DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, AAIT

Chapter three
3.1 Design Controls and Criteria
The elements of design such as alignments and cross sections are influenced by a wide variety of
design controls, engineering criteria, and project specific objectives so that the designer must
have an understanding of the basic design control and criteria associated with the highway.

Such factors include the following:

 Functional classification of the roadway

 Human factors
 The design vehicle
 Traffic characteristics
 Highway capacity/LOS
 Access management
 Traffic safety considerations
 Environmental considerations
 Right-of-way impacts and costs

These considerations are not, of course, completely independent of one another. The functional
class of a proposed facility is largely determined by the volume and composition of the traffic to
be served. It is also related to the type of service that a highway will accommodate and the speed
that a vehicle will travel while being driven along a highway.
Of all the factors that are considered in the design of a highway, the principal design criteria are
traffic volume, design speed, sight distances, vehicle size, and vehicle mix.

 Functional classification of the roadway

Note that throughout this course the term “highway” or “highways” is used to denote travel
surfaces. The term will be used whether the surface under discussion is a road, a street, an
avenue, a highway or has any other designation.

Highways are commonly classified in one of two ways: by purpose or by ownership. Functional
classification is the process by which highways are grouped into classes, or systems, according to
the purpose, or the character of service they are intended to provide. This classification
recognizes that individual roads and streets do not serve travel independently. Rather, most travel
involves movement through networks of roads and can be categorized relative to such networks
in a logical and efficient manner. This is done by defining the role a particular highway should
play in serving the flow of trips through the highway network. The major concept behind the
functional classification system is the relationship between highways and the functions they
serve. Once the major function of a highway is established, its classification is more easily
determined.
In general, the two basic functions of a highway are:
1. Access to property
2. Travel mobility
Almost all highways perform both of these functions, but in varying combinations. The
determination of these relationships (basically a determination of the highway's principal use)

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will also determine to which of the three major functional classifications the highway belongs.
These three major classifications are arterial, collector and local. In general, the access/mobility
relationship of these three major classifications is as follows:
Arterial
These highways emphasize a high level of mobility for through movement. They provide the
highest level of mobility, at the highest speed, for long, uninterrupted travel. Arterials generally
have higher design standards than other highways, often with multiple lanes and some degree of
access control.
Collector
These highways provide a lower level of mobility but a larger level of property access than
arterials. They are designed for travel at lower speeds and for shorter distances. Collectors
typically are two-lane highways that gather and distribute traffic to and from the arterial system
and the local system.
Local
These highways emphasize a high level of land access. They provide the highest level of
property access, at the lowest speeds, and the lowest level of mobility. They generally have the
lowest design standards and are typically two lane highways with no striping or other painted
markings. They represent the bulk of the mileage in the public highway network.

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Figure 3.1
From the above figure 3.1 A, lines of travel desire are straight lines connecting trip origins and
destinations (circles). The relative widths of the lines indicate the relative amounts of travel
desire. The relative sizes of the circles indicate the relative trip generating and attracting power
of the places.
From the above figure 3.1 B, labeled local access, collector, and arterial, which are terms that
describe their functional relationships. In this scheme the functional hierarchy is also seen to be
related to the hierarchy of trip distances served by the network.

A more complete illustration of a functionally classified rural network is shown in figure 3.2.The
arterial highways generally provide direct service between cities and larger towns, which
generate and attract a large proportion of the relatively longer trips. Roads of the intermediate
functional category (collectors) serve small towns directly, connecting them to the arterial
network. Roads of this category collect traffic from the local roads, which serve individual farms
and other rural land uses or distribute traffic to these local roads from the arterials.

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Figure 3.2
Although this example has a rural setting, the same basic concepts also apply in urban and
suburban areas. A similar hierarchy of systems can be defined; however, because of the high
intensity of land use and travel, specific travel generation centers are more difficult to identify. In
urban and suburban areas additional considerations, such as the spacing of intersections, become
more important in defining a logical and efficient network. A schematic illustration of a
functionally classified suburban street network is shown in figure 3.3.

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Figure 3.3

Roads generally serve a multitude of purposes:

• As through route - for long distance traffic
• As local route – for local traffic
• In urban and rural areas –urban roads/rural roads
• For fast and slow vehicles – 2 wheels to 10+ wheels
• As servicing/access roads
• For use by pedestrians
• For parking areas
• For Street Vendors, etc

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Such a mix of uses Reduces SAFETY, EFFICIENCY, and CAPACITY;hence a hierarchical road
system is necessary. Roads are therefore classified according to their respective functions in
terms of the character of the services they are providing.
Objectives in setting a hierarchy
• To obtain best use of an existing network
• To ensure that each type of traffic is using the most appropriate route
• To minimize the risk to users and to the natural built environment
• To ensure better management, maintenance regimes and design policies
• To ensure funding for routes is targeted appropriately
• To offer network users a choice for how to travel

Characterstics
Primary Distributor Fast moving long distance through traffic, no frontage
↓ development and pedestrian.
District Distributor
↓
Local Distributor
↓
Access Distributor slow moving vehicles, delivery vehicles, and frontage
development,walking,no through vehicle movement.

Road Hierarchy (The Ethiopian way)

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FHWA functional classification

The Hierarchy of functional classification

Rural areas urbanized areas small urban areas

↓ ↓ ↓
Principal arterials Principal arterials Principal arterials
Minor arterial roads Minor arterial streets Minor arterial streets
Collector roads Collector streets Collector streets
Local roads Local streets Local streets

 The role of functional classification in the design process

The first step in the design process is to define the function that the facility is to serve. The level
of service needed to fulfill this function for the anticipated volume and composition of traffic
provides a rational and cost-effective basis for the selection of design speed and geometric
criteria within the ranges of values available to the designer.
Once the functional classification of a particular roadway has been established, so has the
allowable range of design speed with the allowable range of horizontal and vertical alignment are
also defined. Similarly, a determination of functional classification establishes the basic roadway
cross section in terms of lane width, shoulder width, type and width of median area, and other
major design features.

 Human factors
Driver performance
An appreciation of driver performance is essential to proper highway design and operation. The
suitability of a design rests as much on how safely and efficiently drivers are able to use the
highway as on any other criterion. When drivers use a highway designed to be compatible with
their capabilities and limitations, their performance is aided. When a design is incompatible with
the capabilities of drivers, the chance for driver errors increase, and crashes or inefficient
operation may result.
Design response; Designers should strive to satisfy the following criteria:
 Driver’s expectations are recognized, unexpected, unusual or inconsistent design or
operational situations avoided or minimized.
 Predictable behavior is encouraged through familiarity and habit (e.g. there should be a
limited range of intersection and interchange design format, each appropriate to a given
situation, and similar design should be used in similar situation).
 Consistency of design and driver behavior is maintained from element to element (e.g.
avoid significant changes in design and operating speeds along a roadway).
 The information that is provided should decrease the driver’s uncertainty, not increase it
(e.g. avoid presenting several alternatives to the driver at the same time).
 Clear site lines and adequate site distance are provided to allow time for decision making
where ever possible, margins are allowed for error and recovery.

Pedestrians
The interaction of pedestrian with traffic should be carefully considered in road planning and
design, because over 50 per cent of all road fatalities are pedestrian. The urban pedestrian, being
far more prevalent, more often influences roadway design features than the rural pedestrian does.

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o General characteristics
 Pedestrian actions are less predictable than those of motorists. Pedestrians tend to
select paths that the shortest distance between two points. They also have a basic
resistance to change in gradient or elevation when crossing roadways and tend to
avoid using underpasses or overpasses that are not convenient.
 Pedestrian age is an important factor that may explain behavior that leads to
collisions b/n motor vehicles and pedestrians. Very young pedestrian are often
careless in traffic from either ignorance or sensory, perceptual, cognitive, or
motor skills. Pedestrians’ accidents can also be related to the lack of pedestrian
facilities.
 Walking speed vary from a 15th percentile speed of 1.2 m/s to an 85th percentile
of 1.8 m/s,with average of 1.4m/s.
 Pedestrian with disability (with mobility, visual, development impairment)
require special attention during road planning and design.

Cyclists
Bicycle use is increasing and should be considered in road planning process. During planning
designing roads, consideration of providing cycle ways such as:
 Paved shoulders
 Wider outside traffic lanes (4.2 minimum)if no shoulder exists
 Adjusting manhole covers to grade, and
 Maintaining a smooth, clean riding surface can considerably enhance the safety of a
street or a highway and provide for bicycle
traffic.
At certain locations it may be appropriate to supplement the existing road system by providing
specifically designated cycle paths.

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 Design Vehicle
One of the key controls in geometric highway design is the physical characteristics and the
proportions of vehicles of various sizes using the highway. Therefore, it is appropriate to
examine all vehicle types, establish general class groupings, and select vehicles of representative
size within each class for design use. These selected vehicles, with representative weight,
dimensions, and operating characteristics, used to establish highway design controls for
accommodating vehicles of designated classes, are known as design vehicles. For purposes of
geometric design, each design vehicle has larger physical dimensions and a larger minimum
turning radius than most vehicles in its class. The largest design vehicles are usually
accommodated in freeway design. Four general classes of design vehicles have been established,
including: (1) passenger cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, and (4) recreational vehicles. The passenger-
car class includes passenger cars of all sizes, sport/utility vehicles, minivans, vans, and pick-up
trucks. Buses include inter-city (motor coaches), city transit, school, and articulated buses. The
truck class includes single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer combinations, and truck tractors
with semitrailers in combination with full trailers. Recreational vehicles include motor homes,
cars with camper trailers, cars with boat trailers, motor homes with boat trailers, and motor
homes pulling cars.
It is necessary to identify all vehicle types using the facility, establish general class groupings
and select hypothetical representative design vehicles, within each design class. According to the
SA design guide, the diminutions used to define design vehicles are not averages or not
maximum, nor are they legal limiting dimensions. They are, in fact, typically the 85th percentile.
The design vehicles are therefore hypothetical vehicles, selected to represent a particular vehicle
class.
Physical characteristics
Design vehicles are used to define several geometric features. Some examples are:
Turning radii: In constricted situations minimum turning radii for the outer side of design vehicle
is appropriate only to crawl speeds (at less than 15 km/hr)
Vehicle height: The 15th percentile height of a passenger car has been established to be 1.3 m.
This has been selected for design purposes as the passenger car is also an object that has to be
seen by the driver in the cases of passing and intersection sight distance.
Driver Eye Height: The passenger car is taken as the critical vehicle for driver eye height and a
figure of 1.05 meters is recommended. For buses and single unit vehicles a typical value is 1.8
meters and for semi-trailer combinations the height of the eye can vary b/n 1.9m and 2.4m (SA
manual)
Design Vehicle: Physical Characteristics (ERA Geometric Manual)

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Performance Characteristics
 Acceleration and deceleration rates of the vehicles are often critical parameters in
determining the dimensions of features such as intersections, ramp, climbing or passing lane.
When a road is located in recreational area, the performance characteristics of recreational
vehicles should be considered.
 Pollutions (emission and noise) from the motor vehicles and their impact on land use
adjacent to roads are factors affecting the road design. The rate of pollutants from vehicles
depends on vehicle mix, speed, vehicle age, etc.The highway designer should therefore be
concerned with how highway location and design influence the vehicle noise perceived by
persons residing or working nearby. The perceived noise level decreases as the distance to
the highway from a residence or workplace increases.

Finally, the dimensions of the motor vehicles that will use the proposed facility also influence the
design of a highway.
– The width of the vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic lane;
– The vehicle length affects roadway capacity and turning radius;
– The vehicle height dictates the clearance of the various structures.
– Vehicle weight affects the structural design of the roadway.
–
 Traffic characterstics:Traffic Volume and Composition
Factual information on expected traffic volume is an essential input to design. Traffic volume is
the geometric features such as no of lanes, widths, alignment and grades.
Traffic volume – AADT, ADT, PHV, DHV
o ADT is the basic measure of traffic demand. Traffic flows vary months of the year, days of
the weak and hours of the day. The designer should be familiar with the extent of this
fluctuation to enable him or her to assess the flow patterns. Direct use of ADT in geometric
design is not appropriate except for local and collector roads with relatively low volumes
because it does not indicate traffic volume variation. The volume on certain days may be
significantly higher than the ADT.
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o Peak hour volume; traffic volume for an interval of time shorter than a day shorter than a
day more appropriately reflect the operating conditions that should be used for design. A
key decision involves determining which of these hourly traffic volumes should be used as a
basis for design. A chart relating the highest volumes and ADT on rural roads were
produced from the analysis of traffic count data covering a wide range of volumes and
geographical conditions. The charts were prepared by arranging all the hourly volume for
one year, expressed as a percentage of ADT, in a descending order of magnitude. Based on
the review of the charts, it is recommended that the hourly traffic volume that should
generally be used in the design is the 30th highest volume of the year, 30HV.The design
hourly volume (DHV) for rural highways should generally be the 30HV of the future chosen
for design. On rural roads with average fluctuation in traffic flow, the 30HV is typically
about 15% of the ADT.
o Directional distribution – the percentage of traffic volume flowing in each direction. It is
important to realize that the design flow is actually a composite and not a single value. A
road must be able to accommodate the major flow in both directions. The actual distribution
to be used for design purposes should be measured in the field. If an existing road is to be
reconstructed, the field studies can be carried out on it beforehand. For new facilities,
measurements should be made on adjacent roads from which it is expected the traffic will be
diverted and modeling techniques applied.

Traffic composition: The percentages of different types of vehicles in the traffic stream –
different types of vehicles are converted into passenger car unit to design a road width.. Besides
being heavier, trucks are generally slower and occupy more roadway space. Consequently, trucks
have a greater effect on highway traffic operation than do passenger vehicles. The overall effect
on traffic operation of one truck is often equivalent to several passenger cars. The number of
equivalent passenger cars is dependent on the roadway gradient and, for two-lane highways, on
the available passing sight distance. Thus, the larger the proportion of trucks in a traffic stream,
the greater the traffic demand and the greater the highway capacity needed.
 Traffic characterstics: Speed
Drivers on the whole, are concerned with minimizing their times, and speed is one of the most
important factors governing the selection of alternate routes to gain time savings. The
attractiveness of a specific road or route is generally judged by its convenience in travel time,
which is directly related to travel speed.
Various factors influence the speed of vehicles on a particular road. These include
 Driver capability, driver culture and driver behavior
 Vehicle operating capabilities
 The physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings
 Weather
 Presence of other vehicle
 Speed limitations (posted speed limits)
The objective of the designer is to satisfy the road user’s demands for service in a safe and
economical way. This means that the facility should accommodate nearly all reasonable demands

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(speed) with appropriate adequacy (safety and capacity) but should not fail completely under
sever load, i.e. the extremely high speeds maintained by a small percentage of drivers.
Roads should, therefore, be designed to operate at a speed that satisfies most, but not necessarily
all, drivers.
• Design speed is the max safe speed selected for designing specific section of road
considering the terrain, land use, classification of the road, etc.
The road elements include horizontal and vertical alignment, super elevation and sight distance.
Other elements such as lane width, shoulder width and clearance from obstacles are directly
related to design speed. Other relevant factors include traffic characteristics, speed capabilities of
vehicles, economics and social or political impacts. The chosen design speed should be a logical
consistent with the road function as perceived by the driver and also one that takes in to account
the type of the road, the anticipated operating speed, and the terrain that the road traverses.
Ideally, the design speed should be chosen to reflect 85th percentile desired speed that is likely to
materialize. This is often achievable for roads for which the primary function is mobility and
where sever physical constraints do not exist. Consistency of design is fundamental to good
driver performance, based on satisfying the driver’s expectation. Design consistency exists when
the geometric features of a continuous selection of road are consistent with the operational
characteristics as perceived by the driver.
 Access control and access management
Regulating access is called ―access control.‖ It is achieved through the regulation of public
access rights to and from properties abutting the highway facilities. These regulations generally
are categorized as full control of access, partial control of access, access management, and
driveway/entrance regulations. The principal advantages of controlling access are the
preservation or improvement of service and safety.

The functional advantage of providing access control on a street or highway is the Management
of the interference with through traffic. This interference is created by vehicles or pedestrians
entering, leaving, and crossing the highway. Where access to a highway is managed, entrances
and exits are located at points best suited to fit traffic and land-use needs and are designed to
enable vehicles to enter and leave safely with minimum interference from through traffic.
Vehicles are prevented from entering or leaving elsewhere so that, regardless of the type and
intensity of development of the roadside areas, a high quality of service is preserved and crash
potential is lessened. Conversely, on streets or highways where there is no access management
and roadside businesses are allowed to develop haphazardly, interference from the roadside can
become a major factor in reducing the capacity, increasing the crash potential, and eroding the
mobility function of the facility.
Access control techniques can be implemented with two basic legal powers: police power and
eminent domain. This first power allows a state to restrict individual actions for the public
welfare. Police power provides sufficient authority for most access control techniques associated
with highway operations, driveway location, driveway design, and access denials. The second
power allows a state to take property for public use provided an owner is compensated for his
loss. A State may need to use eminent domain when building local service roads, buying abutting
property, acquiring additional right-of-way, and taking access rights. However, an agency
usually has the power to deny direct access through the use of police power when reasonable
alternative access is available.

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Full control of access means that preference is given to through traffic by providing access
connections by means of ramps with only selected public roads and by prohibiting crossings at
grade and direct private driveway connections.
With partial control of access, preference is given to through traffic to a degree. Access
connections, which may be at-grade or grade-separated, are provided with selected public roads,
and private driveways. Generally, full or partial access control is accomplished by legally
obtaining the access rights from the abutting property owners (usually at the time of purchase of
the right-of-way) or by the use of frontage roads.
Access management involves providing (or managing) access to land development while
simultaneously preserving the flow of traffic on the surrounding road system in terms of safety,
capacity, and speed. Access management applies to all types of roads and streets. It calls for
setting access policies for various types of roadway, keying designs to these policies, having the
access policies incorporated into legislation, and having the legislation upheld in the courts.
Access management views the highway and its surrounding activities as part of a single system.
Individual parts of the system include the activity center and its circulation systems, access to
and from the center, the availability of public transportation, and the roads serving the center. All
parts are important and interact with each other. The goal is to coordinate the planning and
design of each activity center to preserve the capacity of the overall system and to allow efficient
access to and from the activities.
Access management extends traffic engineering principles to the location, design, and operation
of access roads that serve activities along streets and highways. It also includes evaluating the
suitability of a site for different types of development from an access standpoint and is, in a
sense, a new element of roadway design.
Driveway/entrance regulations may be applied even though no control of access is obtained.
Each abutting property is permitted access to the street or highway; however, the location,
number, and geometric design of the access points are governed by the regulations.
 Basic Principles of Access Management
The following principles define access management techniques:
· Classify the road system by the primary function of each roadway. Freeways emphasize
movement and provide complete control of access. Local streets emphasize property access
rather than traffic movement. Arterial and collector roads must serve a combination of both
property access and traffic movement.
· Limit direct access to roads with higher functional classifications. Direct property access
should be denied or limited along higher class roadways, whenever reasonable access can be
provided to a lower class roadway.
· Locate traffic signals to emphasize through traffic movements. Signalized access points should
fit into the overall signal coordination plan for traffic progression.
· Locate driveways and major entrances to minimize interference with traffic operations.
Driveways and entrances should be located away from other intersections to minimize crashes, to
reduce traffic interference, and to provide for adequate storage lengths for vehicles turning into
entrances.
· Use curbed medians and locate median openings to manage access movements and minimize
conflicts.
 Methods of Controlling Access
Public agencies can manage and control access by means of statutes, land-use ordinances,
geometric design policies, and driveway regulations.

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· Control by the transportation agency: Every State and local transportation agency has the basic
statutory authority to control all aspects of highway design to protect public safety, health, and
welfare. The extent to which an agency can apply specific policies for driveways/entrances,
traffic signal locations, land use controls, and denial of direct access is specifically addressed by
legislation and, to some degree, by the State courts.
· Land-use ordinances: Land-use control is normally administered by local
governments. Local zoning ordinances and subdivision requirements can specify site design,
setback distances, and type of access, parking restrictions, and other elements that influence the
type, volume, and location of generated traffic.
· Geometric design: Geometric design features, such as the use of raised-curb medians, the
spacing of median openings, use of frontage roads, closure of median openings, and raised-curb
channelization at intersections, all assist in controlling access.
· Driveway regulations: Agencies may develop detailed access and driveway/entrance policies
by guidelines, regulations, or ordinances, provided specific statutory authority exists. Guidelines
usually need no specific authority, but are weak legally. Cities can pass ordinances implementing
access management policies. Likewise, state agencies may develop regulations when authorized
by legislation. Regulations can deny direct access to a road if reasonable, alternative access is
provided, but they cannot ―take away‖ access rights.
 Environmental factors
It is essential that a road infrastructure considered as an element of the total environment.
Designers should consider various factors besides providing safe and efficient transport systems.
Some of these include

 Land use landscape integration; design objectives should include to choose the route least
damaging to the landscape.
 Aesthetic of design: the location of the road, its alignment and profile, the cross section
design, and other feature should aesthetically be in harmony with setting.
 Noise abatement. a design objectives is to keep the noise at or below acceptable levels.
 Air pollution by vehicles.
 Safety
Crashes seldom result from a single cause—usually several influences affect the situation at any
given time. These influences can be separated into three groups: the human element, the vehicle
element, and the highway element. Highways should be designed to minimize driver decisions
and to reduce unexpected situations. The number of crashes increases with an increase in the
number of decisions required of the driver.
Some of the design features which have been found significant contributor to safety.
 Access control: research demonstrated relationship b/n accident and number of access
points.
 Speed: It is often a contributing factor in crashes, but its role must be related to actual
conditions at a crash site to be understood. It is improper to conclude that any given
speed is safer than another for all combinations of the many kinds of drivers, vehicles,
highways, and local conditions. For a highway with particularly adverse roadway
conditions, a relatively low speed may result in fewer crashes than a high speed, but this
does not necessarily mean that all potential crashes can be eliminated by low speeds.

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 Presence, type, and width of median affect the safety of pedestrian and head on
collusions.
 A study relating crashes to shoulder width, alignment, and grade found that rates on
sections with curves or grades were much higher than on levels tangents rod sections.

 Economic Analysis
Economic analysis of a proposed new roads or improvements of the existing ones is the most
important control of geometric design together with the available funding.

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3.2 Highway Cross Section Elements

Elements of Road Cross-section
• Principal elements
• Traffic lanes
• Auxiliary lanes – climbing lanes, acceleration and deceleration lanes, etc
• Shoulders
• Median (for divided roads)
• Marginal elements include
• Median and roadside barrier
• Curbs
• Gutters
• Guard rails
• sidewalks,
• Side slopes,
• Cross slopes

Figure 3.4

Roadway: The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use. A divided
highway has two or more roadways.
Carriageway; The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of
Shoulders.
Width of travel lanes

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• Usually vary from 3 to 3.65 m, but occasionally 2.7 m lane width is used
in urban areas where the traffic volume is low and there is extreme right-
of-way constraints
• On two way two lane rural roads, accident rate for large trucks increases
as the traveled way decreases from 6.5 m
• The capacity decrease significantly as the lane width decrease from 3.0 m
Shoulders
• Serves for an emergency and stop of vehicles
• Used to laterally support the pavement structure
Shoulder width
• Recommended shoulder width is in the range of 1.8 to 2.4 m
• for highways serving large number of trucks and on highways with high
traffic volumes and high speeds, shoulder width of 3.0 to 3.5 m is
preferable
• Minimum shoulder width 0.6 m on the lowest type of roads
• Shoulders should be flush with the edge of the traveled lane and be sloped to
facilitate drainage (2-4 % if paved, 4-6 % if not paved)
Median – section of divided road that separates lanes in the opposite directions.
Functions:
• Provide recovery area during emergency
• Provide stopping area for left and U-turning vehicles
• Provide refuge for pedestrians
• Reduce headlight glare
• Median can be either raised, flush or depressed
• Median width vary between 0.6 up to 24 m or more depending on the availability
of right-of-way
Median barrier – a longitudinal structure used to prevent an errant vehicle from crossing
the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled way for traffic in the opposite
directions
Roadside barrier – protect vehicles from causing hazards onto roadside and shield
pedestrians
Curbs – raised structures used mainly on urban roads to delineate pavement edge and
pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used:
• To control drainage Improve aesthetic
• Reduce right-of-way
• Are classified as
• Barrier curbs – relatively high designed for preventing vehicles from
leaving the toad
• Mountable curbs – are designed so that vehicles can cross them

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Gutters – drainage ditches located on the pavement side of a curb to provide the principal
drainage facility for the highway
Guard rails – longitudinal barriers on the outside of sharp curves at sections with high
fills (greater than 2.5 m)
Sidewalks – provided on urban or rural roads
• When pedestrian traffic is high along main or high speed roads
• When shoulders are not provided on arterials even when pedestrian traffic
is low
• In urban areas, sidewalks are provided along both sides of streets to serve
pedestrians access to schools, parks, shopping centers, and transit stops.
Cross-slopes – to enhance the flow of surface water
• High type pavement – 1.5 –2 %
• Intermediate type of pavement – 1.5- 3%
Side slopes – provided for stability of earthworks; the slope varies depending on the
material type
Right-of-way – the total land area required for the construction of the roadway
• To accommodate all the elements of the road cross-section
• Planned widening of the road
• Public utility facilities that will be installed along the highway

3.3 Elements of Geometric Design

3.3.1 Sight distance
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the visibility of
the road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric design of the road should be done such that any
obstruction on the road length could be visible to the driver from some distance a head. This
distance is said to be the sight distance.
 Types of sight distance
Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over which a
driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or moving
objects.
Three sight distance situations that are considered for design:
 Stopping sight distance: the sight distances needed for stopping, which are applicable on
all highways.
 Passing sight distance: the sight distances needed for the passing of overtaken vehicles,
applicable only on two-lane highways;
 Intersection sight distance; the distance require to clearly seeing an intersection and its
means of traffic controls, and evaluate whether it is safe to cross or enter the opposing
streams of traffic.
Stopping sight distance
Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely
without collision with any other obstruction.
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:

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(1) Brake reaction distance: The distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver
sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied;
Dr = 0.278 V *t

(2) Brake distance. The distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application
begins. These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance, respectively.

V2
Db 
254  f  G 
SSD = Stopping Sight Distance (meter)
= Dist. traveled during perception/reaction time + Braking Dist.
t = Driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds.
V = Initial speed (km/h)
f = Coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
V2
SSD  (0.278 )( t )(V ) 
254  f  G 
Coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
Pavement condition Maximum Slide
Good, dry 1.00 0.8
Good, wet 0.9 0.6
Poor, dry 0.8 0.55
Poor, wet 0.60 0.3
Packed snow and Ice 0.25 0.1
Effect of grade on sight distance
Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can
stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less. While descending a gradient, gravity
also comes into action and more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required
will be more in this case.

Passing sight distance

 Minimum distance required to safely complete passing maneuver on 2-lane two-way
highway.
 Allows time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle and not cut off passed
vehicle when upon return to lane.
 Assumes:
1. The overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed.
2. The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the overtaken vehicle as it enters a
passing section.
3. When the passing section is reached, the passing driver needs a short period of time to
perceive the clear passing section and to react to start his or her maneuver.
4. Passing is accomplished under what may be termed a delayed start and a hurried return in the
face of opposing traffic. The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver, and its average
speed during the occupancy of the left lane is 15 km/h [10 mph] higher than that of the overtaken
vehicle.

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5. When the passing vehicle returns to its lane, there is a suitable clearance length between it and
an oncoming vehicle in the other lane.

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
d1 = distance traveled during perception/reaction time and distance traveled while accelerating to
passing speed and when vehicle just enters the left lane.
at1
d1  0.278t1 (V  m  )
2
Where:
t = perception/reaction time and the time for acceleration, for example, 70-85km/h,
t=4 sec, for 100-110 km/h, t=4.5sec,
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h;
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h
a = acceleration (km/hr/sec), for 70-110 km/h, a =2.4.
d2 = distance traveled during overtaking time
d3 = clearance distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the moment the
passing vehicle returns to the right lane. Usually d3 varies b/n 30 and 90m.
d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during 2/3 of the time the passing vehicle is in the left
lane. (d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2 )

Intersection sight distance

Intersection sight distance (According to AASHETO green book 2004): Is distance in advance of
an intersection that enables a driver to determine whether or not the intersection is safe to

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, AAIT

maneuver. Also referred to as a clear sight triangle, this is the distance in advance of an
intersection that is free of obstructions and that allows a driver to determine whether or not the
intersection is safe to maneuver.
Intersection Sight Distance Provided at Intersections is based on Same Principles as stopping
sight distance incorporating observed driver behaviour results.
Driver Approaching an Intersection needs
 Unobstructed View of the Entire Intersection
 To see Traffic Control Devices if available
 Sufficient Length along Intersecting Highway to Anticipate and Avoid Potential
Collisions
 Stopping distance related to Vehicle Speeds
Driver Stopped at an Intersection needs
 Sufficient View of Intersecting Highway to Decide When to Enter or Cross
Sight Triangles
Are specified areas along intersection approach legs and across their included corners which are
clear of obstructions so that it
 Allows driver to anticipate and avoid collisions with potentially conflicting
vehicles
 Allows drivers of stopped vehicles enough view of the intersection to decide
when to enter
Two types of intersection sight distances are considered in intersection design in many
literatures and standards. This are
1. Approach Sight Triangles
2. Departure Sight Triangles
Approach Sight Triangles
Approach sight triangles are applicable for uncontrolled and yield controlled intersections to
enable Drivers to See Any Potentially Conflicting Vehicles in Sufficient Time to Slow or Stop
approaching intersections. Approach site triangles take into account the speed of vehicles from
both intersecting roads

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Departure Sight Triangles

Departure site triangles are applicable for intersections that are stop controlled on the minor road.
A departure site triangle needs to provide enough sight distance for a stopped driver to determine
if there is a sufficient gap in traffic to allow his vehicle to either cross or enter the traffic stream
without conflicting with another vehicle. Departure site triangles assume that the vehicle on the
minor road is stopped. The picture below shows departure sight triangles.
The dimensions of the legs of the sight triangles depend on the design speeds of the intersecting
roadways and the type of traffic control used at the intersection. The principle for method of
determining intersection sight distance is the same as stopping sight distance with observed
driver’s behavior at intersections.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, AAIT

Figure 3: Intersection sight triangle for approaching and departure case

Cases of Intersection Sight triangles

The methods to determine intersection sight distance are based on models that describe the
operation of the entering vehicle and the conflicting vehicle on the major roadway.
These methods, or cases as defined in the Green Book, are:
Case I Uncontrolled Intersections
Case II Stop Controlled Intersections
Case III Yield Controlled Intersections
Case IV Signal Controlled Intersections
Case V Left Turns from Major Highway
As an example Case I Uncontrolled Intersections

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Uncontrolled intersections generally provided on roads having extremely low traffic volumes.
All Movements Considered in one Case. For an uncontrolled intersection the sight triangle
distances (decision points) are based on the time that it takes a driver to perceive an oncoming
car which is 2.5 second as provided in AASHTO green book 2004 and the distance to brake to a
safely stop before the intersection in the same way as stopping sight distance (braking time). This
method also assumes that approaching vehicles will slow to 50% of their normal mid-block
running speeds. If problems are faced in getting the necessary sight triangles either speed limit
signs or stop control shall be installed in one or more approaches.
The following table From 2004 AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design, Exhibit 9-51, and P. 659
for approach grades between +3% and –3%, using passenger car as design vehicle fixes the
length of legs for different speeds.

Design speed (km/h) Length of leg

(m)
20 20
30 25
40 35
50 45
60 55
70 65
80 75
90 90
100 105
110 120
120 135
130 150
Table 1: length of legs for uncontrolled condition
If the approaching grades are not within -3% to +3% adjustments for lengths will be done by
using factors in Exhibit 9-53 in Green Book
US Customary
Approach Design speed (mph)
grade
(%)

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
-6 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
-5 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
-4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
-3 to +3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
+4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
+5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
+6 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

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