UNIT 4

ROADS/HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Basic Definition
A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers or goods. At
its most basic, the term “Transportation System” is used to refer to the equipment and logistics of
transporting passengers and goods.

Importance of Transportation
The evolution and advancements in transportation facilities have been closely linked with the development
of human beings throughout the history of the world. Role of Transportation Transportation plays a vital role
in economic development of any region of any country, since every commodity produced, whether it may
be agricultural or industrial products they need to be transported at various stages from production to
distribution. At production stage for carrying raw materials and at distribution stage for transportation from
farms and factories to marketing centers to retailers to consumers. Inadequate transportation facilities
retard the process of socio-economic and cultural development. Development of transportation facilities in a
country indicates its economic growth and progress in social development. The main objective of a good
transportation system is to provide a safe, economical and efficient transportation facility for passengers
and goods.

Economic Activity and Transport

These are the processes in which the products are utilized to satisfy human needs. Two important factors
well known in economic activity are 1) Production or supply 2) Consumption for human needs or demands

Social Effects of Transportation

The progress of a nation depends on transportation facilities. The population usually settles along the
transportation routes such as road sides, river shores and railway stations. However, in the present concept
of road network planning the above said kind of ribbon development is discouraged for the sake of high
speed travel and safety. Attempts are being made to decentralize the population away from main
transportation routes. To avoid congestion on major cities, suburbs and satellite towns are being developed
and are linked to the major cities with mass rapid transit system. The various social effects of transportation
are a) Sectionalism and transportation b) Concentration of population in urban area c) Aspect of safety, law
and order a) Sectionalism and Transportation 1) Improved transportation has important implication in
reducing sectionalism within the country and also with other countries in the world 2) The living conditions
and facilities of under developed colonies and tribes get improved since the distances are apparently
reduced with reduction in travel time. 3) Frequent travel to the other parts of the country and outside the
country tend to increase knowledge of the people by learning from other sections of society which results in
improved trade and cultural exchanges. 4) International understanding for the better peace and order also
improves with efficient network of transportation.
DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Transportation has developed along three basic modes of transport a) Land b) Water c) Air Land has given
scope for development of transportation by road and rail transport. Water and air media have developed
waterways and airways respectively. The roads or the highways not only include modern highway system
but also includes the urban arterials, city streets, feeder roads and village roads catering for a wide variety
of vehicles and pedestrians. Railways have been developed both for long distance travel and also urban
travel. Waterways include transportation by oceans, rivers, canals and lakes for the movement of ships and
boats. The airways help in faster transportation by aircrafts and carriers. Apart from these major modes of
transportation, other modes include pipelines, elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and
monorails. Pipe lines are used for the transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles The four
major modes of transportation are: a) Roadways or highways for road transportation b) Railways for rail
transportation c) Waterways for water transportation d) Airways for air transportation.

ROADWAYS
The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one and all. Road
transport mode has the maximum flexibility for travel with reference to choice of the route, direction, time
and speed of travel. This is only mode which caters for the movement of passengers and goods
independently right from the place of origin up to the destination of any trip along the route. The other three
modes (railways; water ways; airways) have to depend on transportation by road for the service to and from
their respective terminals. Therefore, the roadway essentially serves as a feeder network. It is possible to
provide door to door service by road transport. Ultimately, road network is therefore needed not only to
serve as feeder system for other modes of transportation and to supplement them, but also to provide
independent facility for road travel by a well-planned network of roads throughout the country

Advantages:
1) Flexibility: It offers complete freedom to the road users. 2) It requires relatively smaller investments and
cheaper in construction with respect to other modes. 3) It serves the whole community alike the other
modes. 4) For short distance travel, it saves time. 5) The road network is used by various types of vehicles.
Disadvantages: 1) Speed is related to accidents and more accidents results due to higher speed and is
usually not suitable for long distance travel 2) Power required per tonne is more.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Types of Roads Basically, different types of roads can be classified into two categories namely,

a) All-weather roads and

b) Fair-weather roads.
All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river crossings
where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain limit extent, the road pavement should be
negotiable during all weathers. Fair-weather roads: On these roads, the traffic may be interrupted during
monsoon season at causeways where streams may overflow across the roads.

Based on location and Function:

1) Expressways: Expressways are the highest class roads in India. These are the highways with six to
eight lane controlled access road network. Basically, expressways are of high quality consisting of modern
features like access ramps, grade separation, lane dividers and elevated section.

2) National Highways (NH): The NH connects the capital cities of the states and the capital cities to the
port. The roads connecting the neighboring countries are also called as NH. The NH are at least 2 lanes of
traffic about 7.5m d wide. The NH are having concrete or bituminous surfacing.

3) State Highways (SH): SH are the main roads within the state and connect important towns and cities of
state. The width of state highways is generally 7.5m.

4) Major District Roads (MDR): These roads connect the areas of production and markets with either a
SH or railway. The MDR should have at least metaled single lane carriage way (i.e., 3.8m) wide. The roads
carry mixed traffic.

5) Other District Roads (ODR): These roads connect the village to other village or the nearest district
road, with ghat, river etc. these roads have a single lane and carry mixed traffic.

6) Village Roads (VR): these roads, like other district roads, connect the village or village or nearby district
road. The roads carry mixed traffic.

Classification of Urban Roads

The road system within urban areas are classified as Urban Roads and will form a separate category of
roads taken care by respective urban authorities.
a) Arterial roads
b) Sub-arterial roads
c) Collector Streets
d) Local Streets Arterial and Sub-arterial roads are primarily for through traffic on a continuous route, but
sub-arterials have a lower level of traffic mobility than the arterials. Collector streets provide access to
arterial streets and they collect and distribute traffic from and to local streets which provide access to
abutting property
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above the
natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.
The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid
resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure
that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing
capacity of the sub-grade. Two types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this purpose,
namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This chapter gives an overview of pavement types, layers,
and their functions, and pavement failures. Improper design of pavements leads to early failure of
pavements affecting the riding quality.

Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost

Types of Pavements

i.Flexible Pavement- Bituminous road( Tar road in layman term)

ii. Rigid Pavement- Concrete roads

In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the
granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g.
bituminous road). On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by
flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads).

Flexible Pavement

A pavement layer comprising a mixture of aggregates and bitumen, heated and mixed correctly and
then laid and compacted on a bed of granular layer, is called flexible pavement.

The load transfer mechanism is depicted in fig 1.

Components of Flexible pavement

A typical cross-section of a flexible pavement consists of the following layers:

Sub-grade:

The sub-grade is the lowermost layer of the flexible pavement and usually consists of a compacted layer of
natural soil. Its primary function is to bear all the imposed stresses from the upper layers. Acts as a
foundation layer.

Sub-base Course:The sub-base course is the layer beneath the base course that provides additional
structural support and boosts sub-surface drainage.It is usually an optional layer and may not be
constructed if the base course comprises superior quality materials. Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to
300 mm.

Base Course:

Mainly, hard crushed aggregates are used in the construction of this layer.The base course is the backbone
of flexible pavement.Its thickness ranges from 100 mm to 300 mm.

Binder Course:

The binder course is the intermediate layer between the surface course and the base course and duly
transmits the wheel load from the surface to the base course.It is a bitumen-bound aggregate ( nominal
size ) layer.This course is also called a levelling course.

Surface Course:

The surface course is the topmost layer of the flexible pavement and is generally the layer of the best
quality as it has to withstand maximum stress and wear and tear.It is primarily designed to resist the
imposed loads, prevent water ingress to the underlying layers, and ensure a skid-resistant riding surface
 Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider area below.
A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure 3. Compared to flexible pavement, rigid
pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or
stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this
layer can be called as base or sub-base course.

Figure 3: Typical Cross section of Rigid pavement

5.1 Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),

 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement: are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced
contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints.
They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Although reinforcements do not improve the structural capacity
significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars are required for load
transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even after cracks.

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Complete elimination of joints are achieved by

reinforcement.
 MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM

CONCEPT

The concept of multi-modal transportation refers to a system that integrates multiple modes of
transportation, such as trains, buses, automobiles, and bicycles, to provide more flexible, efficient, and
convenient mobility options to passengers. The goal of multi-modal transportation is to create a seamless
connection between different modes of transportation, allowing passengers to switch from one mode to
another with minimal hassle. This can help reduce travel time, increase accessibility, and improve the
overall transportation experience for passengers.

Multi-modal transportation systems also have environmental benefits, as they can help reduce emissions
by encouraging people to shift from single-occupancy vehicles to more sustainable modes of
transportation. Additionally, they can help reduce traffic congestion and promote urban development by
making it easier for people to reach their destinations.

Overall, the concept of multi-modal transportation aims to create a more integrated, comprehensive, and
user-friendly transportation network that meets the needs of a variety of travelers, whether they are
commuting to work, running errands, or going on a trip.

Integrating multiple modes of transportation refers to the coordination and integration of various
transportation options (e.g. buses, trains, bikes, ride-hailing services, etc.) into a seamless and efficient
system. This involves the development of infrastructure, policies, and technology that allow for easy
transfer between modes and provide an integrated experience for users.

Some key benefits of multi-modal transportation integration include:

1. Increased accessibility: By offering a variety of transportation options, users have more options to reach
their destinations and can choose the most convenient and efficient mode for their needs.
2. Improved mobility: Integration can lead to reduced congestion and improved travel times, making it easier
for people to get where they need to go.
3. Reduced emissions: Encouraging the use of low-carbon transportation options such as public transit,
cycling, and walking can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality.
4. Economic benefits: Multi-modal transportation can support local economic development by improving
access to jobs, goods, and services and reducing transportation costs for individuals and businesses.
5. Improved public health: Encouraging the use of active transportation options such as walking and cycling
can improve public health by increasing physical activity and reducing air pollution.

To achieve successful integration, it is important to consider the interplay between various transportation
modes, as well as factors such as land use patterns, population density, and funding. It may also involve
collaboration between various levels of government, transportation providers, and private sector
organizations
 Integrating a multi-modal transport system involves several steps, which are as
follows:

1. Assessment of current transport system: To integrate multi-modal transport, it is important to have an

understanding of the current transport system. This includes identifying the strengths and weaknesses of
each mode of transport, and the challenges they face.
2. Identification of transport nodes: Multi-modal transport requires the identification of key transport nodes,
such as bus and train stations, airports, and ferry terminals. These nodes serve as hubs for different modes
of transport, making it easier for passengers to switch between them.
3. Development of a common ticketing system: To integrate multi-modal transport, it is important to have a
common ticketing system that allows passengers to use the same ticket for different modes of transport.
This helps to simplify the process of switching between modes and reduces the time and effort required for
ticket purchasing.
4. Planning for intermodal connections: To effectively integrate multi-modal transport, intermodal
connections between different modes of transport need to be planned and developed. This includes the
provision of pedestrian walkways, bike lanes, and park-and-ride facilities.
5. Investment in public transport infrastructure: Integration of multi-modal transport requires significant
investment in public transport infrastructure, including the development of new transport nodes, upgrading
existing ones, and the provision of new intermodal connections.
6. Development of information and communication systems: Effective integration of multi-modal transport
requires the development of information and communication systems, such as real-time information
displays and smartphone applications. These systems provide passengers with up-to-date information on
transport schedules, delays, and service disruptions.
7. Collaboration between different transport operators: To effectively integrate multi-modal transport, it is
important for different transport operators to collaborate and coordinate their services. This can be
achieved through the development of agreements between operators, the sharing of information and
resources, and the establishment of joint marketing and ticketing initiatives.
8. User-friendly and accessible transport systems: To ensure the success of a multi-modal transport
system, it is important to make the transport system user-friendly and accessible for all users, including
people with disabilities. This includes the provision of ramps, elevators, and accessible toilets, as well as
clear signage and information displays.
RAILWAY ENGINEERING..
1
RAILWAY TRACK
• COMPONENT PARTS OF A RAILWAY TRACK

2
Section of Permanent Way
• A permanent way is the combination of rails, fitted on
sleepers and resting on ballast and subgrade.
• The following are the component parts of a permanent
way:
a) Formation of sub-grade. b) Ballast. c) Sleepers. d)
Rail. e) Fixtures and fastenings.

4
5 Major Cross Sectional Elements of a
Railway Track
1. Right of Way
The area of land acquired and reserved for construction and
development of railway track along its alignment is called
right of way or permanent land. The width of the right of way
is called permanent land width.
2. Formation
The prepared and finished surface of earthwork(in
embankment or in cutting) on which a railway track is laid
is called the formation of subgrade. Formation serves the
following functions.
1. It provides a firm foundation bed to the track.
2. It provides a smooth and graded surface to the track.
3. It provides effective drainage of the track.

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3. Formation width
• The top width of a railway embankment or bottom width of
formation of cutting excluding the side drain is called formation
width. The formation width of a railway track depends upon its
gauge, number of tracks to be laid and space required between them.
4. Side Slopes
• The slopes given to the sides of the earthwork of a track in cutting or
embankment for stability are called side slopes. Side slopes should
be such that the earthwork becomes stable ever adverse climatic
conditions.
• It depends upon various factors such as the nature of the soil,
climatic conditions, method of drainage, and method of protection
of side slope from erosion, height of embankment and depth of
cutting. Usually, 2:1 side slope for track embankment and 1:1 side
slopes for cutting is recommended.

6
 5. Side Drains
• The drains provided on either side of railway tracks are
known as side drains. Side drains are generally
trapezoidal in section with 1.8 m top width and 0.9 m
bottom width of a track embankment. In case of track in
cutting, the top width of the side drain is usually kept as
1.22 m.

7
Requirements of Permanent Way
1. The gauge should be correct and uniform
2. The rail should be at a proper level. In the straight track,
two rails must be at the same level. On curves, the outer
rail should have proper superelevation
3. The alignment should be correct.
4. The gradient should be uniform. Any change of
gradient should be followed by a smooth vertical curve.
5. The tractive resistance of the track should be minimum.

8
The track should possess sufficient elasticity.
7. The track should be sufficiently strong against lateral forces.
8. The radius and superelevation on curves should be properly designed and
maintained.
9. The drainage system of the track should be perfect.
10. It should be free from excessive rail joints. All joints including points and
crossing should be properly designed and maintained.
11. All the components of track should fully satisfy the requirements for which they
have been provided.
12. There should be adequate provision for easy renewals and repairs of any portion
of the track.
13. The track structure should be strong.
14. The initial cost of construction, as well as the maintenance cost of the track,
should be as minimum as possible

9
RAIL GAUGE
The clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of the
two rails forming a track is known as a Railway Gauge.
 Dimension of gauges
1. Broad Gauge(BG) 1676mm

2. Standard Gauge(SG) 1435mm

3. Meter Gauge(MG) 1000mm

4. Narrow Gauge(NG) 762mm

5. Light Gauge 610mm

RAILS

15
 RAILS
• The rolled steel sections laid end to end in
two parallel lines over sleepers to form a
railway track as known as rails

• Made up of high carbon steel to withstand

wear and tear

• Flat footed rails are mostly used in

railway track
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FUNCTIONS OF RAILS
• Rails provide hard, smooth and unchanging surface for
passage of heavy moving loads with minimum friction
between steel rail and steel wheel

• Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical

loads, lateral and braking forces and thermal stresses

• The rail material used is such that it gives minimum wear

to avoid replacement charges and failure due to wear

• Rails transmit the loads to sleepers and consequently

reduce pressure on ballast and formation below
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REQUIREMENTS OF RAILS

• Rails should be designed for optimum nominal weight to

provide for the most efficient distribution of metal in its
various components
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REQUIREMENTS (cntd..)
• The vertical stiffness should be high enough to transmit
load to sleepers. The height of the rail should be adequate

• Rails should be capable of withstanding lateral forces.

Large width of head and foot provides the rail with high
lateral stiffness

• The depth of head of rail should be sufficient to allow for

adequate margin of vertical wear. The wearing surface
should be hard

• The web of rails should be sufficiently thick to bear the load

coming to it and should provide adequate flexural rigidity
in horizontal plane
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REQUIREMENTS (cntd..)
• Foot should be wide enough so that the rails are stable
against overturning especially on curves

• Bottom of the head and top of foot should be so as to

enable the fish plates to transmit the vertical load
efficiently from the head to the foot at rail joint

• The centre of gravity of rail section must lie

approximately at mid height so that maximum tensile
and compressive stresses are equal

20
REQUIREMENTS (cntd..)
• Tensile strength of rail shouldn’t be less than 72 kg/m2

• To bring down the contact stresses to minimum level, the

contact area between the rail and wheel should be as
large as possible

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Ballast

• Ballast is the granular material placed and packed below

and around the sleepers to transfer load from sleepers to
the formation. Ballast in railway track performs the
following function:

43
44
• It provides a suitable foundation for the sleepers.
• It transfers and distributes loads from the sleepers over a
larger area of the foundation.
• It holds the sleepers in the correct position and prevents
their lateral and longitudinal movement due to dynamic
loads.
• It helps in maintaining the correct levels and alignment
of a track.
• It acts as an elastic medium and thereby increases the
elasticity of the track.
• It protects the top surface of the formation.
• It improves the drainage facility of the track.

45
Size of Ballast

• The size of the ballast used in railway track varies

from 1.9 cm to 5.1 cm. The stone of size larger than 5.1
cm is not preferable due to poor interlocking property.
• The best-recommended ballast is that which
contains stones ranging in size from 1.9 cm to 5.1 cm.

46
47
 What Is Tunnel?
• An Underground Passage For The Transport Of
Passengers, Water, Sewage, Minerals, Gas Etc.
• A tunnel is relatively long and narrow; the
length is often much greater than twice
the diameter, although similar shorter
excavations can be constructed, such as cross
passages between tunnels
 Necessity/Advantages of a Tunnel
• (a) A tunnel may be required to eliminate the need for a long and circuitous route for
reaching the other side of a hill, as it would considerably reduce the length of the railway
line and may also prove to be economical.
• (b) It may be economical to provide a tunnel instead of a cutting, particularly in a rocky
terrain. Depending upon various factors, a rough calculation would indicate that for a small
stretch of land the cost of constructing a tunnel is equal to the cost of a cutting in a rocky
terrain.
• (c) In hills with soft rocks, a tunnel is cheaper than a cutting.
• (d) In metropolitan towns and other large cities, tunnels are constructed to accommodate
underground railway systems in order to provide a rapid and unobstructed means of
transport.
• (e) A tunnel constructed under a river bed may sometimes prove to be more economical
and convenient than a bridge.
• (f) In the case of aerial warfare transportation through tunnels provides better safety and
security to rail users compared to a bridge or deep cutting.
• (g) The maintenance cost of a tunnel is considerably lower than that of a bridge or deep
cutting. However, the construction of tunnels is also disadvantageous in certain ways, as
enumerated here. (a) The construction of a tunnel is costly as it requires special
construction machinery and equipment.
• (b) The construction of a tunnel involves the use of sophisticated technology and requires
experienced and skilled staff.
• (c) It is a time-consuming process.
 Classification of Tunnel
1) Classification of Tunnels According To
Alignment
2) Classification of Tunnels According To Shape
3) Classification of Tunnels According To Type
of Materials
Classification Of Tunnels According To
Alignment
A) Spiral Tunnels:-
• Spiral Tunnel Provided To Increase The Length
Of The Tunnel To Avoid Steep Slops In Narrow
Valleys.
• Tunnels Provided In Narrow Valley In The Form
Of Loops In The Interior Of Mountain So As To
Increase Length Of Tunnel To Avoid Steep
Slopes.
Spiral Tunnel
 B) Off-Spur Tunnels
Off Spur Tunnels Are Constructed To Short-Cut
Minor Obstacles Is Very High Projections On
The Way, Which Can Not Be Followed With
Permitted Curves.
 C) Saddle Tunnels
Saddle Tunnels Constructed In Valley Along Natural
Slope, This Tunnels Mainly Used For Transportation
Purpose. Or Tunnels Constructed In The Valley Along
The Natural Slope Till Slope Does Not Exceed Ruling
Gradient
 D) Slope Tunnels
• Tunnel Constructed In Steep Hills For Economic And
Safe Operations Of Roads And Railways Non As
Sloping Tunnels, This Type Of Tunnel Also Used For
Transportation Purpose Mainly
Classification of Tunnels According To
Shape
• Rectangular shape
• Circular Shape
• Elliptical Shape
• Horseshoe Shape
 Circular shape
• This Type Of Tunnels Strong In Order To Resistance To External
Pressure Caused By Water, Soil and Ground.
• Circular Shape Tunnels Not Suitable For Railways, And
Highway Transportation Mainly Used For Sewage Lines.
 Rectangular shape
Rectangular Tunnels Suitable For Hard Rock Sites And
Mainly Uses For Pedestrian Passage, But This Type Of
Tunnels Are Costly.
 Horse Shoe Tunnels
• Horse Shoe Tunnels Can With Stand Internal And
External Pressures, Having Semi-Circular Rood With
arch Sides, Commonly Uses For Railway And
Roadways.
 Elliptical Tunnels
• Elliptical shape tunnels have the advantages
for the transportation of sewer. The smaller
cross section at the bottom maintains the flow
at the required self cleaning velocity. However,
due to the difficulty in construction, circular
shape ones are more common.
Classification of Tunnels According To
Type Of Materials
Tunnels In Hard Rock
Tunneling Through Hard Rock Almost Always
Involves Blasting.
 Tunnels In Soft Ground
• A Tunnel Built In Soft Ground Such As Clay,
Silt, Sand, Gravel, Or Mud Requires Specialized
Techniques Compared To Hard Rock.
HARBORS’ AND PORTS
 DEFINITION
Harbour: It is partly enclosed area which
provides safe and suitable accommodation for
supplies, refueling, repair, loading and
unloading cargo
 DEFINITION
• A port is a harbour or area that can provide shelter to
numerous boats and vessels (transferring people or
cargo) and allow constant or periodic shipment
transactions.
• In layman’s language, a port is a place to facilitate the
loading as well as unloading of vessels. Technically
speaking, it is a convergence point between freight
circulation domains.
• Port = Harbour + Storage Facility + Communication
Facility + Other Terminal Facility.
• From above, It can be stated that a port includes a
harbour i.e. every port is a harbour.
 Requirements of Good Harbour
• It should be connected with roadway and railway.
• Surrounding land should be fertile and densely populated.
• Ship channels must have sufficient depth for draft or
vessel.
• Breakwaters must be provided to protect against
destructive wave action.
• The bottom should furnished secure anchorage to hold
ships against the wind force.
• Numbers of quay, piers and wharfs should be sufficient for
loading and unloading cargo.
• It should have facilities like fuel, repair and etc. for ships.
• Harbour area should be sufficiently large.
 Classification in Ports
• Inland Ports
• Fishing Ports
• Warm water Ports
• Dry Ports
• Sea Ports
 Types of Ports
Inland Ports
• Inland ports are built on smaller water bodies such as
rivers or lakes. They can either be for cargo purposes or
passengers or both. Conventionally Inland Ports are
constructed or naturally maintained ports at the
coastline of small waterways like lakes, rivers or
estuaries and are also rarely seen at sea coasts.
• Some of these inland ports can have access to the sea
with the help of a canal system. As such, ports are built
on inland waterways. They usually behave like normal
seaports but cannot allow deep draft ship traffic
 Fishing Ports
• Fishing ports are mainly related to the
commercial sphere as they participate in
fishing. Fishing activities can also be treated as
a mode of recreation. The existence of a
fishing port entirely relies upon the availability
of fish in that region of the ocean. A fishing
port can be an inland port or a seaport.
 Warm Water Ports
• These are the ports in which the water is
maintained at warmer temperatures. The
biggest advantage where a warm water port is
concerned is that the water does not freeze
during the frosty winters. Therefore, it is free
to operate all year round without a temporary
shutdown during the freezing time. Such ports
help to a great extent to boost the economy of
the nation.
 Dry Ports
• As the name suggests, a dry port is a port that is
away from the sea. It is more inland and
connected to a seaport with either a paved road
or railway. Dry ports are terminals where cargo
brought over on ships is transshipped
• These are specifically employed for the
transhipment of cargo to inland destinations. It is
a trans-shipment port connected to a seaport and
manages intermittent billing and coordination
between importers and exporters.
 Sea Ports
• Seaports are the most common types of ports
worldwide used for commercial shipping
activities. These ports are built on a sea
location and enable the accommodation of
small and large vessels.
 Types of Harbors
• Natural Harbour: Harbour protected by storms and
waves by natural land contours, rocky out crops, or
island that is called Natural Contour. (Eg. Kandla port,
Cochin port & Mumbai Harbour)
 Semi - Natural harbour
A semi – natural harbour is protected on the
sides by the contours of land and requires
manmade protection only to the entrance.
(Eg. Mandvi, veraval & visakhapatnam port)
 Artificial Harbour
An artificial harbour is one which is manmade
and protected from storms and waves by
engineering works. (Eg. Chennai Harbour)
Components of Harbors
Dry dock
Wet dock
Airport engineering

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Introduction
 Fastest mode

 Speed more than 300

kmph

 Modern speed-
3 x speed of sound

2
 Advantages  Disadvantages

• No artificial track • Flight rules

• Time saving • Operating expense
• emergency • Safety
• Weather cond.

3
International Civil aviation
organization (ICAO)
 Set up on April 4, 1947
 Head quarters in Canada
 151 Sovereign state are members
 Objective are safe growth, new aircraft
design and development of airways

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International Airport Transport
Association (IATA)
 More than 100 members
 To promote interest of civil aviation
 Provides forum for industry views

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Air Transport In India
 First flight by Frenchmen Henry carrying mail
from Allahabad to Naini in 1911
 Regular service Karachi to Delhi on December
30, 1929
 Internal service by Tata on Oct. 15, 1932 which
later changed as Air India Limited.
 Govt. established Air India International limited in
1948
 Air trp corp. bill was passed in 1953 and two
corporation were established for domestic and
international service each as “Indian Airlines
Corporation” & Air India International
Corporation resp.

6
Present Status
 In India there are :
1. More than 335 domestic airport
2. More than 20 International airport

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Airport Authorities of India (AAI)
 The Airport Authority of India is the body
that manages both the International Airports
in India as well as the Domestic Airports in
India.
 Airports Authority of India (AAI) manages a
total of 137 Airports, which includes 103
Domestic Airports, 24 International Airports,
and 10 Customs Airports.AAI is responsible
for creating, maintaining, upgrading, and
managing civil aviation infrastructure in India
and works under the Ministry of Civil
Aviation.

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Classification of Airport in India

Asir Khan (M.Tech-Transportation

Engineering & Planning) Lecturer UCOE-
Kaman 9
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
An international airport is
an airport with customs and border
control facilities enabling passengers to travel
between countries around the world.
International airports are usually larger
than domestic airports and they must feature
longer runways and have facilities to
accommodate the heavier aircraft such as
the Boeing 747 commonly used for international
and intercontinental travel. International airports
often also host domestic flights, which often help
feed both passengers and cargo into international
ones (and vice versa).
Domestic Airport
 A domestic airport is an airport that
handles only domestic flights within the
same country. Domestic airports do not
have customs and immigration facilities
and so cannot handle flights to or from a
foreign airport.
Custom Airports
 These airports have custom and
immigration facilities for limited
international operations by national
carriers and for foreign tourist and cargo
charter flights. These include Gaya, Patna,
Madurai, Pune, Bagdogra, Chandigarh and
Visakhapatnam
Civil enclaves in Defence airports
 A joint-use airport is an aerodrome
that is used for both military
aviation and civil aviation. They typically
contain facilities of both a civil airport and
a military air base.
Airport Classification as per ICAO

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Airport Site Selection
 Meteorological and Atmospheric condition
 Avail. Of land for expansion
 Availabilities of Utilities
 Development of Surrounding areas
 Economy of construction
 Ground accessibility
 Presence of other airport
 Regional Plan
 Soil Characteristics
 Surrounding obstruction
 Topography

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