This lifesize hatchling ringneck snake was caught by Becky Curtis, Stanley, NC

Smooth Green Snake

Rough Green Snake

Scarlet Snake
Snake
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This article is about the animal. For other uses, see Snake (disambiguation).

Snakes
Fossil range: 145–0 Ma
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg

N
Cretaceous – Recent

Coast garter snake,

Thamnophis elegans terrestris

Scientific classification [ e ]

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Reptilia

Order: Squamata

Superfamily: Varanoidea

(unranked): Pythonomorpha

Suborder: Serpentes
Linnaeus, 1758
 Infraorders

 Alethinophidia –
Nopcsa, 1923
 Scolecophidia – Cope,
1864

World range of snakes

(rough range of sea snakes in blue)

Snakes are elongate, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be
distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates,
snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of
snakes have skulls with many more joints than their lizard ancestors, enabling them to swallow
prey much larger than their heads with their highly mobile jaws. To accommodate their narrow
bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by
side, and most have only one functional lung. Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of
vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca.

Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica and on most islands. Fifteen
families are currently recognized, comprising 456 genera and over 2,900 species.[1][2] They range
in size from the tiny, 10 cm-long thread snake to pythons and anacondas of up to 7.6 metres (25
ft) in length. The recently discovered fossil Titanoboa was 15 metres (49 ft) long. Snakes are
thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards during the Cretaceous period (c
150 Ma). The diversity of modern snakes appeared during the Paleocene period (c 66 to 56 Ma).

Most species are nonvenomous and those that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue
prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom potent enough to cause painful injury or
death to humans. Nonvenomous snakes either swallow prey alive or kill by constriction.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Etymology
 2 Evolution
o 2.1 Snakes origin
 3 Taxonomy
o 3.1 Families
 4 Biology
o 4.1 Skeleton
o 4.2 Internal organs
o 4.3 Size
o 4.4 Skin
 4.4.1 Moulting
o 4.5 Perception
o 4.6 Venom
 5 Behavior
o 5.1 Feeding and diet
o 5.2 Locomotion
 5.2.1 Lateral undulation
 5.2.1.1 Terrestrial
 5.2.1.2 Aquatic
 5.2.2 Sidewinding
  5.2.3 Concertina
 5.2.4 Rectilinear
 5.2.5 Other
o 5.3 Reproduction
 6 Interactions with humans
o 6.1 Bite
o 6.2 Snake charmers
o 6.3 Trapping
o 6.4 Consumption
o 6.5 Pets
o 6.6 Symbolism
o 6.7 Religion
 7 Place names
 8 See also
 9 References
 10 Further reading
 11 External links

Etymology
The English word snake comes from Old English snaca, itself from Proto-Germanic *snak-an-
(cf. German Schnake "ring snake," Swedish snok "grass snake"), from Proto-Indo-European root
*(s)nēg-o- "to crawl, creep," which also gave sneak as well as Sanskrit nāgá "snake."[3] The word
ousted adder, as adder went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old English næddre was the
general word for snake.[4] The other term, serpent, is from French, ultimately from Indo-
European *serp- (to creep),[5] which also gave Greek érpo (ερπω) "I crawl."

Evolution
A phylogenetic overview of
the extant groups
Modern snake Scolecophidia
Leptotyphlopidae
s
 
Anomalepididae

Typhlopidae
Alethinophidi
a
Core Alethinophidi
 Note: the tree only indicates
relationships, not evolutionary
branching times.[6]

The fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snake skeletons are typically small and
fragile, making fossilization uncommon. However, 150 million-year-old specimens, readily
identifiable as snakes, yet with lizard-like skeletal structures, have been uncovered in South
America and Africa.[7]:11 There is consensus, on the basis of comparative anatomy, that snakes
descended from lizards.[7]:11[8]

Primitive groups among the modern snakes, pythons and boas, have vestigial hind limbs: tiny,
clawed digits known as anal spurs, which they use to grasp during mating.[7]:11[9]
Leptotyphlopidae and Typhlopidae are other groups where remnants of the pelvic girdle are
present, sometimes appearing as horny projections when visible. The frontal limbs are
nonexistent in all snakes, and this loss is associated with the evolution of the Hox genes
controlling limb morphogenesis. The axial skeleton of the snakes' common ancestor, like most
other tetrapods, had regional specializations consisting of cervical (neck), thoracic (chest),
lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic) and caudal (tail) vertebrae. The Hox gene expression in the
axial skeleton responsible for the development of the thorax became dominant early in snake
evolution and as a result, the vertebrae anterior to the hindlimb buds (when present) all have the
same thoracic-like identity (except from the atlas, axis and one to three neck vertebrae), making
most of the snake's skeleton being composed of an extremely extended thorax. Ribs are found
exclusively on the thoracic vertebrae. The neck, lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are very reduced in
number (only two to ten lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are still present), while only a short tail
remains of the caudal vertebrae, although the tail is still long enough to be of good use in many
species, and is modified in some aquatic and tree dwelling species.

The great diversity of modern snakes appeared in the Paleocene, correlating with the adaptive
radiation of mammals following the extinction of the nonavian dinosaurs. One of the more
common groups today, the colubrids, became particularly diverse due to their preying on rodents,
a mammal group that has been particularly successful. There are over 2,900 species of snakes
ranging as far northward as the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and southward through Australia
and Tasmania.[8] Snakes can be found on every continent (with the exception of Antarctica),
dwelling in the sea, and as high as 16,000 feet (4,900 m)in the Himalayan Mountains of Asia.[8]
[10]:143
There are numerous islands from which snakes are absent, such as Ireland, Iceland, and
New Zealand.[10]:143

Snakes origin

The issue of the origin of snakes remains unresolved, since two main hypothesis are competing.

 There is fossil evidence which suggests that snakes may have evolved from burrowing
lizards, such as the varanids or a similar group during the Cretaceous Period.[11] An early
fossil snake, Najash rionegrina, was a two-legged burrowing animal with a sacrum, and
was fully terrestrial.[12] One extant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless
 monitor Lanthanotus of Borneo, although it also is semiaquatic.[13] Subterranean forms
evolved bodies that were streamlined for burrowing and lost their limbs.[13] According to
this hypothesis, features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external
ears evolved to cope with fossorial difficulies, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the
ears.[11][13] Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic
bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species like
Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis and Eupodophis, which are slightly older than Najash.[9]

Fossil of Archaeophis proavus.

 An alternative hypothesis, based on morphology, suggests the ancestors of snakes were

related to mosasaurs — extinct aquatic reptiles from the Cretaceous—which in turn are
thought to have derived from varanid lizards.[8] Under this hypothesis, the fused,
transparent eyelids of snakes are thought to have evolved to combat marine conditions
(corneal water-loss through osmosis), while the external ears were lost through disuse in
an aquatic environment, ultimately leading to an animal similar in appearance to sea
snakes of today. In the Late Cretaceous, snakes recolonized land to appear as they are
today. Fossil snake remains are known from early Late Cretaceous marine sediments,
which is consistent with this hypothesis, particularly as they are older than the terrestrial
Najash rionegrina. Similar skull structure, reduced/absent limbs, and other anatomical
features found in both mosasaurs and snakes lead to a positive cladistical correlation,
although some of these features are shared with varanids. In recent years, genetic studies
have indicated snakes are not as closely related to monitor lizards as it was once believed,
and therefore not to mosasaurs, the proposed ancestor in the aquatic scenario of their
evolution. However, there is more evidence linking mosasaurs to snakes than to varanids.
Fragmentary remains that have been found from the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous
indicate deeper fossil records for these groups, which may eventually refute either
hypothesis.

Taxonomy
All modern snakes are grouped within the suborder Serpentes in Linnean taxonomy, part of the
order Squamata, though their precise placement within squamates is controversial.[1]

There are two infraorders of Serpentes: Alethinophidia and Scolecophidia.[1] This separation is
based on morphological characteristics and mitochondrial DNA sequence similarity.
Alethinophidia is sometimes split into Henophidia and Caenophidia, with the latter consisting of
"colubroid" snakes (colubrids, vipers, elapids, hydrophiids, and attractaspids) and acrochordids,
while the other alethinophidian families comprise Henophidia.[14] While not extant today, the
Madtsoiidae, a family of giant, primitive, python-like snakes, was around until 50,000 years ago
in Australia, represented by genera such as Wonambi.

There are numerous debates in the systematics within the group. For instance, many sources
classify Boidae and Pythonidae as one family, while some keep the Elapidae and Hydrophiidae
(sea snakes) separate for practical reasons despite their extremely close relation.

Recent molecular studies support the monophyly of the clades of modern snakes,
scolecophidians, typhlopids + anomalepidids, alethinophidians, core alethinophidians, uropeltids
(Cylindrophis, Anomochilus, uropeltines), macrostomatans, booids, boids, pythonids and
caenophidians.[6]

Families

Infraorder Alethinophidia 15 families

Comm
[1] Taxon Gener Speci Geographic
Family on
author[1] a[1] es[1] range[15]
name
Western India
and Sri Lanka
through
tropical
Southeast Asia
to the
Philippines,
south through
the
Indonesian/Ma
laysian island
group to
Acrochord Bonapar Wart
1 3 Timor, east
idae te, 1831 snakes
through New
Guinea to the
northern coast
of Australia to
Mussau Island,
the Bismark
Archipelago
and
Guadalcanal
Island in the
Solomon
Islands.
False
Stejnege Tropical South
Aniliidae 1 1 coral
r, 1907 America.
snake
West Malaysia
Cundall, Dwarf and on the
Anomochil
Wallach, 1 2 pipe Indonesian
idae
1993 snakes island of
Sumatra.
Burro Africa and the
Atractaspi Günther,
12 64 wing Middle East.[7]
didae 1858 [16][17]
asps
Boidae Gray, 8 43 Boas Northern,
1825 Central and
South
America, the
Caribbean,
southeastern
Europe and
Asia Minor,
Northern,
Central and
East Africa,
Madagascar
and Reunion
Island, the
Arabian
 Peninsula,
Central and
southwestern
Asia, India and
Sri Lanka, the
Moluccas and
New Guinea
through to
Melanesia and
Samoa.
Splitja
Bolyeriida Hoffstett
2 2 w Mauritius.
e er, 1946
snakes
Widespread on
Typica
Oppel, all continents,
Colubridae 304[2] 1938[2] l
1811 except
snakes
Antarctica.[18]
Sri Lanka east
through
Myanmar,
Thailand,
Cambodia,
Vietnam and
the Malay
Archipelago to
as far east as
Asian
Cylindrop Fitzinge Aru Islands off
1 8 pipe
hiidae r, 1843 the
snakes
southwestern
coast of New
Guinea. Also
found in
southern China
(Fujian, Hong
Kong and on
Hainan Island)
and in Laos.
On land,
worldwide in
tropical and
subtropical
Boie, regions, except
Elapidae 61 235 Elapids
1827 in Europe. Sea
snakes occur
in the Indian
Ocean and the
Pacific.[19]
Mexica Along the
n Pacific versant
Loxocemi Cope,
1 1 burrow from Mexico
dae 1861
ing south to Costa
snake Rica.
Pythonidae Fitzinge 8 26 Python Subsaharan
r, 1826 s Africa, India,
Myanmar,
southern
China,
Southeast Asia
and from the
Philippines
 southeast
through
Indonesia to
New Guinea
and Australia.
From southern
Mexico and
Central
America, south
to
northwestern
South America
in Colombia,
Bronger
Tropidophi Dwarf (Amazonian)
sma, 4 22
idae boas Ecuador and
1951
Peru, as well
as in
northwestern
and
southeastern
Brazil. Also
found in the
West Indies.
Shield-
Uropeltida Müller, Southern India
8 47 tailed
e 1832 and Sri Lanka.
snakes
The Americas,
Oppel,
Viperidae 32 224 Vipers Africa and
1811
Eurasia.
Southeast Asia
from the
Andaman and
Nicobar
Islands, east
through
Myanmar to
southern
Sunbea China,
Xenopeltid Bonapar
1 2 m Thailand,
ae te, 1845
snakes Laos,
Cambodia,
Vietnam, the
Malay
Peninsula and
the East Indies
to Sulawesi, as
well as the
Philippines.

Infraorder Scolecophidia 3 families

Taxon Comm Geograp
Genera Species
Family[1] author[ [1] [1] on hic
1]
name range[15]
Anomalepida Taylor, 4 15 Primiti From
e 1939 ve southern
blind Central
snakes America
 to
northwest
ern South
America.
Disjunct
populatio
ns in
northeaste
rn and
southeaste
rn South
America.
Leptotyphlop Stejneg 2 87 Slender Africa,
idae er, blind western
1892 snakes Asia from
Turkey to
northwest
ern India,
on
Socotra
Island,
from the
southwest
ern
United
States
south
through
Mexico
and
Central to
South
America,
though
not in the
high
Andes. In
Pacific
South
America
they occur
as far
south as
southern
coastal
Peru, and
on the
Atlantic
side as far
as
Uruguay
and
Argentina
. In the
Caribbean
they are
found on
the
Bahamas,
Hispaniol
a and the
 Lesser
Antilles.
Most
tropical
and many
subtropica
l regions
around
the world,
particularl
y in
Typical
Merrem Africa,
Typhlopidae 6 203 blind
, 1820 Madagasc
snakes
ar, Asia,
islands in
the
Pacific,
tropical
America
and in
southeaste
rn Europe.

Biology

When compared, the skeletons of snakes are radically different from those of most other reptiles
(such as the turtle, right), being made up almost entirely of an extended ribcage.

Skeleton

The skeleton of most snakes consists solely of the skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and ribs,
though henophidian snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and rear limbs. The skull of the snake
consists of a solid and complete braincase, to which many of the other bones are only loosely
attached, particularly the highly mobile jaw bones, which facilitate manipulation and ingestion of
large prey items. The left and right sides of the lower jaw are joined only by a flexible ligament
at the anterior tips, allowing them to separate widely, while the posterior end of the lower jaw
bones articulate with a quadrate bone, allowing further mobility. The bones of the mandible and
quadrate bones can also pick up ground borne vibrations.[20] The hyoid is a small bone located
posterior and ventral to the skull, in the 'neck' region, which serves as an attachment for muscles
of the snake's tongue, as it does in all other tetrapods.

The vertebral column consists of anywhere between 200–400 (or more) vertebrae. Tail vertebrae
are comparatively few in number (often less than 20% of the total) and lack ribs, while body
vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with them. The vertebrae have projections that allow
for strong muscle attachment enabling locomotion without limbs. Autotomy of the tail, a feature
found in some lizards is absent in most snakes.[21] Caudal autotomy in snakes is rare and is
intervertebral, unlike that in lizards, which is intravertebral—that is, the break happens along a
predefined fracture plane present on a vertebra.[22][23]

In some snakes, most notably boas and pythons, there are vestiges of the hindlimbs in the form
of a pair of pelvic spurs. These small, claw-like protrusions on each side of the cloaca are the
external portion of the vestigial hindlimb skeleton, which includes the remains of an ilium and
femur.

Internal organs

Anatomy of a snake. 1 esophagus, 2 trachea, 3 tracheal lungs, 4 rudimentary left lung, 5 right
lung, 6 heart, 7 liver, 8 stomach, 9 air sac, 10 gallbladder, 11 pancreas, 12 spleen, 13 intestine, 14
testicles, 15 kidneys.

The snake's heart is encased in a sac, called the pericardium, located at the bifurcation of the
bronchi. The heart is able to move around, however, owing to the lack of a diaphragm. This
adjustment protects the heart from potential damage when large ingested prey is passed through
the esophagus. The spleen is attached to the gall bladder and pancreas and filters the blood. The
thymus gland is located in fatty tissue above the heart and is responsible for the generation of
immune cells in the blood. The cardiovascular system of snakes is also unique for the presence
of a renal portal system in which the blood from the snake's tail passes through the kidneys
before returning to the heart.[24]

The vestigial left lung is often small or sometimes even absent, as snakes' tubular bodies require
all of their organs to be long and thin.[24] In the majority of species, only one lung is functional.
This lung contains a vascularized anterior portion and a posterior portion that does not function
in gas exchange.[24] This 'saccular lung' is used for hydrostatic purposes to adjust buoyancy in
some aquatic snakes and its function remains unknown in terrestrial species.[24] Many organs that
are paired, such as kidneys or reproductive organs, are staggered within the body, with one
located ahead of the other.[24] Snakes have no lymph nodes.[24]

An adult Barbados threadsnake, Leptotyphlops carlae, on an American quarter dollar.

Size

The now extinct Titanoboa cerrejonensis snakes found were 12–15 meters (39–49 ft) in length.
By comparison, the largest extant snakes are the reticulated python, which measures about
9 meters (30 ft) long, and the anaconda, which measures about 7.5 meters (25 ft) long[25] and is
considered the heaviest snake on Earth. At the other end of the scale, the smallest extant snake is
Leptotyphlops carlae, with a length of about 10 centimeters (4 in).[26] Most snakes are fairly
small animals, approximately 3 feet in length.[27]
A line diagram from G.A. Boulenger's Fauna of British India (1890) illustrating the terminology
of shields on the head of a snake.

Skin

Main article: Snake scales

The skin of a snake is covered in scales. Contrary to the popular notion of snakes being slimy
because of possible confusion of snakes with worms, snakeskin has a smooth, dry texture. Most
snakes use specialized belly scales to travel, gripping surfaces. The body scales may be smooth,
keeled, or granular. The eyelids of a snake are transparent "spectacle" scales, which remain
permanently closed, also known as brille.

The shedding of scales is called ecdysis (or in normal usage, moulting or sloughing). In the case
of snakes, the complete outer layer of skin is shed in one layer.[28] Snake scales are not discrete,
but extensions of the epidermis—hence they are not shed separately but as a complete outer layer
during each moult, akin to a sock being turned inside out.[29]

The shape and number of scales on the head, back, and belly are often characteristic and used for
taxonomic purposes. Scales are named mainly according to their positions on the body. In
"advanced" (Caenophidian) snakes, the broad belly scales and rows of dorsal scales correspond
to the vertebrae, allowing scientists to count the vertebrae without dissection.

Eye scales visible during the moult of a Diamond Python.

Snakes' eyes are covered by their clear scales (the brille) rather than movable eyelids. Their eyes
are always open, and for sleeping, the retina can be closed or the face buried among the folds of
the body.

Moulting

Moulting serves a number of functions. Firstly, the old and worn skin is replaced; secondly, it
helps get rid of parasites such as mites and ticks. Renewal of the skin by moulting is supposed to
allow growth in some animals such as insects; however, this has been disputed in the case of
snakes.[29][30]
A snake shedding its skin.

Moulting occurs periodically throughout a snake's life. Before a moult, the snake stops eating
and often hides or moves to a safe place. Just before shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry
looking and the eyes become cloudy or blue-colored. The inner surface of the old skin liquefies.
This causes the old skin to separate from the new skin beneath it. After a few days, the eyes clear
and the snake "crawls" out of its old skin. The old skin breaks near the mouth and the snake
wriggles out, aided by rubbing against rough surfaces. In many cases, the cast skin peels
backward over the body from head to tail in one piece, like pulling a sock off inside-out. A new,
larger, brighter layer of skin has formed underneath.[29][31]

An older snake may shed its skin only once or twice a year. But a younger snake, still growing,
may shed up to four times a year.[31] The discarded skin gives a perfect imprint of the scale
pattern, and it is usually possible to identify the snake if the discarded skin is reasonably intact.
[29]
This periodic renewal has led to the snake being a symbol of healing and medicine, as
pictured in the Rod of Asclepius.[32]

Perception

Eyesight
Snake vision varies greatly, from only being able to distinguish light from dark to keen
eyesight, but the main trend is that their vision is adequate although not sharp, and allows
them to track movements.[33] Generally, vision is best in arboreal snakes and weakest in
burrowing snakes. Some snakes, such as the Asian vine snake (genus Ahaetulla), have
binocular vision, with both eyes capable of focusing on the same point. Most snakes
focus by moving the lens back and forth in relation to the retina, while in the other
amniote groups, the lens is stretched.
Smell
Snakes use smell to track their prey. They smell by using their forked tongues to collect
airborne particles, then passing them to the vomeronasal organ or Jacobson's organ in the
mouth for examination.[34] The fork in the tongue gives snakes a sort of directional sense
of smell and taste simultaneously.[34] They keep their tongues constantly in motion,
sampling particles from the air, ground, and water, analyzing the chemicals found, and
determining the presence of prey or predators in the local environment.[34]

Thermographic image of a snake eating a mouse

Vibration sensitivity
The part of the body in direct contact with the ground is very sensitive to vibration; thus,
a snake can sense other animals approaching by detecting faint vibrations in the air and
on the ground.[34]
Infrared sensitivity
 Pit vipers, pythons, and some boas have infrared-sensitive receptors in deep grooves
between the nostril and eye, although some have labial pits on their upper lip just below
the nostrils (common in pythons), which allow them to "see" the radiated heat of warm-
blooded prey mammals.[34]

Venom

See also: Snake venom

Milk snakes are often mistaken for coral snakes, whose venom is deadly to humans.

Cobras, vipers, and closely related species use venom to immobilize or kill their prey. The
venom is modified saliva, delivered through fangs.[7]:243 The fangs of 'advanced' venomous
snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow to inject venom more effectively, while the fangs of
rear-fanged snakes such as the boomslang merely have a groove on the posterior edge to channel
venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey specific, their role in self-defense is
secondary.[7]:243 Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a predigestant that initiates the breakdown
of food into soluble compounds, facilitating proper digestion. Even nonvenomous snake bites
(like any animal bite) will cause tissue damage.[7]:209

Certain birds, mammals, and other snakes such as kingsnakes that prey on venomous snakes
have developed resistance and even immunity to certain venoms.[7]:243 Venomous snakes include
three families of snakes, and do not constitute a formal classification group used in taxonomy.
The term poisonous snake is mostly incorrect; poison is inhaled or ingested, whereas venom is
injected.[35] There are, however, two exceptions—Rhabdophis sequesters toxins from the toads it
eats, then secretes them from nuchal glands to ward off predators, and a small population of
garter snakes in Oregon retains enough toxin in their liver from the newts they eat to be
effectively poisonous to local small predators such as crows and foxes.[36]

Snake venoms are complex mixtures of proteins, and are stored in poison glands at the back of
the head.[36] In all venomous snakes, these glands open through ducts into grooved or hollow
teeth in the upper jaw.[7]:243[35] These proteins can potentially be a mix of neurotoxins (which
attack the nervous system), hemotoxins (which attack the circulatory system), cytotoxins,
bungarotoxins and many other toxins that affect the body in different ways.[35] Almost all snake
venom contains hyaluronidase, an enzyme that ensures rapid diffusion of the venom.[7]:243

Venomous snakes that use hemotoxins usually have the fangs that secrete the venom in the front
of their mouths, making it easier for them to inject the venom into their victims.[35] Some snakes
that use neurotoxins, such as the mangrove snake, have their fangs located in the back of their
mouths, with the fangs curled backwards.[37] This makes it both difficult for the snake to use its
venom and for scientists to milk them.[35] Elapid snakes, however, such as cobras and kraits are
proteroglyphous, possessing hollow fangs that cannot be erected toward the front of their mouths
and cannot "stab" like a viper; they must actually bite the victim.[7]:242

It has recently been suggested that all snakes may be venomous to a certain degree, with
harmless snakes having weak venom and no fangs.[38] Most snakes currently labelled
“nonvenomous” would still be considered harmless according to this theory, as these snakes
either lack a delivery method for the venom or are simply incapable of delivering enough to
endanger a human. This theory postulates snakes may have evolved from a common lizard
ancestor that was venomous, from which venomous lizards like the gila monster and beaded
lizard may also have derived, as well as the monitor lizards and now extinct mosasaurs. They
share this venom clade with various other saurian species.

Venomous snakes are classified in two taxonomic families:

 Elapids – cobras including king cobras, kraits, mambas, Australian copperheads, sea
snakes, and coral snakes.[37]
 Viperids – vipers, rattlesnakes, copperheads/cottonmouths, adders and bushmasters.[37]

There is a third family containing the opistoglyphous (rear-fanged) snakes as well as the majority
of other snake species:

 Colubrids – boomslangs, tree snakes, vine snakes, mangrove snakes, although not all
colubrids are venomous.[7]:209[37]

Behavior
Feeding and diet

Snake eating a rodent.

Carpet python constricting and consuming a chicken.

All snakes are strictly carnivorous, eating small animals including lizards, other snakes, small
mammals, birds, eggs, fish, snails or insects.[7][1][8][39] Because snakes cannot bite or tear their food
to pieces, they must swallow prey whole. The body size of a snake has a major influence on its
eating habits. Smaller snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start out feeding on lizards
or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an adult, for example.
African egg-eating snake.

The snake's jaw is a complex structure. Contrary to the popular belief that snakes can dislocate
their jaws, snakes have a very flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly
attached, and numerous other joints in their skull (see snake skull), allowing them to open their
mouths wide enough to swallow their prey whole, even if it is larger in diameter than the snake
itself,[39] as snakes do not chew. For example, the African egg-eating snake has flexible jaws
adapted for eating eggs much larger than the diameter of its head.[7]:81 This snake has no teeth, but
does have bony protrusions on the inside edge of its spine, which it uses to break shells when it
eats eggs.[7]:81

While the majority of snakes eat a variety of prey animals, there is some specialization by some
species. King cobras and the Australian bandy-bandy consume other snakes. Pareas iwesakii and
other snail-eating colubrids of subfamily Pareatinae have more teeth on the right side of their
mouths than on the left, as the shells of their prey usually spiral clockwise[7]:184[40]

Some snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before eating it.[39][41] Other
snakes kill their prey by constriction.[39] Still others swallow their prey whole and alive.[7]:81[39]

After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of digestion takes place.[42] Digestion is
an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only
sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The
digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption.
Being ectothermic (“cold-blooded”), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake
digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is 30 °C (86 °F). So much metabolic energy
is involved in a snake's digestion that in the Mexican rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus), surface
body temperature increases by as much as 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) during the digestive process.[43]
Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often regurgitate its prey to be
able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient,
with the snake's digestive enzymes dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair (or
feathers) and claws, which are excreted along with waste.

Locomotion

The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snakes. They have developed several
different modes of locomotion to deal with particular environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed
animals, which form a continuum, each mode of snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from
the others; transitions between modes are abrupt.[44][45]

Lateral undulation

Main article: Undulatory locomotion

Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most common mode of
terrestrial locomotion.[45] In this mode, the body of the snake alternately flexes to the left and
right, resulting in a series of rearward-moving "waves."[44] While this movement appears rapid,
snakes have rarely been documented moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often
much less.[46] This mode of movement has the same net cost of transport (calories burned per
meter moved) as running in lizards of the same mass.[47]

Terrestrial

Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion for most snake
species.[44] In this mode, the posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the
environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil, etc.[44] Each of these environmental
objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the snake,
resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.[48] The speed of this
movement depends upon the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density
of about 8 along the snake's length being ideal.[46] The wave speed is precisely the same as the
snake speed, and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of the point ahead
of it, allowing snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.[48]

Aquatic

Main article: Sea snake

Banded sea krait, Laticauda sp.

When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snake's body, and the wave
travels backwards faster than the snake moves forwards.[49] Thrust is generated by pushing their
body against the water, resulting in the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show
that the pattern of muscle activation is different in aquatic versus terrestrial lateral undulation,
which justifies calling them separate modes.[50] All snakes can laterally undulate forward (with
backward-moving waves), but only sea snakes have been observed reversing the motion (moving
backwards with forward-moving waves).[44]

Sidewinding

See also: Sidewinding

A Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) sidewinding.

Most often employed by colubroid snakes (colubrids, elapids, and vipers) when the snake must
move in an environment that lacks irregularities to push against (rendering lateral undulation
impossible), such as a slick mud flat, or a sand dune. Sidewinding is a modified form of lateral
undulation in which all of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in contact with the
ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar "rolling" motion.[51][52] This
mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only
static portions on the body, thereby minimizing slipping.[51] The static nature of the contact points
can be shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which show each belly scale imprint,
without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than ⅓ of the cost
for a lizard or snake to move the same distance.[47] Contrary to popular belief, there is no
evidence that sidewinding is associated with the sand being hot.[51]

Concertina

Main article: Concertina movement

When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use sidewinding because of lateral
constraints, such as in tunnels, snakes rely on concertina locomotion.[44][52] In this mode, the
snake braces the posterior portion of its body against the tunnel wall while the front of the snake
extends and straightens.[51] The front portion then flexes and forms an anchor point, and the
posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of locomotion is slow and very
demanding, up to seven times the cost of laterally undulating over the same distance.[47] This high
cost is due to the repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the necessity of
using active muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.

Rectilinear

Main article: Rectilinear locomotion

The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one
where the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it may do so when turning.[53] In
this mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body
pulled over them. Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples
in the skin.[53] The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method is
most often used by large pythons, boas, and vipers when stalking prey across open ground as the
snake's movements are subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.[51]

Other

The movement of snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.[54] While on tree
branches, snakes use several modes of locomotion depending on species and bark texture.[54] In
general, snakes will use a modified form of concertina locomotion on smooth branches, but will
laterally undulate if contact points are available.[54] Snakes move faster on small branches and
when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals, which do better on large branches
with little 'clutter'.[54]

Gliding snakes (Chrysopelea) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from branch tips, spreading
their ribs and laterally undulating as they glide between trees.[51][55][56] These snakes can perform a
controlled glide for hundreds of feet depending upon launch altitude and can even turn in midair.
[51][55]

Reproduction

Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snakes, all snakes employ internal
fertilization. This is accomplished by means of paired, forked hemipenes, which are stored,
inverted, in the male's tail.[57] The hemipenes are often grooved, hooked, or spined in order to
grip the walls of the female's cloaca.[57]

Most species of snakes lay eggs, but most snakes abandon the eggs shortly after laying.
However, a few species (such as the King cobra) actually construct nests and stay in the vicinity
of the hatchlings after incubation.[57] Most pythons coil around their egg-clutches and remain
with them until they hatch.[58] A female python will not leave the eggs, except to occasionally
bask in the sun or drink water. She will even “shiver” to generate heat to incubate the eggs.[58]

Some species of snake are ovoviviparous and retain the eggs within their bodies until they are
almost ready to hatch.[59][60] Recently, it has been confirmed that several species of snake are fully
viviparous, such as the boa constrictor and green anaconda, nourishing their young through a
placenta as well as a yolk sac, which is highly unusual among reptiles, or anything else outside
of placental mammals.[59][60] Retention of eggs and live birth are most often associated with
colder environments, as the retention of the young within the female.[57][60]

Interactions with humans

Most common symptoms of any kind of snake bite poisoning.[61][62][63] Furthermore, there is vast
variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snakes.[61]

Bite

Main article: Snakebite

Vipera berus, one fang in glove with a small venom stain, the other still in place.

Snakes do not ordinarily prey on humans, and most will not attack humans unless the snake is
startled or injured, preferring instead to avoid contact. With the exception of large constrictors,
nonvenomous snakes are not a threat to humans. The bite of nonvenomous snakes is usually
harmless because their teeth are designed for grabbing and holding, rather than tearing or
inflicting a deep puncture wound. Although the possibility of an infection and tissue damage is
present in the bite of a nonvenomous snake, venomous snakes present far greater hazard to
humans.[7]:209

Documented deaths resulting from snake bites are uncommon. Nonfatal bites from venomous
snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part thereof. Of the roughly 725
species of venomous snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with one bite.
Australia averages only one fatal snake bite per year. In India, 250,000 snakebites are recorded in
a single year, with as many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.[64]

The treatment for a snakebite is as variable as the bite itself. The most common and effective
method is through antivenom (or antivenin), a serum made from the venom of the snake. Some
antivenom is species specific (monovalent) while some is made for use with multiple species in
mind (polyvalent). In the United States for example, all species of venomous snakes are pit
vipers, with the exception of the coral snake. To produce antivenom, a mixture of the venoms of
the different species of rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths is injected into the body of a
horse in ever-increasing dosages until the horse is immunized. Blood is then extracted from the
immunized horse; the serum is separated and further purified and freeze-dried. It is reconstituted
with sterile water and becomes antivenom. For this reason, people who are allergic to horses are
more likely to suffer an allergic reaction to antivenom[65]. Antivenom for the more dangerous
species (such as mambas, taipans, and cobras) is made in a similar manner in India, South Africa,
and Australia, although these antivenoms are species-specific.

Snake charmers

Main article: Snake charming

An Indian cobra in a basket with a snake charmer. These snakes are perhaps the most common
subjects of snake charmings.

In some parts of the world, especially in India, snake charming is a roadside show performed by
a charmer. In such a show, the snake charmer carries a basket that contains a snake that he
seemingly charms by playing tunes from his flutelike musical instrument, to which the snake
responds.[66] Snakes lack external ears, though they do have internal ears, and respond to the
movement of the flute, not the actual noise.[66]

The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India technically proscribes snake charming on grounds
of reducing animal cruelty. Other snake charmers also have a snake and mongoose show, where
both the animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very common, as the snakes, as well as
the mongooses, may be seriously injured or killed. Snake charming as a profession is dying out
in India because of competition from modern forms of entertainment and environment laws
proscribing the practice.[66]

Trapping

The Irulas tribe of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India have been hunter-gatherers in the
hot, dry plains forests, and have practiced the art of snake catching for generations. They have a
vast knowledge of snakes in the field. They generally catch the snakes with the help of a simple
stick. Earlier, the Irulas caught thousands of snakes for the snake-skin industry. After the
complete ban on snake-skin industry in India and protection of all snakes under the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, they formed the Irula Snake Catcher's Cooperative and switched
to catching snakes for removal of venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The
venom so collected is used for producing life-saving antivenom, biomedical research and for
other medicinal products.[67] The Irulas are also known to eat some of the snakes they catch and
are very useful in rat extermination in the villages.

Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional snake catchers or
wranglers. Modern-day snake trapping involves a herpetologist using a long stick with a V-
shaped end. Some television show hosts, like Bill Haast, Austin Stevens, Steve Irwin, and Jeff
Corwin, prefer to catch them using bare hands.

Consumption
A "海豹蛇" ("sea-leopard snake," supposedly Enhydris bocourti) occupies a place of honor
among the live delicacies waiting to meet their consumers outside of a Guangzhou restaurant.

Snake Meat, in a Taipei restaurant

While not commonly thought of as food in most cultures, in some cultures, the consumption of
snakes is acceptable, or even considered a delicacy, prized for its alleged pharmaceutical effect
of warming the heart. Snake soup of Cantonese cuisine is consumed by local people in autumn,
to warm up their body. Western cultures document the consumption of snakes under extreme
circumstances of hunger.[68] Cooked rattlesnake meat is an exception, which is commonly
consumed in parts of the Midwestern United States. In Asian countries such as China, Taiwan,
Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam and Cambodia, drinking the blood of snakes—particularly the
cobra—is believed to increase sexual virility.[69] The blood is drained while the cobra is still alive
when possible, and is usually mixed with some form of liquor to improve the taste.[69]

In some Asian countries, the use of snakes in alcohol is also accepted. In such cases, the body of
a snake or several snakes is left to steep in a jar or container of liquor. It is claimed that this
makes the liquor stronger (as well as more expensive). One example of this is the Habu snake
sometimes placed in the Okinawan liquor Awamori also known as "Habu Sake."[70]

U.S. Army Special Forces trainees are taught to catch, kill, and eat snakes during their survival
course; this has earned them the nickname "snake eaters," which the video game Metal Gear
Solid 3: Snake Eater may be implied to draw off of.

Snake wine (蛇酒) is an alcoholic beverage produced by infusing whole snakes in rice wine or
grain alcohol. The drink was first recorded to have been consumed in China during the Western
Zhou dynasty and considered an important curative and believed to reinvigorate a person
according to Traditional Chinese medicine.[71]

Pets

In the Western world, some snakes (especially docile species such as the ball python and corn
snake) are kept as pets. To meet this demand a captive breeding industry has developed. Snakes
bred in captivity tend to make better pets and are considered preferable to wild caught
specimens.[72] Snakes can be very low maintenance pets, especially compared to more traditional
species. They require minimal space, as most common species do not exceed five feet in length.
Pet snakes can be fed relatively infrequently, usually once every 5–14 days. Certain snakes have
a lifespan of more than 40 years if given proper care.

Symbolism

Main article: Serpent (symbolism)

In Egyptian history, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra adorning the crown of
the pharaoh in ancient times. It was worshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister
purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra).

Medusa by 16th Century Italian artist Caravaggio.

In Greek mythology snakes are often associated with deadly and dangerous antagonists, but this
is not to say that snakes are symbolic of evil; in fact, snakes are a chthonic symbol, roughly
translated as 'earthbound'. The nine-headed Lernaean Hydra that Hercules defeated and the three
Gorgon sisters are children of Gaia, the earth.[73] Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters who
Perseus defeated.[73] Medusa is described as a hideous mortal, with snakes instead of hair and the
power to turn men to stone with her gaze.[73] After killing her, Perseus gave her head to Athena
who fixed it to her shield called the Aegis.[73] The Titans are also depicted in art with snakes
instead of legs and feet for the same reason—they are children of Gaia and Ouranos (Uranus), so
they are bound to the earth.

Three medical symbols involving snakes that are still used today are Bowl of Hygieia,
symbolizing pharmacy, and the Caduceus and Rod of Asclepius, which are symbols denoting
medicine in general.[32]

India is often called the land of snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding snakes.[74] Snakes are
worshipped as gods even today with many women pouring milk on snake pits (despite snakes'
aversion for milk).[74] The cobra is seen on the neck of Shiva and Vishnu is depicted often as
sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent.[75] There are also several
temples in India solely for cobras sometimes called Nagraj (King of Snakes) and it is believed
that snakes are symbols of fertility. There is a Hindu festival called Nag Panchami each year on
which day snakes are venerated and prayed to. See also Nāga.

In India there is another mythology about snakes. Commonly known in Hindi as "Ichchhadhari"
snakes. Such snakes can take the form of any living creature, but prefer human form. These
mythical snakes possess a valuable gem called "Mani", which is more brilliant than diamond.
There are many stories in India about greedy people trying to possess this gem and ending up
getting killed.

The Ouroboros is a symbol associated with many different religions and customs, and is claimed
to be related to Alchemy. The Ouroboros or Oroboros is a snake eating its own tail in a clock-
wise direction (from the head to the tail) in the shape of a circle, representing manifestation of
one's own life and rebirth, leading to immortality.

The snake is one of the 12 celestial animals of Chinese Zodiac, in the Chinese calendar.

Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.[76] They emphasized animals and often
depicted snakes in their art.[77]

Religion
A snake associated with Saint Simeon Stylites.

Snakes are a part of Hindu worship. A festival Nag Panchami is celebrated every year on snakes.
Most images of Lord Shiva depict snake around his neck. Puranas have various stories associated
with Snakes. In the Puranas, Shesha is said to hold all the planets of the Universe on his hoods
and to constantly sing the glories of Vishnu from all his mouths. He is sometimes referred to as
"Ananta-Shesha," which means "Endless Shesha." Other notable snakes in Hinduism are Ananta,
Vasuki, Taxak, Karkotaka and Pingala. The term Nāga is used to refer to entities that take the
form of large snakes in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Rod of Asclepius, in which the snakes, through ecdysis, symbolize healing.

Snakes have also been widely revered, such as in ancient Greece, where the serpent was seen as
a healer, and Asclepius carried two intertwined on his wand, a symbol seen today on many
ambulances.

In religious terms, the snake is arguably the most important animal in ancient Mesoamerica. “In
states of ecstasy, lords dance a serpent dance; great descending snakes adorn and support
building from Chichen Itza to Tenochtitlan, and the Nahuatl word coatl meaning serpent or twin,
forms part of primary deities such as Mixcoatl, Quetzalcoatl, and Coatlicue.”[78] In both Maya
and Aztec calendars, the fifth day of the week was known as Snake Day.

In Judaism, the snake of brass is also a symbol of healing, of one's life being saved from
imminent death (Book of Numbers 26:6–9).
Lilith with a snake, (1892), by John Collier (1892).

In Christianity, Christ's redemptive work is compared to saving one's life through beholding the
Nehushtan (serpent of brass) (Gospel of John 3:14). Snake handlers use snakes as an integral part
of church worship in order to exhibit their faith in divine protection. However, more commonly
in Christianity, the serpent has been seen as a representative of evil and sly plotting, which can
be seen in the description in Genesis chapter 3 of a snake in the Garden of Eden tempting Eve.
Saint Patrick is reputed to have expelled all snakes from Ireland while Christianising the country
in the 5th century, thus explaining the absence of snakes there.

In Christianity and Judaism, the snake makes its infamous appearance in the first book (Genesis
3:1) of the Bible when a serpent appears before the first couple Adam and Eve and tempts them
with the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. The snake returns in Exodus when Moses,
as a sign of God's power, turns his staff into a snake and when Moses made the Nehushtan, a
bronze snake on a pole that when looked at cured the people of bites from the snakes that
plagued them in the desert. The serpent makes its final appearance symbolizing Satan in the
Book of Revelation: "And he laid hold on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil and
Satan, and bound him for a thousand years." (Revelation 20:2)

In Neo-Paganism and Wicca, the snake is seen as a symbol of wisdom and knowledge.

Place names
Various locations in different countries are called for snakes, such as the Snake River in the
United States and Snake Island (Black Sea) (derived from "Fidonisi," which means the same in
Greek).