J., Walumbwa, F. O., Byron, K., & Myrowitz, J. (2009). CEO positive psy-
S. D. Mellalieu (Eds.), Literature reviews in sport psychology (pp. 321e374). chological traits, transformational leadership, and firm performance in high-
Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science. technology start-up and established firms. Journal of Management, 35, 348e368.
Fletcher, D., & Sarkar, M. (2012). A grounded theory of psychological resilience in Plummer, K. (2001). Documents of life. London, UK: Sage.
Olympic champions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 669e678. Rees, T., Salvatore, J., Coffee, P., Haslam, S. A., Sargent, A., & Dobson, T. (2013).
Fletcher, D., & Sarkar, M. (2013). Psychological resilience: a review and critique of Reversing downward performance spirals. Journal of Experimental Social Psy-
definitions, concepts and theory. European Psychologist, 18, 12e23. chology, 49, 400e403.
Fletcher, D., & Wagstaff, C. R. D. (2009). Organizational psychology in elite sport: Its Riessman, C. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA:
emergence, application and future. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 427e434. Sage.
Fransen, K., Coffee, P., Vanbeselaere, N., Slater, M., De Cuyper, B., & Boen, F. (2014). Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., & Elam, G. (2003). Designing and selecting samples. In J. Ritchie,
The impact of athlete leaders on team members' team outcome confidence: a & J. Lewis (Eds.), Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students
test of mediation by team identification and collective efficacy. The Sport Psy- and researchers (pp. 24e46). London, UK: Sage.
chologist (in press). Silverman, D. (2006). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text,
Fransen, K., Vanbeselaere, N., De Cuyper, B., Vande Broek, G., & Boen, F. (2014). The and interaction (3rd ed.). London, UK: Sage.
myth of the team captain as principal leader: Extending the athlete leadership Smith, B. (2010). Narrative inquiry: ongoing conversations and questions for sport
classification within sport teams. Journal of Sport Sciences (in press). and exercise psychology research. International Review of Sport and Exercise
Franz, T. M. (2012). Group dynamics and team interventions: Understanding and Psychology, 3, 87e107.
improving team performance. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Smith, B., & Sparkes, A. C. (2009). Narrative inquiry in sport and exercise psychol-
Galli, N., & Vealey, R. (2008). Bouncing back from adversity: Athletes' experiences of ogy: what can it mean, and why might we do it. Psychology of Sport & Exercise,
resilience. The Sport Psychologist, 22, 316e335. 10, 1e11.
Gergen, K. J., & Gergen, M. M. (1986). Narrative form and the construction of psy- Smith, S., & Watson, J. (2001). Reading autobiography. Minneapolis, MN: University
chological science. In T. R. Sarbin (Ed.), Narrative psychology: The storied nature of Minnesota Press.
of human conduct (pp. 22e44). New York City, NY: Praeger. Sparkes, A. C. (2004). Bodies, narratives, selves, and autobiography: the example of
Gittell, J. H., Cameron, K., Lim, S., & Rivas, V. (2006). Relationships, layoffs, and Lance Armstrong. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 28, 397e428.
organizational resilience: Airline industry responses to September 11. Journal of Sparkes, A. C., & Partington, S. (2003). Narrative practice and its potential contri-
Applied Behavioral Science, 42, 300e329. bution to sport psychology: the example of flow. The Sport Psychologist, 17,
Greenwood, W. (2005). Will: The autobiography of Will Greenwood. London, UK: 292e317.
Century. Stephens, J. P., Heaphy, E. D., Carmeli, A., Spreitzer, G. M., & Dutton, J. E. (2013).
Gucciardi, D. F., Jackson, B., Coulter, T. J., & Mallett, C. J. (2011). The Connor-Davidson Relationship quality and virtuousness: emotional carrying capacity as a source
Resilience Scale (CD-RISC): Dimensionality and age-related measurement of individual and team resilience. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 49,
invariance with Australian cricketers. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 12, 423e433. 13e41.
Haslam, S. A., O'Brien, A., Jetten, J., Vormedal, K., & Penna, S. (2005). Taking the Stewart, C., Smith, B., & Sparkes, A. C. (2011). Sporting autobiographies of illness: the
strain: social identity, social support and the experience of stress. British Journal role of metaphor. Sport in Society, 14, 581e597.
of Social Psychology, 44, 355e370. Terrien, J. L., & Ashforth, B. E. (2002). From ‘I’ to ‘we’: the role of putdown humor
Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychological preparation for and identity in the development of a temporary group. Human Relations, 55,
sport: Theory and practice of elite performers. Chichester, UK: Wiley. 55e58.
Hatch, M. J. (1997). Irony and the social construction of contradiction in the humor Tracy, S. J. (2010). Qualitative quality: eight “big tent” criteria for excellent quali-
of a management team. Organization Science, 8, 275e288. tative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16, 837e851.
Hill, R. (2006). Richard Hill: The autobiography. London, UK: Orion. Tugade, M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions
Hodge, K., Henry, G., & Smith, W. (2014). A case study of excellence in elite sport: to bounce back from negative emotional arousal. Journal of Personality and
Motivational climate in a world champion team. The Sport Psychologist, 28, 60e74. Social Psychology, 86, 320e333.
Hodge, K., & Smith, W. (2014). Public expectation, pressure, and ‘avoiding-the- Turner, J. C. (1991). Social influence. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press.
choke’: a case study from elite sport. The Sport Psychologist (in press). Ungar, M. (2003). Qualitative contributions to resilience research. Qualitative Social
Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications. A social psychology of Work, 2, 85e102.
intergroup relations and group processes. London, UK: Routledge. Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across cultures. British Journal of Social Work, 38,
Hogg, M. A., Abrams, D., Otten, S., & Hinkle, S. (2004). The social identity 218e235.
perspective: Intergroup relations, self-conception, and small groups. Small Van der Kleij, R., Molenaar, D., & Schraagen, J. M. (2011). Making teams more
Group Research, 35, 246e276. resilient: effects of shared transformational leadership training on resilience.
International Rugby Board. (2014). IRB World Rankings. Retrieved from http://www. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 55, 2158e2162.
irb.com/rankings/archive/date¼2003-10-13/histranking.html. Retrieved March Wagstaff, C. R. D., Fletcher, D., & Hanton, S. (2012). Positive organizational psy-
8, 2014. chology in sport: an ethnography of organizational functioning in a national
Johnson, M. (2004). Martin Johnson: The autobiography. London, UK: Headline. sport organization. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24, 26e47.
Kaplan, S., Laport, K., & Waller, M. J. (2013). The role of positive affectivity in team Wagstaff, C. R. D., Hanton, S., & Fletcher, D. (2013). Developing emotion abilities and
effectiveness during crises. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34, 473e491. regulation strategies in a sport organization: an action research intervention.
Kimberlin, S. E., Schwartz, S. L., & Austin, M. J. (2011). Growth and resilience of Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14, 476e487.
pioneering nonprofit human service organizations: a cross-case analysis of Wegner, D. (1995). A computer network model of human transactive memory.
organizational histories. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 8, 4e28. Social Cognition, 13, 319e339.
King, N. (2008). Plotting the lives of others: narrative structure in some recent Weick, K. E. (1993). The collapse of sensemaking in organizations: the Mann Gulch
British autobiography. Qualitative Research, 8, 339e346. disaster. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38, 628e652.
Kleinert, J., Ohlert, J., Carron, B., Eys, M., Feltz, D., Harwood, C., et al. (2012). Group Wilkinson, J. (2006). My world. London, UK: Headline.
dynamics in sports: an overview and recommendations on diagnostic and Woodward, C. (2004). Winning! London, UK: Hodder & Stoughton.
intervention. The Sport Psychologist, 26, 412e434. Xenikou, A., & Furnham, A. (2012). Group dynamics and organizational culture.
Kozlowski, W. J., & Ilgen, D. R. (2006). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
and teams. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7, 77e124. Yeatts, D. E., & Hyten, C. (1998). High performing self-managed work teams: A com-
Lengnick-Hall, C. A., Beck, T. E., & Lengnick-Hall, M. L. (2011). Developing a capacity parison of theory to practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
for organizational resilience through strategic human resource management. Yukelson, D., & Rose, R. (2014). The psychology of ongoing excellence: an NCAA
Human Resource Management Review, 21, 243e255. coach's perspective on winning consecutive multiple national championships.
Leonard, J. (2004). Full time. Altrincham, UK: Willow. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 5, 44e58.