ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS 1

1.1 Atomic Theory of Matter

The Atomic Theory of Matter states that all matter consists of extremely small
particles called atoms. Atoms consist of even smaller particles called electrons, protons,
and neutrons. The nucleus consists of all of the atom's protons and neutrons. The part
of an atom that gives an element its identity is the nucleus. Surrounding the nucleus of
an atom are particles having opposite electric charge from the protons. These are the
electrons. When atoms of elements join together to form a compound, the resulting
particles are molecules.
Physicists arbitrarily call the electrons’ charge negative, and the protons' charge
positive. An electron has exactly the same charge quantity as a proton, but with
opposite polarity. The electrons were seen as orbiting the nucleus, making the atom like
a miniature solar system with the electrons as the planets. See Figure 1a and 1b.
Electrons were discovered in 1897 by Sir Joseph John Thomson, the protons in 1918
by Ernest Rutherford, and the neutrons in 1932 by Sir James Chadwick.

Figure 1a Figure 1b

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1.11 Metric Prefixes and Scientific Notation

In engineering, some very large and very small values are used. To make writing
of these numbers easier use of a prefix is made. A prefix is an affix which is placed
before the root of a word. The prefix gives a value with which the value must be
multiplied. Each prefix has a unique symbol that is write before a certain unit. Using
Table 1, the prefix kilo for example, may be added to gram to indicate multiplication by
one thousand; one kilogram is equal to one thousand grams.

Table 1
List of common prefixes
PREFIX Symbol Value ( Multiplier)
Tera T x 1012
Giga G x 109
Mega M x 106
Kilo k x 103
milli m x 10-3
micro µ x 10-6
nano n x 10-9
pico p x 10-12

To express a quantity in a different metric prefix that what it was originally given,
just move the decimal point to the right or to the left as needed.
Example problem: Express 304,212 volts in terms of kilovolts.
From the (none) place to kilo place on the number line is 3 places (powers of ten)
to the left, so just move the decimal point 3 places to the left, and add the word "kilo" in
the original unit volt.
304,212 volts. = 304.212 kilo + volts = 304.212kV
Example problem: Express 1m in terms of millimeter (mm).
Just move the decimal point 3 places to the right, and add the word "milli" in the original
unit meter.
1m = 1000 milli + meter = 1000mm

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Sample Exercises:

a. 1,000 g = 1 x103 g = 1kg

b. 5,000 m = 5 x 103 m = 5km

c. 0.001 second = 1 x10-3 s = 1ms

d.500MHz = 500 x106 Hz = 500,000,000 Hz

e. 54kg = 54 x103 g = 54,000 g

1.2 Electricity

Electricity is an energy form that results from the existence of charged particles
such as electrons or protons, either statically as an accumulation of charge or
dynamically as a current.

1.2.1 Types of Electricity

A. Static Electricity

Static electricity is when electrical charges build up on the surface of a material. It

is usually caused by friction or rubbing materials together. The result of a build-up of
static electricity is that objects may be attracted to each other or may even cause a
spark to jump from one to the other.

B. Current Electricity

Current Electricity deals with electrical charges in motion.

1.2.2 Kinds of Current Electricity

There are two types of electric current: Direct Current (DC) and Alternating
current (AC). Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct
current is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and
commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. In alternating current (AC), the
movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction.

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1.3 Electric Charge
In physics, charge, also known as electric charge, electrical charge, or
electrostatic charge and symbolized Q or q, is a characteristic of a unit of matter that
expresses the extent to which it has more or fewer electrons than protons. In atoms, the
electron carries a negative elementary or unit charge; the proton carries a positive
charge. The two types of charge are equal and opposite.
The unit of electrical charge in the International System of Units is the Coulomb ( C ),
where 1 C is equal to approximately 6.24 x 1018 charges.

Materials are divided into three categories, depending on how easily they will
allow charge (i.e., electrons) to flow along them. These are:
 Conductors - materials that easily allows the flow of electrons (mostly metals)
 Insulators - materials that do not permit the flow of electrons
 Semi-conductors - a material which has electrical conductivity to a degree
between that of a conductor and that of an insulator (Silicon, Germanium, and
Carbon )

1.4 Basic Electrical Quantities

1.4.1 Voltage

Voltage is the electrical pressure or force also known as electromotive force (EMF ) that
pushes electrons. It is also known as potential difference. The unit used to measure the
voltage is volts ( V or E ) named after Alessandro Volta. The instrument used to
measure the voltage is voltmeter. Electromotive force is not truly a force; rather, it is a
measurement of joule of energy per coulomb of charge. To express the voltage
mathematically,
𝑾
𝑽=
𝑸
How much voltage is needed to move a 20C charge with 100J of energy? Ans. 5V

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Methods of producing EMF

Presently, there are six (6) known methods for producing a voltage or emf. Some
of these methods are more widely used than others, and some are used mostly for
specific applications.
The following is a list of the six known methods of producing a voltage.

A. Friction (Triboelectric effect) - a type of contact electrification in which certain

materials become electrically charged after they come into contact with another different
material through friction.
B. Pressure (Piezoelectric effect) - the generation of an electric charge in certain non-
conducting materials, such as quartz crystals and ceramics, when they are subjected to
mechanical stress.
C. Heat (Thermoelectric effect) - It refers to phenomena by which either
a temperature difference creates an electric potential or an electric potential creates a
temperature difference.

D. Light (Photoelectric effect) - In the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from
atoms when they absorb energy from light.

E. Electrochemistry - Chemically, by separating positive and negative charges, an

electric field can be produced, leading to an electric potential difference

F. Magnetic Induction - the cutting of magnetic lines of force of a magnetic field

1.4.2 Current

If an electric pressure or voltage is applied across any material there is a

tendency for electrons to move in a particular direction. This movement of free
electrons, known as drift, constitutes an electric current flow. Thus current is the rate of
movement of charge. Current is a measure of the amount of electrical charge

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transferred per unit time. It represents the flow of electrons through a conductive
material.
The SI unit of electrical current is the ampere (A), which is equal to a flow of one
coulomb of charge per second. The ampere (A) unit is named after André-Marie
Ampère (1775–1836), a French mathematician and physicist.
To express the current mathematically,
𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
If 10C of charge passes a specified point in 2 seconds, how much current is flowing?

1.4.3 Resistance

Resistance is a property of a material that opposes or resists the flow of charges

through it. The ohm (symbol Greek omega Ω) is the SI derived unit of electrical
resistance, named after German physicist Georg Simon Ohm. To express the
resistance mathematically,
𝑳
𝑹=
𝑨
Table 2 shows a resistivity comparison between several common materials.

Material Resistivity ( ) Ω-m

Aluminum 2.65 x 10-8
Copper 1.68 x 10-8
Silver 1.59 x 10-8
Gold 2.44x 10-8
Lead 22 x 10-8
Iron 9.71 x 10-8

Table 2
Material Resistivity

Sample Exercises:

1. What is the resistance of a 30m length of copper wire with a diameter of 2mm?

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2. Find the length of an aluminum wire if it has 1⁄16 in. diameter and a resistance of
500mΩ.

3. Find the cross sectional area of a 3m long copper wire with 100mΩ resistance.

Factors affecting the Resistance

A. Type of Material

Resistance depends on the material the wire is made of. The atomic structure of
the conductor will determine the material stability to conduct electricity. A material which
has fewer than four (4) electrons in its outer shell makes a good conductor.
B. Length of conductor

Resistance is directly proportional to the length of a conductor. The longer the

conductor the higher the resistance.

C. Cross Sectional Area

Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional-area. The bigger cross

sectional area, the less resistance.

D. Temperature

Resistance is proportional with the temperature of the wire. It affects the

conductor's resistivity. The hotter wire has a larger resistance because of increased
vibration of the atomic lattice. When a material gets hotter the atoms in the lattice
vibrate more. This makes it difficult for the electrons to move without interaction with an
atom and increases resistance.

1.4.4Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other than the standard

temperature (usually specified at 20 Celsius) on the specific resistance table must be

determined using the formula,

𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + (𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )]

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where,
R2 - resistance of conductor at temperature 𝒕𝟐

R1 - resistance of conductor at reference temperature 𝒕𝟏

α - temperature coefficient of resistance at reference temperature 𝒕𝟏

t2 - conductor temperature at C

t1 - reference temperature that  is specified at for the conductor material

The “alpha” (α) constant is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance,

and symbolizes the resistance change factor per degree of temperature change. Just as
all materials have a certain specific resistance (at 20 o C), they also change resistance
according to temperature by certain amounts. For pure metals, this coefficient is a
positive number, meaning that resistance increases with increasing temperature. For
the elements carbon, silicon, and germanium, this coefficient is a negative number,
meaning that resistance decreases with increasing temperature. For some metal alloys,
the temperature coefficient of resistance is very close to zero, meaning that the
resistance hardly changes at all with variations in temperature (a good property if you
want to build a precision resistor out of metal wire!). The following table gives the
temperature coefficients of resistance for several common metals, both pure and alloy:
Table 3
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Conductor
(, per C ) at 20C
Copper 3.93 x 10-3
Aluminum 3.91 x 10-3
Silver 3.819 x 10-3
Iron 5.671 x 10-3
Gold 3.715 x 10-3
Platinum 3.729 x 10-3

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 Sample Problem:
1. A length of copper wire has a resistance of 5Ω at 20 degrees Celsius. Calculate its
resistance if the temperature were to increase to 50 degrees Celsius.

2.The resistance of an aluminum wire is 2 ohms at 10 degrees Celsius. What is its

resistance at 80C?

1.4.5 Conductance
Electrical conductance measures how easily electricity flows along a certain path
through an electrical element. The SI derived unit of conductance is the Siemens.
Because it is the reciprocal of electrical resistance (measured in ohms), historically, this
unit was referred to as the mho.

1.5 Electric Circuit

Electric circuit is a complete, unbroken path along which an electric current exists or is
intended or able to flow.

Components of an Electric circuit

a. Source
b. Controlling Device
c. Conductor
d. Load

Figure 1d . Schematic Diagram

Figure 1c . Pictorial Diagram

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1.6 Resistors

Resistors are one of the most basic building blocks in electronics. Resistor is an
electronic component that has a certain specified resistance to the current flow. It is
designed specifically to introduce a desired amount of opposition into a circuit.

1.6.1 Types of Resistors

A. Fixed resistors
Fixed resistors have a single value of resistance which remains under normal
condition.
Kinds of fixed resistors:
a. Carbon-composition resistors
b. Wire-wound resistors
c. Film-type resistors (Metal Film, Carbon Film, Thin Film, Thick Film)

B. Variable resistors
Resistors whose values vary. These are mostly used for voltage division and
setting the sensitivity of sensors. These have a sliding contact or wiper which can be
rotated with the help of a screw driver to change the resistance value.
a. Potentiometers
b. Rheostats
c. Sliding contact resistors

C. Special resistors

c.1 Thermistors

Thermistors are special resistors whose resistance changes with the temperature. If the

resistance increases with increase in temperature, then it is called positive temperature

coefficient (PTC). If the resistance decreases with the increase in temperature, then it is

called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC).

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 An NTC can be replaced by a transistor with a trimmer potentiometer. PTCs are
mostly used as current limiter for circuit protection. As the heat dissipation of resistor
increases, the resistance is increased thereby limiting the current. The NTCs are mostly
used for temperature sensing, replacement of fuses in power supply protection and for
low temperature measurements of up to 10K.

c.2 Light Dependent Resistors (LDR)

LDRs have cadmium sulfide zigzag tack whose resistance decreases as the light

intensity incident on it increases. In the absence of light, its resistance is in mega ohms

but on the application of light, the resistance falls drastically. These resistors are used in

many consumer items such as camera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarms,

and outdoor clocks.

1.6.2 Resistor Color Coding

Components and wires are coded with colors to identify their value and function.
Carbon-composition and carbon film resistors are too small to have the resistance value
printed on their housings. Therefore, bands of color are used to represent the resistance
value.
The first and second band represent the numerical value of the resistor, and the
color of the third band specify the power-of-ten multiplier. The color bands are always
read from left to right starting with the side that has a band closer to the edge.
For carbon-composition and carbon film resistors, the common tolerances are
5%, 10%, and 20%, indicating that the actual value of the resistor can vary from the
nominal value by ±5%, ±10% and ±20%. If the band is gold, it specifies a 5% tolerance;
silver specifies a 10% tolerance; if no band is present, the tolerance is 20%.

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Table 4
Resistor Color Code
The table below shows the color code and their associated value:

Color 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band (Multiplier) 4th Band (Tolerance)
Black 0 x1
Brown 1 1 x 10 1%
Red 2 2 x 100 2%
Orange 3 3 x 1k 3%
Yellow 4 4 x 10k 4%
Green 5 5 x 100k
Blue 6 6 x 1M
Violet 7 7 -
Gray 8 8 -
White 9 9 -
Gold x 0.1 5%
Silver x 0.01 10%
None

Exercises

1. Red, Black, Orange, Gold 20kΩ 5%

2. Yellow, Violet, Red, Silver 4.7kΩ 10%

3. Brown, Black, Green 1MΩ 20%

4. Green, Blue, Brown, Gold __________

5. Orange, Violet, Yellow, Silver __________

6. Blue, Gray, Green, Gold __________

7. Red, Brown, Gold, Gold __________

8. Brown, Black, Gold, Silver __________

9. Orange, Yellow, Green, Gold __________

10. Brown, Black, Red, Silver __________

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