By

MARUTI CENTER FOR EXCELLENCE

 SPC

STATISTICAL
PROCESS
CONTROL
2
 Contents
 Section 1:- SPC Introduction and Concept of Control Chart
 SPC & Voice of Process
 Variation : Common and Special Cause
 Basic Statistics : Location, Spread, Shape
 Normal Distribution
 Control chart fundamentals
 Type of data and control chart
 Selection of Control charts
 Control chart preparatory steps

 Section 2:- Variable Common Control charts

 X bar & R chart
 Data collection
 Limit calculation and validation
 Process capability – Method of calculation Cp, Cpk, Pp & Ppk
 Control chart interpretation rules

3
 Section – 1

SPC Introduction and Concept of Control

chart

4
 What is Statistical Process Control
By Definition :- Controlling the process variations by using
statistics is called Statistical Process Control (SPC).

STATISTICS :- Deals with designing for collection of data, data analysis,

interpretation and initiating action based on the analysis .
or
The set of information derived from the Sample data to
estimate the process (Population) are called Statistics.

PROCESS :- Converting an input into an output by using Man,

Machine, Material, Method and Environment.

CONTROL :- Ensuring to make a variable to be with in the stated limit

5
 TRADITIONAL PROCESS CONTROL

PROCESS
Input Output
(Product or Service)

Inspect

•Based on defect detection Correct Detect

•Little or no reference to the Reject

process
•A goal post mentality

6
 Traditional Philosophy

LSL USL

Anything outside the specification limits

represents quality losses
Goalpost Mentality
7
PROCESS CONTROL: A BETTER APPROACH

THE PROCESS
Input Output
Method
Environment (Product or Service)
People
Equipment
Material

• Listen Voice of Process

Collect

Act Record

Analyze

8
 Prevention vs. Detection
 In the past, manufacturing depended on inspection to
screen out nonconforming product
-This process produces rework and scrap, in other words, waste or lots
of MUDA.
-Inspection does not increase quality, it only affects customer
annoyance.
-Detection tolerates waste

 Strategies for prevention are required in today’s markets

-First, mistake- proof the process
-If mistake- proofing is impractical or impossible, then control the inputs
to prevent nonconforming outputs
-Prevention avoids waste

9
VOICE OF THE
PROCESS
THROUGH SPC

10
 SPC HISTORY
Developed By
Dr.Walter A. Shewhart
During 1920’s in Bell Lab

Since then SPC has evolved to cover different

processes

11
 VARIATION :
The basic principle of SPC

12
What is this variation?
• One problem with mother nature, every thing is different
• No two things can be produced same in this world. By
all efforts we can only reduce the gap between the two.
This gap is known as variation.
• Dissimilarity between two products for the same
characteristic is called variation.
• The inevitable differences among individual outputs of a
process is called variation.
• No two things are exactly alike…
• No two people are same…
• Temperature changes continuously…
• The products we produce change continuously…
13
Why do you want to reduce the variation?
• Because variation is the main source of wastage,
undesired reworks, rejections, customer
dissatisfaction and many hidden, unrecoverable
costs.

14
 Common Causes

• Common to all individual readings in time periods.

A process operating under common cause is called

Under statistical control

15
 Special / Assignable Causes

• Sudden in nature

• Usually attract the attention of local people associated

with the process.

They are not common to all time periods, but they can
cause process fluctuations which are large in magnitude

16
 6.50 6.55 7.00

6.55 a.m. +/- 5 minutes.

This man wants to reach his work place by 6.55 a.m.. But he can
not do so, exactly at 6.55 a.m. daily. Sometimes he reaches earlier
(but almost never before 6.50 a.m.). Sometimes he reaches later
(but almost never after 7.00 a.m.).
WHY ?
17
 THIS IS BECAUSE....
OF CERTAIN FACTORS WHICH
• Affect the time he takes
• He cannot control
• Vary randomly

– e.g. The traffic you encounter under normal course of travel

THE VARIATION THAT OCCURS DUE TO THESE

KIND OF FACTORS IS CALLED INHERENT
VARIATION OR COMMON CAUSE VARIATION OR
WHITE NOISE.
– e.g.. m/c vibration,tool wear etc.

18
 UNDER NORMAL SCHEME OF
OPERATION

Maximum deviation
Inherent
Aimed value Variability
(white noise)
Minimum deviation

19
TODAY HE IS EARLY ! PROBABLY BECAUSE :
WHY ? • His watch was running fast.
• He got a lift.
• His Bus driver took a shortcut.
• He stayed over in the colony.
• He had some important
work to be finished before 7.30.
These causes are characteristic of
6.30
a specific circumstance and do
not occur in the normal scheme
of actions.

Variation due to these types of

reasons is called assignable or
special cause variation or black
noise 20
TODAY HE IS LATE PROBABLY BECAUSE :
WHY ? • He overslept.
• He missed his Bus.
• The Bus driver was new
• He took some other route
• He stayed over at some
other place.
These causes are characteristic
7.20 of a specific circumstance and
do not occur in the normal
scheme of actions.

Variation due to these types of

reasons is called assignable or
special cause variation or
black noise 21
 GRAPHICAL DISPLAY OF
VARIABILITIES
CASE I T
O
Assignable (Black noise) Assignable T
Variability Variability A
L
Inherent
V
Variability Aimed Value A
R
I
A
B
Assignable Assignable I
Variability L
Variability I
T
CASE II Y
22
How to estimate process behavior ?

Shape

Location

Spread

23
 Process can differ in ;

Location Spread

Shape
Or any combination
of these

24
 Location : MEAN – Centre of Gravity
The Mean of ‘n’ values is the total of the values divided by ‘n’

x1  x2  x3  .....xn
X
n

In Standard Mathematical Notation it is

in iN
xi
x  xi
estimates
 
i 1 n i 1 N

The Symbol “Σ” means ‘Sum of’

25
 MEAN : Example
Calculate the mean of the following data set
Trial Result

1 6

2 3

3 7

4 6

5 10
6 7

7 4

8 8

9 9

10 4

11 8

12 8
13 6

14 7

15 8

Sum 101
mean 6.733

26
 Spread - Range
The difference between the largest and the smallest of a set of
numbers. It is designated by a capital “R”.

R = Xmax - Xmin
R = XHi - XLow
Examples
Data Set 45 47 49 51
46 47 49 52
47 47 50 53
47 48 51 54 Range is :
54- 45=9
Range is not a very powerful statistic to measure dispersion

27
 Spread – Standard Deviation

The average distance between the individual numbers

and the mean. It is designated by “σ”

(X1-X)2 + (X2-X)2…. (XN-X)2

‘ σ=
N

estimates

28
 Standard Deviation : Example

Determine the standard deviation for the following sample data

set: 1, 2, 3

S= (-1)2+0+(1)2 =1
2
29
 Shape: Histogram
Histograms give a graphical view of the distribution of the values

It reveals the amount of variation that any process has within it.

30
 WHAT IS HISTOGRAM :

• A diagram that graphically depicts the

variability in a population.

31
 WHAT IS HISTOGRAM :
• The frequency data obtained from measurements
display a peak around a certain value. The
variation of quality characteristics is called
distribution.

• The figure that illustrates frequency in the form a

pole is referred to as a Histogram.

32
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
• The entire set of items is called the Population.
• The small number of items taken from the
population to make a judgment of the population
is called a Sample.
• The numbers of samples taken to make this
judgment is called Sample size.

SAMPLE SIZE : THREE

POPULATION

33
 Histogram – steps
1.Obtain a set of 50 ~ 100 observations as shown below:
Sample Results of Measurement
Number

1-10 2.510 2.517 2.522 2.522 2.510 2.511 2.519 2.532 2.539 2.525

11-20 2.527 2.536 2.506 2.541 2.512 2.521 2.521 2.536 2.529 2.524

21-30 2.529 2.523 2.523 2.523 2.519 2.538 2.543 2.538 2.518 2.534

31-40 2.520 2.514 2.512 2.534 2.526 2.532 2.532 2.526 2.523 2.520

41-50 2.535 2.523 2.526 2.525 2.532 2.530 2.500 2.530 2.522 2.514

51-60 2.533 2.510 2.542 2.524 2.530 2.535 2.522 2.535 2.540 2.528

61-70 2.525 2.515 2.520 2.519 2.526 2.542 2.522 2.539 2.540 2.528

71-80 2.531 2.545 2.524 2.522 2.520 2.519 2.519 2.529 2.522 2.513

81-90 2.518 2.527 2.511 2.519 2.531 2.527 2.529 2.528 2.519 2.521
34
 Histogram – steps
2. Obtain the maximum value and minimum value:
Sample Results of Measurement Maximum Minimum value of the
Number value of the line
line
1-10 2.510 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.539 2.510
17 22 22 10 11 19 32 39 25

11-20 2.527 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.541 2.506
36 06 41 12 21 21 36 29 24

21-30 2.529 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.543 2.518
23 23 23 19 38 43 38 18 34

31-40 2.520 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.534 2.512
14 12 34 26 32 32 26 23 20

41-50 2.535 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.535 2.500
23 26 25 32 30 00 30 22 14

51-60 2.533 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.542 2.510
10 42 24 30 35 22 35 40 28

61-70 2.525 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.539 2.515
15 20 19 26 42 22 39 40 28

71-80 2.531 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.545 2.513
45 24 22 20 19 19 29 22 13

81-90 2.518 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.531 2.511
27 11 19 31 27 29 28 19 21

The largest value The smallest value 2.500

2.545
35
 Table
Number of data (N) Number of classes (K)
Under 50 5 - 7
50 - 100 6 - 10
100 - 250 7 - 12
Over 250 10 - 20

36
 Histogram- Steps
3. Determine the number of classes:
There are two methods to identify no of class.
1. As per table.
We have data of 90 pcs, which comes under 50-100 range.
We can take 9 class.

2. Second method
 N
 90
 9.48

Therefore, number of interval of classes be taken as 9.

37
 Histogram- Steps
3. Determine width of one class
Range = Max- Min
= 2.545- 2.500
= 0.045
Width of one = Range / No of class
= 0.045/9
= 0.005

38
 Histogram –Steps
4. Make a frequency table as given below:
Class Mid-Point Frequency Marks (Tally) Freque
of Class x ncy f
1 2.500 - 2.505 2.500 / 1
2 2.506 – 2.510 2.508 //// 4
3 2.511 – 2.515 2.513 //// /// 8
4 2.516 – 2.520 2.518 //// //// //// 14
5 2.521 – 2.525 2.523 //// //// //// //// / 21
6 2.526 – 2.530 2.528 //// //// //// // 17
7 2.531 – 2.535 2.533 //// //// // 12
8 2.536 – 2.540 2.538 /////// 8
9 2.541 – 2.545 2.543 //// 5
Total - 90

39
 Histogram-Steps
5. Mark the horizontal axis with the class
boundary values.
6. Mark the vertical axis with a frequency
scale.
7. Erect the rectangles over the class
interval having area proportion to the
frequencies.
8 Draw a line on the Histogram to represent
Mean, number of data points and standard
deviation.
40
Histogram

41
Histogram

42
 Normal Distribution

LSL USL
ử±3o
99.7%

ử±2o
95.4%

ử±o
68.3%
o

Out of Out of
Spec. Spec.

ử-3o ử-2o ử-o ử ử+o ử+2o ử+3o

43
 Histogram for grade wise
distribution in a class

35
No. of students

23 25

15
10
5

C- C B B+ A A+
Grade
44
 TYPES OF HISTOGRAMS

• Normal
– Bell shaped and natural.

• Comb like
– Regular ups and downs,
– indicates possible measurement error or rounding
problem

• Positive or Negatively skewed

– Possibly due to a limiting process parameter

45
 TYPES OF HISTOGRAMS
• Precipice type
– Indicate filtering out through inspection
– Or incorrect representation
• Plateau type
– From multiple sources with small differences in averages
– Look for stratification
• Bimodal
– Two peaks – coming from two different
sources/populations
• Isolated peak type
– Outliers indicate mistake in sampling, data collection or
measurement
– Possibly process shift during data collection

46
Normal Distribution Curve– Relation between spread & sigma

99.73%
+/-3 sigma
-3σ +3σ
95.46%
+/- 2 sigma
-2σ +2σ
68.26%
+/- 1 sigma
-σ +σ

2.14% 13.6% 34.13% 34.13% 13.6% 2.14%

47
 By collecting sample data from the process and
computing their
 Mean
 Standard deviation and
 Shape

Prediction can be made about the process

48
For routine process control, we need
• Simple computation
• Easy to use by operators for ongoing process control
• Help the process perform consistently, predictably for quality and
cost
• Achieve
Less variation in output
Lower unit cost
Increase effective capacity
• Provide a common language for discussing process performance
• Distinguish special from common causes of variation, as a guide to
local or management action

49
 Control Charts

 Transformation of a normal distribution curve in the form of 3 parallel lines,

where
• The middle line indicates mean and called central line (C.L.)
• The upper line indicates mean Mean +3 Sigma and called upper control limit (UCL)
• The lower line indicates Mean – 3 Sigma and called lower control limit (LCL)

U.C.L
+3σ
MEAN C.L

-3σ L.C.L

50
 Types of Data

Attribute Variable
Anything that can be classified Anything that can be measured
Either / Or Height
Pass / fail Dollars
Good / Bad Distance
Go / No Go Speed
Count Continuous, infinite
Discrete Stimulates Prevention
Detection Oriented

51
 Common Control Charts

Variable
 Average and Range ( X-R )
 Individual and Moving Range ( X – MR / I – MR )

Attribute
 p/ np Chart : Unit Nonconforming (Defectives)
 c/ u Chart : Number of Nonconformities (Defects)

52
 Steps for Control Charts

1. Complete preparatory steps

2. Data Collection
3. Making Trial Control Limits
4. Validation of Control limits
5. Process Capability Study
6. On going control
7. Improvement

53
 Control Chart: Preparatory Steps
 Create a suitable (conducive) environment

 Select characteristics

 Verify Measurement System capability

 Select suitable control chart

54
 SPC – Charts For All Occasions
Variable No % Defective Defects
Data & Defects ?

Yes % Defective
Constant
Rational No Constant
I & MR Chart Sample Size ?
Subgroup ? Sample Size ?

Yes Yes No No
Yes
p-Chart
Easy To u-Chart
Subgroup Yes
size >8 Compute
Sigma np-Chart & p-chart
No Yes
No c-Chart & u-chart

X-bar & R Chart X-bar & S Chart

55
 Section -2

Variable Common Control Charts

56
 CONTROL CHARTS (VARIABLE)

Average – Range (X – R ) Chart

 When ?
Measurement must be variable.
Situation must be practically feasible to have at least 2
measurements in short span.
Mass Production.
Suitable for Product (Output) Characteristics.
Suitable for both Normal & Non- Normal Data.
57
 CONTROL CHARTS (VARIABLE)

Average – Range (X – R ) Chart

 Data Collection
Decide the Subgroup Size
 Rational Subgroup: Variability within subgroup
should be small.

58
 CONTROL CHARTS (VARIABLE)

Average – Range (X – R ) Chart

 Data Collection
Decide Subgroup Frequency
 Detect change in the process over span of time.
For initial study, may be consecutive or a very short
interval.

59
 CONTROL CHARTS (VARIABLE)

Average – Range (X – R ) Chart

 Data Collection
Decide no. of subgroups
(For initial study: To Define the control limits)
 To incorporate Major Source of Variation (Generally
25 subgroups or more Containing about 100
individual Measurements)

60
 AVERAGE RANGE CHART

CUSTOMER : PART NAME: PART NO.:

PARAMETER: SPEC.(NOMI): 0.70 MACHINE:

TOLERANCE: +/- 0.2

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 0.65 0.75 0.75 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.7 0.60 0.65 0.60 0.80 0.85 0.70 0.65 0.90 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.60
5

2 0.70 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.7 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.80 0.65 0.60 0.70 0.85
0

3 0.65 0.75 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.75 0.6 0.80 0.85 0.60 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.85 0.60 0.85 0.65
5

4 0.65 0.85 0.70 0.75 0.85 0.85 0.6 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.65 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.70
5

5 0.85 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.80 0.70 0.8 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.85 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.70 0.65
0

61
 AVERAGE – RANGE CONTROL CHARTS (X – R )

Calculate Average of each Subgroup.

Calculate the Range of Each Subgroup.

R = Xmax – Xmin

 X1 ,X2 ,…. Xn are individual values within the subgroup

n is the Subgroup Sample Size.

62
 AVERAGE RANGE CHART

CUSTOMER : PART NAME: PART NO.:

PARAMETER: SPEC.(NOMI): 0.70 MACHINE:

TOLERANCE: +/- 0.2

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 0.65 0.75 0.75 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.75 0.6 0.65 0.60 0.80 0.85 0.70 0.65 0.90 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.60
0

2 0.70 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.70 0.7 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.80 0.65 0.60 0.70 0.85
0

3 0.65 0.75 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.8 0.85 0.60 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.85 0.60 0.85 0.65
0

4 0.65 0.85 0.70 0.75 0.85 0.85 0.65 0.6 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.65 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.70
5

5 0.85 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.80 0.70 0.80 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.85 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.70 0.65
5

X 0.70 0.77 0.76 0.68 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.7 0.76 0.68 0.75 0.74 0.68 0.67 0.75 0.75 0.73 0.64 0.72 0.69
0

R 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.15 0.2 0.20 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.20 0.25
0

63
 AVERAGE – RANGE CONTROL CHARTS (X – R )

Calculate Average of each Subgroup.

x1  x2  x3  .....xk
x
k
Calculate the Average Range.

R1  R2  R3  .....Rk
R
k

k= No. of subgroups

64
 AVERAGE – RANGE CONTROL CHARTS (X – R )

Calculate Trial Control Limits for Range Chart.

Calculate Trial Control Limits for Average Chart.

D4 , D3 & A2 are Constant varying as per sample size (n)

65
 Table of Constants for Control Charts

Use the table below where n is the number of samples in a subgroup.

n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.267 2.575 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777
D4
0 0 0 0 0 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.223
D3
1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308
A2
1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078
d2

66
 AVERAGE – RANGE CONTROL CHARTS (X – R )

x= 0.718
R= 0.21
For R Chart
UCL = D4 X R = 0.433
LCL = D3 X R = 0.000
For X Bar Chart
UCL = x + A2 X R = 0.837
LCL = x - A2 X R = 0.5991

67
DRAW AVERAGE – RANGE CHART

68
 A Few Words on Control Limits
Basis for control limits :
•Control limits are also referred to as natural process limits.
•Control limits are based on the mean and standard deviation of the
process as it is, not how we wish it to be.
•There is no connection to specification limits.

Purposes of control limits

•To determine when local action is necessary and to act on it (i.e., when
special cause variation exists).
•To display the natural variation of the process, that is, the common cause
variation.
•To show any obvious, unnatural patterns in the data.
Specification limits do not belong on control charts.
69
 Process Capability :
 Calculate Process Standard Deviation Subgroup Size (n) d2
2 1.128
σ = R / d2
3 1.693
d2 is a constant varying as per sample size (n) 4 2.059
5 2.326
6 2.534
 Calculate Process Capability ( Cp )
7 2.704
8 2.847
9 2.970

Cp = (USL – LSL) / 6σ USL = Upper Specification Limit

LSL = Lower Specification Limit

= Tolerance / 6σ

70
 A Problem With Cp :

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
 Cp considers only spread, not the location.
 For a truly capable process

 Process spread must be smaller to specification and

 It should be located in a manner that its spread on both the sides

falls well within the specification.

 Capability index that considers both location and spread is called Cpk

71
 Process Capability Study :
Compare Voice of Process with Voice of customer
(Specification)

Voice of Process

LSL USL
-3σ +3σ

Process Width

Design Width
Voice of Customer
72
 Process Capability :
Calculate Process Capability (Cpk)

Cpu = (USL – X) / 3σ = ZUSL / 3 Subgroup d2

size(n)
2 1.128
Or CpL = (X – LSL) / 3σ = ZLSL / 3
3 1.693
4 2.059
Whichever is minimum will be Cpk
5 2.326
6 2.534
7 2.704
8 2.847
9 2.970

73
 Process Capability :
Standard Deviation (σ) = R / d2

= 0.205 / 2.326 USL = 0.900

= 0.088
LSL = 0.500
Process Capability :
Cp = (USL-LSL) / 6σ = (0.900-0.500) / 6 X 0.088
= 0.7575
Cpu = (USL – X) / 3σ = (0.900-0.718) / 3 X 0.088
= 0.689
Cpl = (X – LSL) / 3σ = (0.718 – 0.500) / 3 X 0.088
= 0.8257
Cpk = 0.689
LSL USL
(0.500) (0.900)
X
0.718

74
 Process Capability :

Cp Cpk Remarks

• Process Capable
• Continue Charting
• Bring Cpk closer to Cp
• Process has potential Capability
X • Improve Cpk by Local action

• Process lacks basic Capability

X X • Improve process by Management
action
75
 What about PROCESS PERFORMANCE ?

• Process Capability (Cp, Cpk) indicates the ability of the

process to meet the specification (Voice of customer) when Process
operates under the common causes.

•In practical situation, a process shows variation due to both common

as well as assignable causes.

•One must analyze process behaviour due to combined effect of

Common and Assignable causes. The index is known as Process
Performance Index (Pp, Ppk)

76
 Process Capability vs Performance :

Cpk Ppk Remarks

• Process Capable and performing

• Continue Charting

• Process has Capability but not

performing due to assignable causes
X • Remove assignable causes by Local
action
• Process neither capable nor
X X performing
• May require Management action
77
Other Capability Indices: Machine Capability (Cm, Cmk)

A process variation is affected σ2 Long-Term = σ2 Short-Term

by many factors like
+ σ2 Machines
• Raw material variation
+ σ2 Day to Day
• Tools
• Operators + σ2 Operators
• Measurement System + σ2 Batches
+ σ2 Seasonal
• Time
+ ……
• Environmental change etc…

Machine capability is an index which is calculated on the basis of

variation contributed by Machine only

78
 Machine Capability (Cm, Cmk)

• Take 50-100 consecutive samples/ measurements in short span.

• Ensure the following do not change during sampling.
Raw material batch
Operator
Tooling
Method of process
Measurement system
Environment etc…

Calculate Cm, Cmk using the same formulae used for Cp, Cpk

79
 CONTROL CHART: Validation of Control Limit

• Control limits should indicate the variation which comes

due to common causes only. So that, any assignable
assignable cause variation is reflected.

• Hence, it should be based on data when there is no

assignable cause.

• Any control limit based on assignable cause data can not

be considered as Reliable.

•What to do ?

80
Validation of Control Limit
Identify any out of control or special cause situation
 Any point above UCL or below LCL:
R CHART
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
 Validation of Control Limits

• For initial control chart,

 Discard all the subgroup showing out of control situation (starting from R-chart)
 Re-calculate Control Limits, plot and analyse for any out of control situation.
 Re discard if any out of control situation again found.
 Continue the above cycle until all plot indicate a control situation.
 Repeat same exercise with Average chart.
 If more than 50% data are required to be discarded, reject all data and re-
collect.
 Once initial control chart indicates control situation.

• Calculate Initial Capability

• Extend control limits for ongoing control.

82
 Control Charts Ongoing Process Control

• Collect the data at the frequency as established.

• Plot on control chart.

• Perform instant analysis and interpretation.

• Give immediate feedback to the process for action if any

indication of process behaviour change.
•Record significant process events (Tool change, Operator change,
Shift change, breakdown etc…
•This helps identifying assignable causes.

83
 Interpreting Control Charts - Ongoing
The interpretation of control charts is based on the statistical
probability of a particular pattern occurring by complete chance (or
being caused by random variation).
• All of the tests identify events that have a less than 0.3% chance of
occurring by random chance (outside of 3s probability of being
caused by random variation).
• Control charts are divided into sigma zones above and below the
average line.

• Zone C is <1 from the mean.

• Zone B is between 1 and 2
• Zone A is between 2 and 3
• Beyond Zone A is > 3

84
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:1 One point beyond zone A
x
UCL
A
B
C
CL
C
B
A
LCL
x
Test 1 The basic test

o Caused by a large change in the process.

o Requires Immediate action

85
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:2 Seven points in a row on one side of center line.

UCL
A
B
C
CL
C
B x
A
LCL

o Caused by a process mean shift

86
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:3 Six points in a row steadily increasing or decreasing

UCL
A
B
C x
CL
C
B x
A
LCL

o Caused by
Mechanical wear
Chemical depletion
Increasing contamination
 etc

87
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:4 Alternating Patterns
Fourteen points in a row alternating up & down
UCL
A
B
C
CL
C x
B
A
LCL

o Caused by

Over adjustment
Shift-to-shift variation
Machine-to-machine variation
88
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:5 Two out of three points in a row in the same zone A or beyond
x x
UCL
A
B
C
CL
C
B
A x
LCL

Test 5 The second basic test

o High variation without exceeding the 3 sigma limit

o Major special cause variation

89
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:6 Four out of five points in a row in the same zone B and beyond

UCL
A x
B
C
CL
C
B x

A
LCL

o Another test for shift

oTest 1,5,6 are related and show conditions of high special cause variability.

90
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:7 Fifteen points in a row in zone C (Above & below center line)

UCL
A
B
x
C
CL
C
B
A
LCL

Test 7- The Whitespace test

Occurs when within subgroup variation is large
compared to between group variation or
Old or incorrectly calculated limits
91
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test 8 Eight points in a row on both sides of center line with none in zone C

UCL
A
B x
C
CL
C
B
A
LCL
Test 8 Alternating Means

Mixtures
Over control
Two different processes on the same chart.

92
 Interpretation for Control Charts
X Bar Chart R Chart Conclusion

Under Control Under Control Enjoy

Under Control Out of Control Spread Changed

Out of Control Under Control Location Changed

Out of Control Out of Control Both spread and location

changed

93
 Individuals (I & MR) Charts
When to use :
Measurement is variable
There is no rational basis for sub grouping or
The measurements are expensive and / or destructive or
Production rate is slow or
Population is homogeneous
Suitable for both process and product parameters

94
 Moving Range Control Charts
DATE READING(X) RANGE (R )

1 APR 8.00

2 APR 8.50 0.50

3 APR 7.40 1.10

4 APR 10.50 3.10

5 APR 9.30 1.20

6 APR 11.10 1.80

7 APR 10.40 0.70

8 APR 10.40 0.00

9 APR 9.00 1.40

10 APR 10.00 1.00

11 APR 11.70 1.70

12 APR 10.30 1.40

13 APR 16.20 5.90

14 APR 11.60 4.60

15 APR 11.50 0.10

16 APR 11.00 0.50

17 APR 12.00 1.00

18 APR 11.00 1.00

19 APR 10.20 0.80

20 APR 10.10 0.10

21 APR 10.50 0.40

22 APR 10.30 0.20

23 APR 11.50 1.20

24 APR 11.10 0.40 95

 Moving Range Control Charts
 Average of Individual values:
x1  x2  x3  .....xk
x 
k
8.0  8.5  ...11.1
x 
24
x  10.57
 Moving Range :
MR1  MR2  MR3  .....MRk
MR
k 1
0.5  1.1  ....0.4
MR
24  1
M R  1.3

96
Table of Constants for (I-MR) Charts
Subgroup d2 D3 D4 E2
Size (n)
2 1.128 - 3.267 2.660

3 1.693 - 2.574 1.772

4 2.059 - 2.282 1.457

5 2.326 - 2.114 1.290

6 2.534 - 2.004 1.184

7 2.704 0.076 1.924 1.109

8 2.847 0.136 1.864 1.054

9 2.970 0.184 1.816 1.010

97
 Moving Range Control Charts
Upper Control Limits UCLX = X + E2R

UCLX = 10.57 + 2.66*1.3

UCLX = 14.1

Lower Control Limits LCLX = X – E2R

LCLX = 10.57 - 2.66*1.3

LCLX = 7.1

98
 Moving Range Control Charts
Upper Control Limits UCLR = D4R

UCLR = 3.267*1.3

UCLR = 4.25
Lower Control Limit LCLR = D3R

LCLR = 0*1.3
LCLR = 0

99
 Moving Range Control Charts
Upper Control Limits UCLX = 14.1
Lower Control Limits LCLX = 7.1
Upper Control Limits UCLR = 4.3
Lower Control Limit LCLR = 0

Estimate of Standard Deviation of X :

= 1.3/1.128
= 1.15
 Individuals And Range Chart

Moving Range MR
6
5
4 4.3
3
2
1 1.30
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
101
 What is Sigma Level (Z- Score)
• It is a metric, used to quantify how well a process is
performing as compared to specification.
• It is a measure of the gap between the specification
boundary and Process mean using σ as a unit of
measurement.
• Number of standard deviations that fit between the average
& (upper or lower ) Specification limit.
X
LSL USL

σ σ σ
• A three – sigma level (3 σ)process 102
 What is Sigma Level (Z- Score)
• X
LSL USL

σ σ σ σ σ σ

• A six – sigma level (6σ) process

USL  X
Sigma Level (USL) 

103
 How to calculate Sigma Level (Z- Score)

USL  Mean
Sigma Level (USL) 

or
Mean  LSL
Sigma Level ( LSL) 


Whichever is minimum will be Sigma level

104
 Example
• Calculate sigma level / Z score / Zigma for the
following data.
LSL = 275, USL = 325, process sigma = 5 and
process mean = 305
Solution: USL  Mean 325  305
SigmaLevelu   4
sigma 5

Mean  LSL 305  275

Sigma Levell   6
sigma 5
Whichever is less
Sigma Level = 4

105
 Sigma Level
Sigma Sigma Defect % Yield
Level Level opportunity (Long Term)
(Short (Long (Per million)
Term) Term) (Long Term)

2 0.5 308,770 69.12%

3 1.5 66,811 93.32%
4 2.5 6,210 99.38%
5 3.5 233 99.98%
6 4.5 3.4 99.99966%
 Normal Distribution
Area above z
AREA ABOVE z

0 z
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0 0.500000000 0.496010621 0.492021646 0.488033473 0.484046501 0.480061127 0.476077747 0.472096760 zl
0.468118560 0.464143544
0.1 0.460172104 0.456204636 0.452241530 0.448283177 0.444329967 0.440382288 0.436440527 0.432505067 0.428576291 0.424654580
0.2 0.420740313 0.416833866 0.412935613 0.409045927 0.405165176 0.401293726 0.397431943 0.393580186 0.389738814 0.385908182
0.3 0.382088643 0.378280543 0.374484230 0.370700045 0.366928327 0.363169410 0.359423626 0.355691301 0.351972760 0.348268323
0.4 0.344578303 0.340903014 0.337242763 0.333597852 0.329968580 0.326355241 0.322758126 0.319177519 0.315613701 0.312066949
0.5 0.308537533 0.305025719 0.301531771 0.298055944 0.294598489 0.291159655 0.287739682 0.284338808 0.280957264 0.277595276
0.6 0.274253065 0.270930848 0.267628834 0.264347230 0.261086235 0.257846044 0.254626846 0.251428824 0.248252158 0.245097021
0.7 0.241963578 0.238851994 0.235762424 0.232695018 0.229649924 0.226627280 0.223627221 0.220649876 0.217695369 0.214763817
0.8
0.9
0.211855334
0.184060092
0.208970026
0.181411225
0.206107994
0.178786354

0.203269335
0.176185520
0.200454139
0.173608762
0.197662492
0.171056112
0.194894473
0.168527597
0.192150158
0.166023240
0.189429614
0.163543057
0.186732906
0.161087061
1 0.158655260 0.156247655 0.153864244 0.151505020 0.149169971 0.146859081 0.144572328 0.142309686 0.140071125 0.137856610
1.1 0.135666102 0.133499557 0.131356927 0.129238161 0.127143201 0.125071989 0.123024458 0.121000541 0.119000166 0.117023256
1.2 0.115069732 0.113139509 0.111232501 0.109348617 0.107487762 0.105649839 0.103834747 0.102042381 0.100272634 0.098525394
1.3 0.096800549 0.095097982 0.093417573 0.091759198 0.090122734 0.088508052 0.086915021 0.085343508 0.083793378 0.082264493
1.4 0.080756711 0.079269891 0.077803888 0.076358555 0.074933743 0.073529300 0.072145075 0.070780913 0.069436656 0.068112148
1.5 0.066807229 0.065521737 0.064255510 0.063008383 0.061780193 0.060570771 0.059379950 0.058207562 0.057053437 0.055917403
1.6 0.054799289 0.053698923 0.052616130 0.051550737 0.050502569 0.049471451 0.048457206 0.047459659 0.046478632 0.045513949
1.7 0.044565432 0.043632903 0.042716185 0.041815099 0.040929468 0.040059114 0.039203858 0.038363523 0.037537931 0.036726904
1.8 0.035930266 0.035147838 0.034379445 0.033624911 0.032884058 0.032156713 0.031442700 0.030741845 0.030053974 0.029378914
1.9 0.028716493 0.028066539 0.027428881 0.026803350 0.026189776 0.025587990 0.024997825 0.024419115 0.023851694 0.023295398
2 0.022750062 0.022215525 0.021691624 0.021178201 0.020675095 0.020182148 0.019699203 0.019226106 0.018762701 0.018308836
2.1 0.017864357 0.017429116 0.017002962 0.016585747 0.016177325 0.015777551 0.015386280 0.015003369 0.014628679 0.014262068
2.2 0.013903399 0.013552534 0.013209339 0.012873678 0.012545420 0.012224433 0.011910588 0.011603756 0.011303811 0.011010627
2.3 0.010724081 0.010444050 0.010170414 0.009903053 0.009641850 0.009386687 0.009137452 0.008894029 0.008656308 0.008424177
2.4 0.008197529 0.007976255 0.007760251 0.007549411 0.007343633 0.007142815 0.006946857 0.006755661 0.006569129 0.006387167
2.5 0.006209680 0.006036575 0.005867760 0.005703147 0.005542646 0.005386170 0.005233635 0.005084954 0.004940046 0.004798829
2.6 0.004661222 0.004527147 0.004396526 0.004269282 0.004145342 0.004024631 0.003907076 0.003792607 0.003681155 0.003572649
2.7 0.003467023 0.003364211 0.003264148 0.003166769 0.003072013 0.002979819 0.002890125 0.002802872 0.002718003 0.002635461
2.8 0.002555191 0.002477136 0.002401244 0.002327463 0.002255740 0.002186026 0.002118270 0.002052424 0.001988442 0.001926276
2.9 0.001865880 0.001807211 0.001750225 0.001694878 0.001641129 0.001588938 0.001538264 0.001489068 0.001441311 0.001394956
3 0.001349967 0.001306308 0.001263943 0.001222838 0.001182960 0.001144276 0.001106754 0.001070363 0.001035071 107
0.001000851
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
3.1 0.000967671 0.000935504 0.000904323 0.000874099 0.000844806 0.000816419 0.000788912 0.000762260 0.000736440 0.000711429
3.2 0.000687202 0.000663738 0.000641016 0.000619014 0.000597711 0.000577086 0.000557122 0.000537798 0.000519095 0.000500996
3.3 0.000483483 0.000466538 0.000450144 0.000434286 0.000418948 0.000404113 0.000389767 0.000375895 0.000362482 0.000349515
3.4 0.000336981 0.000324865 0.000313156 0.000301840 0.000290906 0.000280341 0.000270135 0.000260276 0.000250753 0.000241555
3.5 0.000232673 0.000224097 0.000215816 0.000207822 0.000200105 0.000192656 0.000185467 0.000178530 0.000171836 0.000165377
3.6 0.000159146 0.000153135 0.000147337 0.000141746 0.000136353 0.000131154 0.000126141 0.000121308 0.000116649 0.000112158
3.7 0.000107830 0.000103659 0.000099641 0.000095768 0.000092038 0.000088445 0.000084983 0.000081650 0.000078440 0.000075349
3.8 0.000072372 0.000069507 0.000066749 0.000064094 0.000061539 0.000059081 0.000056715 0.000054438 0.000052248 0.000050142
3.9 0.000048116 0.000046167 0.000044293 0.000042491 0.000040758 0.000039092 0.000037491 0.000035952 0.000034473 0.000033052
4 0.000031686 0.000030374 0.000029113 0.000027902 0.000026739 0.000025622 0.000024549 0.000023519 0.000022530 0.000021580
4.1 0.000020669 0.000019794 0.000018954 0.000018148 0.000017375 0.000016633 0.000015922 0.000015239 0.000014584 0.000013956
4.2 0.000013354 0.000012777 0.000012223 0.000011692 0.000011183 0.000010696 0.000010228 0.000009780 0.000009351 0.000008940
4.3 0.000008546 0.000008169 0.000007807 0.000007461 0.000007130 0.000006812 0.000006508 0.000006217 0.000005939 0.000005672
4.4 0.000005417 0.000005173 0.000004939 0.000004716 0.000004502 0.000004297 0.000004102 0.000003914 0.000003736 0.000003564
4.5 0.000003401 0.000003244 0.000003095 0.000002952 0.000002815 0.000002685 0.000002560 0.000002441 0.000002327 0.000002218
4.6 0.000002115 0.000002015 0.000001921 0.000001830 0.000001744 0.000001661 0.000001583 0.000001508 0.000001436 0.000001368
4.7 0.000001302 0.000001240 0.000001181 0.000001124 0.000001070 0.000001018 0.000000969 0.000000922 0.000000878 0.000000835
4.8 0.000000794 0.000000756 0.000000719 0.000000684 0.000000650 0.000000618 0.000000588 0.000000559 0.000000531 0.000000505
4.9 0.000000480 0.000000456 0.000000433 0.000000412 0.000000391 0.000000372 0.000000353 0.000000335 0.000000318 0.000000302
5 0.000000287 0.000000273 0.000000259 0.000000246 0.000000233 0.000000221 0.000000210 0.000000199 0.000000189 0.000000179
5.1 0.000000170 0.000000161 0.000000153 0.000000145 0.000000138 0.000000130 0.000000124 0.000000117 0.000000111 0.000000105
5.2 0.000000100 0.000000095 0.000000090 0.000000085 0.000000080 0.000000076 0.000000072 0.000000068 0.000000065 0.000000061
5.3 0.000000058 0.000000055 0.000000052 0.000000049 0.000000047 0.000000044 0.000000042 0.000000039 0.000000037 0.000000035
5.4 0.000000033 0.000000032 0.000000030 0.000000028 0.000000027 0.000000025 0.000000024 0.000000023 0.000000021 0.000000020
5.5 0.000000019 0.000000018 0.000000017 0.000000016 0.000000015 0.000000014 0.000000014 0.000000013 0.000000012 0.000000011
5.6 0.000000011 0.000000010 0.000000010 0.000000009 0.000000009 0.000000008 0.000000008 0.000000007 0.000000007 0.000000006
5.7 0.000000006 0.000000006 0.000000005 0.000000005 0.000000005 0.000000004 0.000000004 0.000000004 0.000000004 0.000000004
5.8 0.000000003 0.000000003 0.000000003 0.000000003 0.000000003 0.000000002 0.000000002 0.000000002 0.000000002 0.000000002
5.9 0.000000002 0.000000002 0.000000002 0.000000002 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001
6 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001 0.000000001
7 0.000000000
8 0.000000000
9 0.000000000
10 0.000000000
108
 Glossary of Terms
Process capability is determined by the variation
that comes from common causes. It generally
represents the best performance of the process
itself. This is demonstrated when the process is
being operated in a state of statistical control
regardless of the specifications.

Process Capability – The 6 σ range of inherent

process variation, for statistically stable processes
only, where σ is usually estimated by

 c  R /d 2
109
Customers, internal or external, are however more
typically concerned with the process performance ;
that is, the overall output of the process and how it
relates to their requirements (defined by
specifications), irrespective of the process
variation.
Process Performance - The 6 range of total
process variation, where σ is usually estimated by
s, the total process standard deviation.
n
x  x 2

p S  i
i
n 1
110
Range : A measure of process spread. The
difference between the highest and lowest values
in a subgroup, a sample, or a population.
Variable Data : Quantitative data, where
measurements are used for analysis. Examples
include the diameter of a bearing in millimeters,
the closing effort of a door in Newtons, torque of a
fastener in Newton-meters.
Attributes Data : Qualitative data that can be
categorized for recording and analysis. Examples :
where the results are recorded in a simple yes/no
fashion, such as acceptability of a shaft diameter
when checked on a go/no go gage.
111
THANK YOU