CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 2 DRIVER, PEDESTRIAN, AND VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS 1

CHAPTER 3 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 1

CHAPTER 4 HIGHWAY EVALUATION 1

CHAPTER 5 FLIXABLE PAVEMENT DESIGN 1

CHAPTER 6 CONRATCS AND SUPERVISON 1

CHAPTER 7 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE AND REHBILITATION 1

CHAPTER 8 USING OF AUTODESKLAND 1

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

Roadways and their Geometric Characteristics

1-1 Introduction
Services provided by a roadway system are often in conflict. This leads to the need to develop roadway
systems in a hierarchal manner, with various classes of roadways are a major component of the traffic
system, and the specifics of their design have a significant impact on traffic operations. There are two
primary categories of service provided by roadways and roadway systems: specifically designed to
perform specific functions.

1-2 Trip Functions

a) Accessibility
b) Mobility

“Accessibility” refers to the direct connection to abutting lands and land uses provided by roadways. This
Accessibility comes in the form of curb parking, driveway access to off-street parking, bus stops, taxi
stands, loading zones, driveway access to loading areas, and similar features.

“Mobility” refers to the through movement of people, goods, and vehicles from Point A to Point B in the
system.

The essential problem for traffic engineers is that the specific design aspects that provide for good access
parking, driveways, loading zones, etc.-tend to retard through movement, or mobility.

1-3 Highway Classification

All highway systems involve a hierarchal classification by the mix of access and mobility functions
provided. There are four major classes of highways that may be identified:

Fig1-1 herical roadway classification

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Highway Design Elements
Highways are complex physical structures involving compacted soil, sub-base layers of aggregate,
pavements, drainage structures, bridge structures, and other physical elements.

From an operational viewpoint, it is the geometric characteristics of the roadway that primarily influence
traffic flow and operations.

Three main elements define the geometry of a highway section:

1) Horizontal alignment
2) Vertical alignment
3) Cross-sectional element

Virtually all standard practices in geometric highway design are specified by the American Association
Of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The current version of Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, The latest edition of this key reference (at this writing) was published
in 2004. Because of severe restrictions on using material directly from Reference 1, this text presents
general design practices that are most frequently based upon AASHTO standards.

Introduction to Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment refers to a plan view of the highway. The horizontal alignment includes tangent
Sections and the horizontal curves and other transition elements that join them.

Highway design is generally initiated by laying out a set of tangents on topographical and development
maps of the service area. Selection of an appropriate route and specific location of these tangent lines
involves many considerations and is a complex task.
Some of the more important considerations include:

 Forecast demand volumes, with known or projected origin-destination patterns

 Patterns of development
 Topography
 Natural barriers
 Subsurface conditions
 Drainage patterns
 Economic considerations
 Environmental considerations
 Social considerations

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The first two items deal with anticipated demand on the facility and the specific origins and destinations
that are to be served. The next four are important engineering factors that must be considered. The last
three are critically important.
Cost is always an important factor, but it must be compared with quantifiable benefits because that we
almost find different kind of alternatives.

Environmental impact statements are required of virtually all highway projects, and much effort is put
into providing remedies for unavoidable negative impacts on the environment. Social considerations are
also important and cover a wide range of issues. It is particularly important that highways be built in ways
that do not disrupt local communities, either by dividing them, enticing unwanted development, or
causing particularly damaging environmental impacts. While this text does not deal in detail with this
complex process of decision making, the reader should be aware of its existence and of the influence it
has on highway programs in the United States.

Introduction to Cross-Sectional Elements

The third physical dimension, or view, of a highway that must be designed is the cross-section. The cross-
section is a cut across the plane of the highway. Within the cross-section, such elements as lane widths,
superelevation (cross-slope), medians, shoulders, drainage, embankments (or cut sections), and similar
features are established. As the cross-section may vary along the length of a given facility, cross-sections
are generally designed every 100 ft along the facility length and at any other locations that form a
transition or change in the cross-sectional characteristics of the facility.

Introduction to Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment refers to the design of the facility in the profile view. Straight grades are connected by
vertical curves, which provide for transition between adjacent grades. The “grade” refers to the
longitudinal slope of the facility, expressed as “feet of rise or fall” per “longitudinal foot” of roadway
length. As a dimensionless value, the grade may be expressed either as a decimal or as a percentage (by
multiplying the decimal by 100). In vertical design, attempts are made to conform to the topography,
wherever possible, to reduce the need for costly excavations and landfills as well as to maintain
aesthetics.
Primary design criteria for vertical curves include:
a) Provision of adequate sight distance at all points along the profile.
b) Provision of adequate drainage
c) Maintenance of comfortable operations
d) Maintenance of reasonable aesthetics

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3.2.4 Surveying and Stationing

In the field, route surveyors define the geometry of a highway by “staking” out the horizontal and vertical
position of the route and by similarly marking of the cross-section at intervals of 100 ft. While this text
does not deal with the details of route surveying, it is useful to understand the conventions of “stationing”
which are used in the process. Stationing of a new or reconstructed route is generally initiated at the
western or northern end of the project. “Stations” are established every 100 ft, and are given the notation

xxx+ yy. Values of “nx” indicate the number of hundreds of feet of the location from the origin
point. The “yy” values indicate intermediate distances of less than 100 ft. Regular stations are established

every 100 ft, and are numbered 0 + 00, 100 + 00,200 + 00, etc. Various elements of the highway are

“staked” by surveyors at these stations. If key points of transition occur between full stations, they are

also staked and would be given a notation such as 1200 + 52, which signifies a location 1,252 ft. from

the origin. This notation is used to describe points along a horizontal or vertical alignment in subsequent
sections of this chapter.

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 CHAPTER 2

DRIVER, PEDESTRIAN, AND VEHICLE

CHARACTERISTICS

2-1 DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS

Drivers in the United States are licensed to drive under laws and regulations of the various states.
There is a great deal of variability among the states in licensing standards and presumably in
driving skills, especially for beginning drivers. The vast majority of drivers in the United States
did not receive formal driver training but were taught by family or friends or were self-taught.

Despite efforts to improve driver licensing procedures, many observers doubt that driver
Licensing makes much of contribution to safe motor vehicle operation. State reports, spot
checks, and special surveys have suggested that “on a given day there are at least 10 million
unlicensed drivers on the road. A report from one state indicated that 9.6 percent of drivers
involved in fatal accidents were unlicensed at the time of the crash. In 2000 there were
approximately 191 million licensed drivers in the United States. Approximately 1.43 licensed
drivers for every registered motor vehicle. About 91 percent of males and 85 percent of females
who are old enough to drive have a driver’s license.

6
 About 5.1 percent of licensed drivers are 19 years of age and under and about 9.9 percent are
aged 70 and over. The number of elderly drivers has increased dramatically in recent years.

In 1940 drivers aged 65 years and older comprised only 3 percent of all licensed drivers; by
2000 drivers of that age bracket comprised 14.3 percent of the total. The number of elderly
drivers increased from 1.36 million in 1940 to 5.71 million in 1959 to 27.33 million in 2000. As
Figure 2-1(A) illustrates, the very young and the very old drivers have the highest crash rates.

It is important that highway engineers keep in mind that street and highway facilities must be
designed to accommodate drivers with a wide range of ages and skills— the young and the
elderly, and the novice as well as the experienced professional

2-1.1 The Human Sensory Process

A driver's decisions and actions depend principally on information received through the senses
and information comes to the driver through the eyes, ears, and sensory nerve endings in the
muscles, tendons, joints, skin, and organs. In general order of importance, the senses most used
by drivers are:

1. Visual (sight)
2. Kinesthetic (movement)
3. Vestibular (equilibrium)
4. Auditory (hearing)

 Researchers report that about 90 percent of the information a driver receives is visual.
Visual information may come to a driver by means of foveal or peripheral vision.

 At a given moment a person's sharpest vision is concentrated within a cone with a central
angle of about 3°. For most persons, visual acuity is reasonably sharp within a conical
angle up to about 10°. Beyond this, a person's vision is less well defined.

 A driver increases the amount of visual information received by movement of the head
and eyes. The driver’s eyes search and scan the field of view, moving the area with
sharpest acuity. The direction of foveal vision repeatedly shifts and the eyes fixate each
such event requiring 0.5-1.0 sec.

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 The novice drivers concentrated their eye fixations in a smaller area and looked closer in
front of the vehicle and more to the right- By pursuit eye movements, the novice drivers
tended to observe the guardrail and lane edges continuously for periods of about 1.0 sec
to gain information on lateral position. Similar findings have been reported for drivers
who have been deprived of sleep.

 Visual acuity declines and the field of vision narrows with advancing age, especially
when lighting conditions are poor. Older drivers also tend to have more difficulty in
judging distances and distinguishing colors than young drivers.

 Drivers receive information by kinesthesia, the sensation of bodily position, presence,

or movement that results primarily from stimulation of sensory receptors in muscles,
tendons, and joints. Lateral or longitudinal accelerations exert forces on the driver that
are transmitted by the seats, steering wheel, brake pedal, arm rest, and so forth.
Proprioceptors in the muscles and joints are stimulated by (the tendency of the body to
move and shift as a result of the forces. This provides feedback that may cause a driver to
break, slow down, or take some other action.

 Drivers also receive messages from the vestibular nerve within the inner ear. Three
fluid-filled semicircular canals in the inner ear enable a person to recognize the direction
of movement and maintain balance or equilibrium. Movement of the head or body causes
the fluid in the canals to move, affecting delicate fibrous cells located at one end of each
of the canals. Impulses from the vestibular nerve are then transmitted to the brain, which,
in turn, sends messages to the muscles, which take action to maintain balance.

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  Sounds of horns or skidding tires may alert a driver lo an impending collision, and engine
noise aids the driver as well as pedestrians in judging vehicle speeds. Drivers may detect
a fire or engine malfunction by their sense of smell. Hunger, thirst, or discomfort may
cause drivers to change their trip pattern or stop. Drivers may also occasionally receive
information through the sensory new endings in the head, skin, and internal organs and
experience sensations of touch, coldness, warmth, fatigue, or pain.

Example:
Driver in a vehicle traveling 95 km/hr shifts her eyes from left to right and focuses on
construction activities along the right shoulder. Estimate the distance in meters the vehicle
travels as the driver's eyes shift and fixate.

Solution:

Time needing to move her eyes and fixation is 2 sec,

𝐷𝐷 = 𝑡𝑡𝑣𝑣

95 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 95000 𝑚𝑚
= = 26.3 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
ℎ 3600 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
= 2 × 26.3 = 52.6 𝑚𝑚

2-1.2 Driver Perception and Reaction

 Driver perception-reaction time is defined as the interval between seeing, feeling, or

hearing a traffic or highway situation and making an initial response to what has been
perceived. Take, for example, a simple braking situation. The "clock" for perception-
reaction time begins when the object or condition first becomes visible, and it stops
when the driver's foot touches the brake.

 Traditionally, perception-reaction time has been couched in terms of perception,

Identification, emotion, and volition, termed PIEV time. Perception is the process of
forming a mental image of sensations received through the eyes, cars, or other parts of
the body. It is recognizing and becoming aware of the information received by the
senses

9
Highway engineers now generally accept the notion that there are at least four steps or phases in
information processing that occur from the presentation of a stimulus until the driver responds.
What is of significance to the designer is that each of these stages requires times; Olson lists the
stages and explains:

1. Detection, Typically, once detection occurs the eyes will be moved to bring that which
that been detected into focus on the central portion of the retina so that the next step
can be undertaken.

2. Identification. In this step sufficient information is acquired about the object or con-
dition to be able to reach a decision as to what action, if any, is required. Identification
need not be complete in detail.

3. Decision: At this point the operator must decide what action is appropriate-Assuming
some action is decided upon, the choices come down to change in speed and/or
direction.

4. Response. In this step commands are issued by the motor center of the brain to the
appropriate muscle groups to carry out the required action.

Perception response time typically ends when the driver begins to turn the steering wheel or
presses on the brake pedal. However, certain situations call for more complex maneuvers that
can be time consuming. An example occurs when a driver is forced to search for a gap in an
adjacent lane due to a lane closure, adjust his/her speed accordingly and move into the gap.
Where such a situation exists, it is Appropriate to extend the overall perception-response time to
include maneuver time.

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 Perception-reaction times vary from less than 0.5 sec to 3 or more sec Green-shields has
indicated that, in general:

1. The speed of all forms of reaction varies from one person to another and from time to
time in the same person.

2. Reaction time changes gradually with age, very young and very old people being
slower in their reaction.

3. People generally react more quickly to very strong stimuli than to weak ones.

4. Complicated situations take longer to react to than simple ones

5. A person's physical condition affects his reactions. For example, fatigue tends to
lengthen a person's reaction time.

6. Distractions increase the lime of all reactions except the reflex.

2-1.3 Driver Information Needs

Given the ever-increasing demands of the driving task, it is important that highway and traffic
engineers understand the drivers need for information and the means of its transmission.
Research was undertaken in the late 1960s by AIL, a division of Culler-Hammer, to identify
types of information needed by drivers and the principal factors and interactions that affect the
reception and use of this information. The results of one aspect of that work have been described
in a paper by Allen, Lunenfeld and Alexander, which forms the primary basis (or the material
presented in the following paragraphs

In order to make sound decisions, a driver must receive reliable and understandable
information to reduce uncertainly. A driver gathers information from a variety of sources, uses it
as a basis for decision making, and then translates those decisions into actions to control the
vehicle (4).

As table 2-1 indicates, the various activities involved in driving a motor vehicle may be grouped
into three categories or levels of performance:

(1) The control level

(2) The guidance level
(3) The navigation level

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The control level of driver performance is related to the physical operation of the vehicle. It
includes lateral control that is maintained by steering and longitudinal control that is exercised by
accelerating and decelerating. To maintain vehicle control the driver requires information on the
vehicle's position and orientation with respect to the road as well as feedback on the vehicle's
response to braking, accelerating, and steering. Such information is received primarily through
the visual kinesthetic, and vestibular senses Often the control task, such as operating a motor
vehicle, is mastered by the driver and then performed with very little attention and effort.

The guidance level of driver performance refers to the driver's task of selecting and maintaining a
safe speed and path on the highway. Performance at the guidance level requires judgment and
decisions for a constantly changing road environment. The driver must evaluate the immediate
situation; respond to road.

Table 2-1

The navigation level of driver performance refers to the driver's ability to plan and execute a trip.
It includes trip preparation, planning, and direction finding. The former activities may be
performed before the trip begins, while the latter occurs en route. Information at the navigation
level comes from maps, directional signs, landmarks, and the driver's memory based on previous
experience.

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2-2 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS
 The pedestrian is a major user of the roadway system; when the system fails, he or she is
a major victim. Approximately 5,000 pedestrians are killed in the United States each
year, and about 78,000 are injured. The problem is most serious in urban areas, where
almost 70 percent of the pedestrian fatalities occur.

 Engineers are challenged to design safe and convenient pedestrian facilities that will
function well even for those persons who willfully or ignorantly disobey rules of safe
walking behavior. Such facilities serve small children as well as elderly and physically
handicapped persons, including those who are blind or not ambulatory.

 Designers of pedestrian facilities require knowledge of the space requirements and

walking speeds of individual walkers as well as an understanding of traffic flaw
characteristics of groups of pedestrians the former subjects are treated in the following
paragraphs.

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2-2.1 Space Needs for Pedestrians
The design of pedestrian facilities depends to a large extent on the shoulder breadth and body
depth of the human body. One study of fully clothed male laborers indicated, for the 95th
percentile, a shoulder breadth of 22.8 in. (579 mm) and a body depth of 130 in, (333 mm).

An elliptical shape with a 24 in. (610 mm) major axis and an 18-in. (457-mm) minor axis has
been used for determining the capacity of subway cars and pedestrian standing areas.

It should be emphasized that the 18- by 24-in. (457- by 610mm) ellipse is useful primarily for
the determination of space needs or capacities for elevators or other conveyances or locations
where the pedestrians arc standing rather than walking. For design of sidewalks or other
pedestrian corridors, one needs to be concerned with the dynamic spatial requirements for
avoiding collisions with other pedestrians Figure 2-5 depicts the body ellipse and walking space
components needed for pedestrian space evaluation.

Research has shown that one pedestrian following another prefers to leave an average
distance-spacing between himself or herself and the lead pedestrian of about 8 ft (2.4 m). This
corresponds to an average time-spacing of about 2 sec between pedestrians walking in tine.
In a remarkably efficient manner, pedestrians monitor the varying speeds and angles of other
approaching pedestrians and make adjustments to their pace and speed in order to avoid
collisions.

2-2.2Walking and Running Speeds

Empirical research has shown that under free-flow conditions pedestrian walking speeds tend to
be approximately normally distributed. Under such conditions, pedestrian walking speeds range
from about 2.5 to 6.0 ft/sec (0.8 to 1.8 m/sec). Typical mean walking speeds are in the 4.0 to 4.5
ft/sec (1.2 to 1.4 m/sec) range. A pedestrian walking rate of 4.0 ft/sec (1.2 m/sec) is generally
assumed for the timing of pedestrian traffic signals. In areas where there are large numbers of
elderly pedestrians. AASHTO recommends the use of a 2.8 ft/sec (0.9 m/sec) walking rate.

The presence of significant numbers of handicapped persons would also dictate the use of a
lower rate of movement. Free-flow walking speeds vary with the pedestrian's age and sex as well
as trip purpose. Grades less than about 5 percent seem to have little effect on walking speed, and
pedestrians carrying baggage tend to walk about as fast as those without baggage.

Walking speeds decrease with increases in pedestrian density. Empirical Studies indicate that for
an average of 25 ft2 (23 m2) or more per pedestrian, walking speeds are only slightly affected by
pedestrian conflicts. As the available space per pedestrian drops below 25 ft2 (2.3 in2), the
average walking speed decreases sharply.

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2-3 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS
During the decade 1990 to 2000 automobile registrations in the United States decreased slightly
(-0.1 percent), while the number of registered trucks increased substantially (61 percent). By
2000 there were over 134 million passenger cars, 87 million trucks and 746,000 buses (3).

2-3.1 Vehicle Type and Size

The type and size of motor vehicles Influence:-
1. Clearances for bridges, tunnels, and grade separation structures.
2. The geometric characteristics of streets, roads, and parking facilities

Street and highway facilities are used by a variety of vehicles ranging from motorcycles to
articulated truck units up to 72 ft (22 m) in length and weighting over 80,000 lb (36,000 kg).

Motorcycles are small motorized two- or three-wheeled vehicles that can transport one or two
people. Since motorcycles can operate satisfactorily on any street or highway suitable for cars
and trucks, they are given little consideration in general highway design; however, every
highway facility should be evaluated for possible adverse design features as they relate to these
smaller, less visible vehicles.

1) Passenger cars and light trucks are the dominant source of personal transportation. These
vehicles typically weight about 1500 to 4,000 lb (680 to 1,300 kg) and accommodate two
to six passengers.

2) Trucks

a) Single-unit trucks have the cargo and power unit mounted on a common frame. These
trucks range from two-axle, six-tire vehicles weighting about 10,000 lb (4,536 kg) to
three or four-axle vehicles weighting up to (18,144 kg). Single-unit trucks are most
commonly used for hauling freight relatively short distances.

b) Combination trucks have a power unit or tractor plus one or more trailers. The tractor-
trailers are joined at a hitch point and can be separated when not in use.

Combination trucks may have two general types of trailers:

1. A semitrailer, which has one or more axles near its rear but no front axles
2. Full trailer, which has one or more axles at both its front and rear ends

The big trucks that operate on U.S. highways may be seen in various configurations, as Figure 5-
6 illustrates. The most common of the big trucks is the tractor-semitrailer combination, which
has five-axles, three on the tractor and two on the semitrailer such trucks are typically have 48-ft
(14.6-m) trailers.

15
Twin-trailer and triple-trailer configurations are becoming more common on American highways
Twin-trailer trucks consist of a tractor plus a 28-ft (8.5-m) semitrailer followed by another 28-ft
(8.5m) semitrailer. Such trucks are sometimes referred to as "western doubles."

Rocky Mountain double trucks have a tractor plus a 45-ft (13.7-m) semitrailer plus a 28 ft (8.5-
m) full trailer Turnpike double trucks consist of a tractor plus a 45-ft (13.7-m) semitrailer
followed by a 45-ft (13.7-m) full trailer. A few states allow triples, a tractor pulling three 28-ft
(8.5 m) trailers.

A van is a passenger vehicle mounted on an automobile or light truck chassis that is capable of
transporting 6 to 15 people.

3) Bus
1. A minibus is a vehicle less than 25 ft (7.6 m) in length that has a capacity of 16 to 25
people.

2. Single-unit transit buses measure 8.0 to 8.5 ft (2.4 to 2.6 m) in width and 30.0 to 40.0 ft
(9.1 to 12.2 m) in length and are capable of transporting up to 53 seated passengers.

3. Articulated transit buses are 8.5 ft (2.6 m) in width and as much as 60 ft (18.3 m) in
length, with a seated passenger capacity of 73 passengers Intercity buses are most
commonly 8.5 ft (2.6 m) in width and 40 ft (12.2 m) long and have a seated capacity of
54 passengers.

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2-3-2 Vehicle Performance Characteristics
Vehicle performance limitations and capabilities affect required lengths of speed-change lanes,
weaving lanes, and no-passing zones, and the design of traffic control systems. If highway
systems are to operate safely and efficiently, highway and traffic engineers need to understand
performance characteristics of the various vehicles that use such systems.

2-3.3 Resistances
A vehicle's motion tends to be retarded by at least five types of resistance:
1. Inertial resistance
2. Grade resistance
3. Rolling resistance
4. Curve resistance
5. Air resistance

Inertial Resistance

Inertia is the tendency of a body to resist acceleration: the tendency to remain at rest or to remain
in motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some force. The force Fi [lb (Newton’s)],
required to overcome a vehicle's inertia is described by the familiar relationship:

When acting to move a vehicle forward, this force is positive- When the force is slowing or
stopping a vehicle, it and the corresponding acceleration (deceleration) are negative.

Grade Resistance

Grade resistance is the component of the gravitational force acting down a frictionless inclined
surface. This force Fg is expressed in units or lb (N) and is:

17
Curve resistance

As was stated earlier, once a vehicle is set in motion, it tends to remain in motion in a straight
line unless acted on by some force. The forces changing the direction of a vehicle are imparted
through the front wheels Components of these forces lend to impede a vehicle's forward motion.
Curve resistance, then, is the force required to cause a vehicle to move along a curved path. It is
a function of the radius and the vehicle speed. Curve resistance Fc, are determined by the
following equation:

AIR RESISTANCE

Air resistance includes the force required to move air from a vehicle's pathway as well as the
frictional effects of air along its top, sides, and undercarriage. It is a function of the frontal cross-
sectional area of the vehicle and the square of the vehicle speed. The air resistance Fa is
expressed in units of lb (N) and can be estimated by the following equation:

18
Air density at the sea level 0.0766 Ib/ft3

Rolling resistance

A vehicle does not operate on a smooth, frictionless surface. There is resistance to motion as the
tires roll over irregularities in the surface and push through mud, Sand or snow. This resistance,
termed rolling resistance, Fr includes that caused by the flexing of the tires and the internal
friction of the moving parts of the vehicle. Rolling resistance is higher on low-quality pavement
surfaces, and it increases with increase vehicle speed. Table 2-2 shows typical rolling resistances
as determined from empirical tests.

2-3.4POWER RE QUIREMENTS

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. The power P required to overcome the
various resistances and to propel a vehicle is expressed in units of horsepower (1 hp =550 ft-
lb/sec) and may be computed by the following equation:
It should be emphasized that the power computed by Eq. 5-6 is only that required for propulsion.
It does not include the power required for a vehicle's automatic transmission power steering air,
conditioner, and other such accessories.

ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION PERFORMANCES

A motor vehicle moves according to fundamental laws of motion; relationships among distance,
time, velocity, and uniform acceleration are given by the following equations:

Maximum acceleration rates vary with the size of the vehicle and its operating speed. Vehicles
are capable of greatest acceleration at lowest speeds. From a standing start to a speed of 15 mph
(25 km/hr), maximum acceleration values range from about 2.9 ft/sec2 (0.9 m/sec2) for tractor
semitrailer trucks up to about 14.7 ft/sec2 (4.5m/sec2) for large car a speed change of 0 to 30
mph .
Typical maximum accelerations are:
• For tractor-semitrailer truck 1.5 ft/sec2 (0.5m/sec2)

19
• For large car 11.2 ft/sec2 (3.4 m/sec2)
• For high performance sports car 14.2 ft/sec (4.3 m/sec2)
2

Example
Estimate the horsepower required to accelerate a 2,500-lb vehicle traveling 30 mph up a 5.0
percent grade at a rate of 6 ft/sec2. The vehicle has a frontal cross-sectional area of 20 ft2. The
roadway has straight alignment and a badly broken and patched asphalt surface Assume the drag
coefficient = 0.3.

Solution:

20
Total Stopping Distance and Applications
The approximate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway traveling at the design speed
of the roadway may be determined from the following equation:

𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 2 − 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 2
𝑑𝑑 = 0.278 × 𝑉𝑉 × 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎
254( ) ± 𝐺𝐺
9.8
Metric

US CUSTOMARY

Where

Vi : initial velocity ( Km or Mph )

Vf: final velocity ( Km or Mph )
T: reaction time (second)
G: grade + or -

 Approximately 90 percent of all drivers decelerate at rates greater than 3.4 m/s2 [11.2
ft/s2]. Such decelerations are within the driver's capability to stay within his or her lane
and maintain steering control during the braking maneuver on wet surfaces. Therefore,
3.4 m/s2 [11.2 ft/s2] (a comfortable deceleration for most drivers) is recommended as the
deceleration. In this equation, G is the percent of grade divided by 100, and the other
terms are as previously stated.

 The stopping distances needed on upgrades are shorter than on level roadways; those on
downgrades are longer. The stopping sight distances for various grades. These adjusted
sight distance values are computed for wet-pavement conditions using the same design
speeds and brake reaction times used for level roadways .

21
  When there is an upgrade, a "+" is used; a "—" is used for downgrades. This results in
shorter braking distances on upgrades, where gravity helps deceleration, and longer
braking distances on downgrades, where gravity is causing acceleration.

The braking distance formula is also a favorite tool of accident investigators. It can be used to
estimate the initial speed of a vehicle using measured skid marks and an estimated final speed
based on damage assessments. In such cases, actual estimated values of F are used, rather than
the standard design value recommended by AASHTO.

Example
An accident investigator estimates that a vehicle hit a bridge abutment at a speed of 20 mi/h,
based on his o assessment of damage. Leading up to the accident location, he observes skid
marks of 100 ft on the pavement (F = 0.35) and 75 ft on the grass shoulder (F = 0.25). There is
no grade. An estimation of the speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the skid marks is desired.

Solution

To find the initial speed of the vehicle (vi) based upon a known (or estimated) final speed (vf).

Each skid must be analyzed separately, starting with the grass skid (for which a final speed has
been estimated

This is the estimated speed of the vehicle at the start of the grass skid; it is also the speed of the
vehicle at the end of the pavement skid. Then:

22
It is, therefore, estimated that the speed of the vehicle immediately before the pavement skid was
44.9 mi/h. This, of course, can be compared with the speed limit to determine whether excessive
speed was a factor in the accident.

Example -2

A motorist traveling at 65 mi/h on an expressway intends to leave the expressway using an exit
ramp with a maximum speed of 35 mi/h. At what point on the expressway should the motorist
step on her brakes in order to reduce her speed to the maximum allowable on the ramp just
before entering the ramp, if this section of the expressway has a downgrade of 3 percent?

Example 3
A motorist traveling at 55 mi/h down a grade of 5 percent on a highway observes an accident
ahead of him, involving an overturned truck that is completely blocking the road. If the motorist
was able to stop his vehicle 30 ft from the overturned truck, what was his distance from the truck
when he first observed the accident? Assume perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec.

23
 CHAPTER 3

ELEMENTS OF DESING
3-1 DESIGN STANDARDS

Geometric design practices of the state highway and other designing agencies are not entirely
uniform on a national basis. A considerable variation exists in the laws of the various states,
which serve to limit the size and weight of motor vehicles. Differences also exist in the financing
ability of the various governmental agencies, and these among other policy issues significantly
influence the designer's decisions and modify the implementation of wholly uniform design
standards. Differences in experience and the interpretation of research also contribute to
variation in design practices. Furthermore, differences in local conditions among regional factors
such as terrain, weather conditions, and available construction materials affect standards and
design practices on a state-by-state basis.

These differences are allowed and tolerated by the Federal Highway Administration as
unavoidable and are accepted when approval is requested on plans developed by the various
states for federally funded highway improvements. The strongest force tending to standardize
these differences lies in the numerous and diverse technical committees of the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). All state highway
agencies and the Federal Highway Administration hold membership in this association and join
in the deliberations of its technical committees. Upon approval by a required majority, a standard
is declared adopted and becomes, in effect, a guide for all members of the association.

Each state highway agency typically develops its own versions of specifications, standard
drawings, and plan preparation procedures based on the national guidelines adopted by
AASHTO. The establishment and distribution of requirements for the design of highway
facilities serves to ensure that uniform roadways are designed and constructed on a statewide
basis. This statewide uniformity facilitates the understanding of engineering designs by road-
building contractors and significantly contributes to the implementation of consistent
construction methods (1).

24
3-2 DESIGN CRITERIA
3-2.1 Design Controls and Criteria
The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls, engineering
criteria, and project-specific objectives. Such factors include the following:
 Traffic safety considerations
 Functional classification of the roadway
 Projected traffic volume and composition
 Required design speed
 Multimodal needs of the surrounding community
 Topography of the surrounding land
 Capital costs for construction
 Agency funding mechanisms
 Human sensory capacities of roadway users
 Vehicle size and performance characteristics
 Public involvement, review, and comment
 Environmental considerations
 Right-of-way impacts and costs

These considerations are not, of course, completely independent of one another. The functional
class of a proposed facility is largely determined by the volume and composition of the traffic to
be served. It is also related to the type of service that a highway will accommodate and the speed
that a vehicle will travel while being driven along a highway. For a given class of highway, the
choice of design speed is governed primarily by the surrounding topography, regional
importance within the larger highway network, magnitude of related construction impacts, and
capital costs associated with construction of the highway project, Once a design speed is chosen,
many of the elements of design.

The design features of a highway influence all visible features and directly affect its capacity and
traffic operations, its safety performance, and its social acceptability to highway users, owners of
abutting land, and the general public. Of all the factors that are considered in the design of a
highway, the principal design criteria are:
1. Traffic volume
2. Design speed
3. Vehicle size
4. Vehicle mix.

25
3-3 CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS
One of the most important parts of developing a roadway design focuses on the selection and
configuration of the elements that comprise the roadway cross section. Once defined, these
elements are often collectively referred to as the typical sections or templates when used within
the context of most computer design programs.

Specifically, aspects of the cross section directly relate to the number of travel lanes to be
provided and the width and location of shoulders or curbs,

1. Highway Travel Lanes

2. Types of Medians
3. Pavement Crowns

4. Curb Configurations

5. Guardrails

6. Shoulders
7. Drainage Ditches
8. Slopes
9. Right-of-Way

Each of these elements will be discussed along with other related design considerations in the
following paragraphs.

3-3.1 Highway Travel Lanes

The width of the surfaced road and number of lanes should be :
adequate to accommodate the type and volume of traffic anticipated and the assumed design
speed of vehicles. Roads presently in use have traditionally been separated into generalized
categories that include :
1. Two-lane
2. Three-lane
3. Multilane undivided
4. Multilane divided
5. Limited-access highways

26
Two-Lane Highways

The bulk of our highway system is composed of two-lane highways, and over 90 percent of the
rural roads in the United States are of this type.

These two-lane roads vary from

1. low-type roads, which follow the natural ground surface

2. High-speed primary highways with paved surfaces and stabilized shoulders

As traffic density, vehicle speeds, and truck widths have increased two-lane highways have also
increased in width from 16 ft (4.8 m) to the current recommended value of 24 ft (7.3 m) with 10-
ft (3m) stabilized or paved shoulders on either side along primary routes.

Where lighter traffic volumes are expected, the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials recommends a range of minimum surface widths, based on a
combination of the design speed and traffic volume magnitude as shown in figure 3.1.

Fig 3.1
Shows the
two lane
Highways

27
Four Lane Highways

On four-lane highways traffic flows in opposite directions on each pair of lanes, and passing is
accomplished within the lanes of forward movement of traffic and not in the lanes of opposing
traffic. The amount of interaction between opposing traffic flows is substantially reduced, except
in the case of left-turning vehicles. Four-lane highways provide at least four times the capacity of
a two-lane highway for the same assumed design speed.

Eight-lane highways, with four lanes in each direction, are typically the upper limit for multilane
highways due to a variety of problems related to multiple lane changes, which adversely affect
capacity and safety.

The undivided multilane highway does, however, have a crash rate higher than that of the two-
lane highway. This would appear to be due to higher traffic volumes with traffic frictions from
cars traveling in both the same direction and opposing directions and from conflicts with left-
turning vehicles.

Divided Highways

In order to provide positive protection against a conflict with opposing traffic, highways are
frequently divided by a median strip.

On such highways, lane widths should be a minimum of 12 ft (3.65 m), with exceptions for 11-ft
(3.3 m) lanes for reconstructed highways with suitable alignment and safety records.

A median strip less than 4 ft (1.2 m) to 6 ft (1.8 m) in width is considered to be little more than a
centerline stripe, and its use, except for special conditions, should be discouraged. This narrow
median configuration is particularly troublesome at locations where left turns are common.

28
Medians of 12 ft (3.6 m) to 30 ft (9.0 m) are wide enough to protect left-turning vehicles at
intersections.

Rural
The median width, particularly at rural unsignalized intersections, should be specifically
designed to accommodate turning and crossing maneuvers of a specific design vehicle. A median
width of 25 ft (7.5 m) provides sufficient space so that a passenger car (turning or crossing the
roadway) has sufficient space to stop in the median area without the vehicle protruding into an
active travel lane.

Urban
At urban and suburban intersections, a desirable median width (8 m) accommodates a (5 m)
turning lane and a (2-m) median separator. Median widths (18 m) or wider are inadvisable at
signalized intersection locations because the extra time required for a vehicle to traverse the
intersection results in longer signal time (and creates unnecessary delays).

3.3.2 Types of Medians

There are four basic types of medians as follows:

1. Depressed
2. Raised
3. Painted
4. Closed

Depressed Medians

Depressed medians are used with divided highways which have a common ditch .The normal
median width, measured from the inside edges-of-traveled way, is 64 feet (20 meters). Where
median widths exceed 100 feet (30 meters), a median may be used or consideration may be given
to designing the facility as separate two-lane roadways.

29
Raised Medians

This type of median is used typically in urban or transitional areas where curbs are used on the
outside of the pavement. The median width for a raised median, as defined by distance from
back-of-curb to back-of-curb, should be a minimum of 3 feet (1 meter). Section 3C-2 provides
information on where curbs are warranted, the type of curb to use, and curb offset distances from
the edge of traveled way.

Painted Medians

Painted medians are yellow paint-striped and thus provide no physical barrier other than
distance between opposing traffic lanes. Their efficiency relies solely on a driver’s ability to
readily perceive the painted indication. Painted medians are preferred over raised medians on
transitional and high-speed facilities (expected regulatory speeds greater than 35 mph).

30
The minimum width of the painted median adjacent to the turning lane should be 4 feet (1.2
meters). For access control measurements, the beginning or end of a painted median is the point
where 2 feet (0.5 meters) separate the opposing traffic lanes.

Closed Medians

Closed medians are normally used on freeways or expressways in locations with very high traffic
volumes or where the amount of separation between opposing directions of travel is minimal or
being reduced (such as when inside lanes are being added in the existing median).

3-3.3 Pavement Crowns

Another element of the highway cross section is the pavement crown, which is the raising of the
centerline of the roadway above the elevation of the pavement edges. Pavement crowns have
varied greatly throughout the years.

31
With the improvement of

1. Construction materials

2. Road-building techniques

3. Equipment innovations that permit closer control,

4. Pavement crowns have been decreased.

Present-day high-type pavements with good control of drainage now have crowns as low as
1.5 to 2 percent slope rate.

Low crowns are satisfactory when little or no settlement of the pavement is expected and when
the drainage system is of sufficient capacity to quickly remove the water from a traffic lane to
prevent a motor vehicle from hydroplaning. When four or more traffic lanes are used, it is desir-
able to provide a higher rate of crown on the outer lanes in order to expedite the flow of water
from the pavement into the gutter or onto adjacent unpaved shoulders.

For one-way movements, a crown in the center of the lane may interfere with lane-changing
maneuvers; therefore, one-way roads or median separated roads may not have a crown in the
center of the road but should include an appropriate cross-slope to facilitate pavement drainage.
The most common cross-slope for the one-way configuration is a constant 2 percent cross-slope
where the left edge (in the direction of travel) slopes downward to the right, outer edge.

3.3.4 Curb Configurations

The use of curbs is generally confined to urban and suburban roadways. The design of curbs
varies from a low, flat, angle-type to a nearly vertical barrier-type curb.

1. In areas where sidewalks are not provided, curbs adjacent to traffic lanes should be low in
height and constructed with a flatter vertical angle so as not to create an obstruction. The
face of the curb should be no steeper than 45° so that vehicles may drive over the curb
without difficulty. This type of curb design is generally referred to as a mountable curb.

32
 2. Curbs at parking areas and adjacent to sidewalks should be 6 to 8 in. (150 to 200 mm) in
height, with a curb face that is nearly vertical. Clearance should be sufficient to clear
passenger-car fenders and bumpers and to permit the opening of car doors without
scraping. Storm water drainage and the ability to accommodate curb inlets will also affect
the shape and height of the curb.

3. From a Pedestrian’s viewpoint, curbs should be limited to one step in height. Vertical
curbs should not be used adjacent to freeways or high-speed roads as they create a hazard
to errant vehicles.

3-3.5 SHOULDERS

Closely related to the lane width is the width of the shoulders. For roads without curbs, it is
necessary to provide shoulders for safe operation and to allow the development of full traffic
capacity. Well-maintained, smooth, firm shoulders increase the effective width of the traffic lane,
as most vehicle operators drive closer to the edge of the pavement in the presence of adequate
shoulders. To accomplish their purpose, shoulders should be wide enough to permit and
encourage vehicles to leave the travel lane when stopping. The greater the traffic volume, the
greater is the likelihood of the shoulders being put to emergency use.

A usable outside shoulder width of at least 10 ft (3 m) and preferably 12 ft (3.65 m) that is

clear of all obstructions is desirable for all heavily traveled and high-speed highways. Shoulders

33
wider than 10 ft (3 m) may experience unauthorized use of the shoulder as a supplemental travel
lane. Inside shoulders often are not as wide.

In mountainous areas, where the extra cost of providing shoulders of this width may be
prohibitive, the use of partial shoulders may be permitted provided that a stopped vehicle would
only protrude 1 to 4 ft (0.3 to 1.2 m) into the adjacent travel lane. Under these conditions,
however, emergency parking pull-outs should be provided at proper intervals. For areas of
terrain where guardrails or other vertical elements (such as retaining walls) are required, an
additional 2 ft (0.5 m) of shoulder widening should be provided.

The slope of the shoulder should be greater than that of the pavement.
1. A shoulder with a high-type surfacing should have a slope from 2 to 6 percent.
2. Gravel shoulders should have cross-slopes from 4 to 6 percent,
3. Turf shoulders should have 6 to 8 percent slopes to assure efficient drainage of water
away from the pavement.

3-3.6 GUARDRAILS

A guardrail should be provided

1. Where fills are over 8 ft (2.4 m) in height, when shoulder slopes are greater than 1V:4H
(1 vertical unit for every 4 horizontal units),

2. In locations where there is sudden change in alignment, and where a greater reduction in
speed is necessary.

3. In locations with deep roadside ditches, steep banks

4. Right-of-way limitations, it is often necessary to steepen the side slopes and to require the
use of a guardrail. Where a guardrail is used, the width of the shoulders is increased
approximately 2 ft (0.5 m) to allow space for placing the posts.

34
Various types of guardrail are in use at the present time.
1. W-beam guardrail
2. The cable guardrail
3. The box beam guardrail
4. New-jersey one face

These may be installed on

1. Wood
2. Steel
3. Concrete posts.

35
3-3.7 DRAINAGE DITCHES

Drainage ditches should be located and shaped to avoid creating a hazard to traffic safety.
Under normal conditions, ditches should be low enough to drain the water from under the
pavement. A broad, flat, rounded ditch section has been found to be safer than a V-type ditch,
which also may be subject to undesirable erosive hydraulic action. The longitudinal gradient or
slope of the ditch may vary greatly from that of the adjacent roadway pavement profile grade
line.

3-3.8 SLOPES

The graded area immediately adjacent to the graded roadway shoulder is the side-slope. In a
cross section with a drainage ditch, the slope on the far side of the ditch where the roadside
region slopes back to natural topography is the backslope. The sideslope down to the ditch is
often referred to as the foreslope. Foreslopes and backslopes may vary considerably depending
on soil characteristics and the geographic location of the highway. Well-rounded flat slopes
present a pleasing appearance and are economical to build and maintain. Fore-slopes of 1V:4H
are used a great deal in both cut and fill sections up to about 10 ft (3 m) in depth or height, but
where the height of cut or fill does not exceed 6 ft.

(1.8 m), a maximum side slope of 1V:6H is recommended. Extremely flat slopes are sometimes
used in low-lying areas. As previously mentioned, where a guardrail is used, slopes may be as
high as 1V:1.5H. Slopes as high as 1V:1H generally are not satisfactory and typically exhibit an
expensive long-term maintenance problem. In certain fill sections, special slopes may be built
with riprap, mechanically stabilized fabric applications, reinforced concrete cribbing, and various
types of retaining walls.

36
The backslopes in cut areas may vary from 1V:6H to vertical in rock sections and to 1V1.5H in
normal soil conditions. In general, 1V:2H is most commonly used for a backslope in order to
remain within the right-of-way width and to reduce the impact on adjacent properties. It is
sometimes advisable to have backslopes as flat as 1V:4H when site borrow is needed. Slope
transitions from cuts to fills should be gradual and should extend over a considerable length of
the roadway.

3-3.9 RIGHT-OF-WAY

The right-of-way width for a two-lane highway on secondary roads with an annual average daily
traffic volume of 400 to 1,000 vehicles, as recommended by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, is 66 ft (20 m) minimum and 80 ft (25 m) desirable.

A two-lane urban collector right-of-way width should range from 40 to 60 ft (12 to 18 m).

Along the Interstate Highway System minimum widths vary, depending on local conditions,
from 150 ft (46 m) without frontage roads and 250 ft (76 m) with frontage roads, up to 200 to
300 ft (60 to 90 m) for an eight-lane divided highway without frontage roads.

On high-type two-lane highways in rural areas a minimum width of 100 ft (30 m), with 120 ft
(37 m) desirable, is recommended.

A minimum width of 150 ft (45 m) and a desirable width of 250 ft (76 m) are recommended for
divided highways.

Sufficient right-of-way should be acquired in order to avoid the expense of purchasing developed
property or the removal of other physical encroachments from the highway right-of-way. A wide
section of right-of-way must be given careful consideration for a balanced design. The selection
of a width based on minimum or desirable dimensions is typically established with respect to fa

37
38
39
3.4.1 Horizontal Alignment

3-4.1 Horizontal Alignment

The physical location of a highway for design and construction is developed and dimensioned
with respect to a calculated construction centerline that is expressed in terms of bearings,
distances, curvature, transitions, stations, and offsets. This numerically derived centerline
information is collectively referred to as the geometric alignment.

Tangent or straight sections of the highway are connected with circular curves to create a
flowing and smooth alignment.

Most high-speed highways have long tangent distances that are connected by very gradual
long sweeping curves that may be complemented by transitional spiral curves. The horizontal
alignment is developed to accommodate a given design speed, and typically the alignment
dimensions and distances are tabulated in a manner that facilitates construction staking as
conducted by a field surveying crew. These dimensions are developed into a construction
centerline used for geometric reference.

To enable consistent display of information, this "centerline" will include stationing,

whereby the design engineer selects a starting point (usually the most southern or western end of
the centerline) and then increases stationing as though driving along the centerline.

Example, if a design engineer elected to begin stationing for a road at the random value of
1,000, he or she would use a station of 10+00 for U.S. customary units or 1+000 to depict metric
units.

For objects to the right or left of the centerline, the engineer will indicate a positive (right) or
negative (left) offset perpendicular to the centerline station. The construction centerline is often
positioned in the middle of the proposed road; however, for existing facilities or freeway ramps
the centerline may be offset for ease of construction.

40
3-4.2 Circular Curves
In the past, traditional U.S. units have focused on describing circular curves in terms of
the degree of curvature, which is defined as the central angle subtended by an arc of
100 ft. This is known as the arc definition.
Implementation of the metric system for construction of highways specifies that all
curves be defined based on the length of the radius and does not utilize the degree of
curvature term for defining circular curves. Many agencies continue to use the degree
of curvature for horizontal curve design with U.S. units, so both radius and degree of
curvature definitions are included, whereas only the radius definition is included for
metric design.

Using the traditional U.S. units and the arc definition, the circumference of a circle bears the
same relationship to 360° as a 100-ft arc does to the degree of curve D. Therefore,

41
Where:
 R represents the curve radius in feet.
 Under the guidelines of the metric system, circular curves are defined in terms
of the radius length R in meters.

Other important variables relate to the intersection angle or central angle A, the tangent
distance T, and the length along the curve L. A number of other useful variables
relating to a circular curve can also be calculated for use in design evaluations. Once
two elements of a circular curve are determined, such as R and A, all other variables
can be calculated. Figure7-6 identifies a simple highway curve, variable definitions,
and basic equations, shown in both traditional U.S. units and the metric system. Since
the definition of a curve is based on 2πR, once the radius is determined in the desired
units (feet or meters), no other conversions are required and all equations can be used
in a similar fashion for both the traditional U.S. unit system and the metric system.
Several of the equations pertain to locating a specific point along the curve, given that
two of the variables that define the curve are established. Equations related to point
location along the curve are very useful during both design and construction layout
activities.

In general, the sharpest desirable curve engineers use in open country ranges from a
radius of 819 to 1,146 ft (250 to 350 m).

For convenience, Table 3-3 provides a direct comparison between the curve degree of
curvature and radius in feet for traditional U.S. units or radius in meters for metric
units.
In mountainous areas, desirable curves should be designed with at least a 573-ft
(175m) radius.
NOTE
It is preferable when surrounding conditions permit to use a radius of curve for high-
way alignment that is larger than the shortest radius allowed for a given design speed.

With respect to this objective, many states limit the radius of curvature to 1,910 ft (585
m) along principal highways. However, exceptions to these limitations will occur and
subsequently may affect the design speed and posted speed of the proposed highway.

42
Several variations of the circular curve deserve consideration when developing the
horizontal alignment for a highway design. When two curves in the same direction are
connected with a short tangent, this condition is known as a "broken back"
arrangement of curves. Figure 7-7b depicts a "broken back" curve. This type of
alignment should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of-way
conditions dictate otherwise.

Highway engineers generally consider the broken back alignment to be unpleasant and
awkward and prefer spiral transitions or a compound curve alignment with continuous
Figure 7-7c identifies
superelevation elements
for such of a typical compound highway curve. Compound
conditions.

Curves should also be used with caution. Generally speaking, where rugged
topography or restricted right-of-way makes their use necessary, the radius of the
flatter circular are, RL, should not be more than 50 percent greater than the radius of
the sharper curve, Rs, that is, RL < 1.5 Rs.

43
Another important variation of the circular highway curve is the use of reverse curves,
which are adjacent curves that curve in opposite directions. The alignment illustrated in
Figure 7-7d, which shows a point of reverse curvature, PRC, and no tangent separating
the curves, would be suitable only for low-speed roads such;

44
45
As shown in the second schematic for Figure 3-7d, a sufficient length of tangent between the
curves should usually be provided to allow removal of the superelevation from the first curve
and attainment of adverse superelevation for the second curve (see Section 3-4.5).

Numerous factors other than the minimum radius must be considered when designing a
curve alignment for a highway. These additional factors can include superelevation,
transitions, widening, connection to side streets, storm water drainage, and impacts on
adjacent properties, to list just a few.

46
47
3-4.3 Superelevation of Curves
While traveling under open highway conditions along rural highways, most drivers
gravitate toward a more or less uniform speed. In the event that the roadway is not
designed properly, a vehicle must be driven at a reduced speed for safety as well as the
comfort of the occupants when moving from a tangent section to a curved section of
the highway. This is because as the vehicle moves in a circular path it is subject to
centripetal acceleration that acts toward the center of the curve (2).

As discussed in pervious Sections, most, highways have a crowned pavement section

that is provided to facilitate the flow of drainage away from the roadway surface.
Along a tangent section of the horizontal alignment both sides of the pavement crown
slope away and downward from the centerline of the highway. This is commonly
referred to as normal crown.

It is apparent that when this type of pavement crown is carried along a curved section,
the tendency to slip is retarded on the inside of the curve because of the banking effect
of the crown. Conversely, the hazard of slipping is increased on the outside of the
curve due to the outward sloping or negative crown of the pavement. In order to
overcome this tendency to slip and to maintain average speeds, it is necessary to
superelevate or bank both sides of the roadway cross section in a manner that helps to
counteract the centripetal acceleration generated while traveling along a horizontal
curve.

Analysis of the forces acting on the vehicle as it moves around a curve of constant radius
indicates that the theoretical superelevation can be expressed in the following terms:

48
 The value of ef (in the equation denominator) is always small, so the (1-0.01*ef) term is
approximately equal to 1.0. As such, a simplified curve formula can be used for highway design
and this equation can be further developed to accommodate common speed units as follows:

Research and experience have established limiting values for e and f. Use of the maximum e
and safe f value in the formula permits determination of minimum curve radii for various design
speeds.
Present highway design practice suggests a maximum superelevation rate of 12 percent.
Where snow and ice conditions prevail during winter driving, the maximum superelevation
rate should not exceed 8 percent. Some states have adopted a maximum superelevation rate of 10
percent; however, other rates may have application and can be utilized on some highway types
when local conditions require special treatment. For example, in urban regions it may be
appropriate to use a maximum superelevation rate of 4 to 6 percent.

The limiting value of the side-friction factor, f, at which the tires begin to skid may be as high
as 0.6 or higher. This upper limit of, f, is not the value used in Equation. 3-3a and 3-3b. In
design, engineers use only a portion of the side-friction factors for design; engineers use an f-
value corresponding to the point at which a driver begins to feel uncomfortable and react
instinctively to avoid higher speed. Empirical studies have determined that such f-values range
from about 0.17 at 20 mph (30 km/hr) to 0.08 at 80 mph (130 km/hr). Values within this general
range are shown in Table 7-4.

AASHTO (i) provides graphs and tables showing recommended design values of
superelevation for a wide range of values of emax, design speed, and radius of curve.
From Eqs. (3-3a) and (3-3b), the minimum safe radius for a given design speed can be
determined from the rate of superelevation and side-friction factor. The minimum safe radius R
can be calculated by rewriting Eqs. 3-3a and 3-3b as follows:

49
50
Achieving Superelevation
The transition from a tangent section with a normal superelevation for drainage to a superelevated
horizontal curve occurs in two stages:

1) The Tangent Runout : Section consists of the length of roadway needed to accomplish
a change in outside-lane cross slope from the normal cross slope rate to zero (flat), or
vice versa.

2) The Superelevation Runoff: Section consists of the length of roadway needed to

accomplish a change in outside-lane cross slope from zero (flat) to full
superelevation, or vice versa.

For reasons of safety and comfort, the pavement rotation in the superelevation transition section
should be effected over a length that is sufficient to make such rotation imperceptible to drivers.
To be pleasing in appearance, the pavement edges should not appear distorted to the driver.

In the alignment transition section, a spiral or compound transition curve may be used to
introduce the main circular curve in a natural manner (i.e., one that is consistent with the driver's
steered path). Such transition curvature consists of one or more curves aligned and located to
provide a gradual change in alignment radius. As a result, an alignment transition introduces the
lateral acceleration associated with the curve in a gentle manner.

While such a gradual change in path and lateral acceleration is appealing, there is no definitive
evidence that transition curves are essential to the safe operation of the roadway and, as a result,
they are not used by many agencies.

The length of this transition is called the superelevation runoff and is noted as Ls.

1) Undivided highways, rotation is around the centerline of the roadway, although rotation can
also be accomplished around the inside or outside edge of the roadway as well.

2) divided highways; each directional roadway is separately rotated, usually around the inside or
outside edge of the roadway.

Figure 3.8 illustrates the rotation of undivided two-lane, four-lane, and six-lane highways around
the centerline, although the slopes shown are exaggerated for clarity. The rotation is
accomplished in three steps:-

1. The outside lane(s) are rotated from their normal cross-slope to a flat condition.
2. The outside lane(s) are rotated from the flat position until they equal the normal cross-slope of
the inside lanes.

51
3. All lanes are rotated from the condition of step 2 to the full superelevation of the horizontal
curve.

Tangent-to-Curve Transition

Minimum length of superelevation runoff, for appearance and comfort, the length of
superelevation runoff should be based on a maximum acceptable difference between the
longitudinal grades of the axis of rotation and the edge of pavement. The axis of rotation is
generally represented by the alignment centerline for undivided roadways; however, other
pavement reference lines can be used. These lines and the rationale for their use is discussed
below in the section on "Methods of Attaining Superelevation."

The maximum relative gradient is varied with design speed to provide longer runoff lengths at
higher speeds and shorter lengths at lower speeds. Experience indicates that relative gradients of
0.80 and 0.35 percent [0.78 and 0.35 percent] provide acceptable runoff lengths for design
speeds of 20 and 130 km/h [15 and 80 mph], respectively. Interpolation between these values
provides the maximum relative gradients shown in Exhibit 3-30. The maximum relative gradient
between profiles of the edges of two-lane traveled ways should be double those given in the
exhibit.

Runoff lengths determined on this basis are directly proportional to the total superelevation,
which is the product of the lane width and superelevation rate.

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Equation (3-25) can be used directly for undivided streets or highways where the cross section is
rotated about the highway centerline and n1 is equal to one-half the number of lanes in the cross
section. More generally, Equation (3-25) can be used for rotation about any pavement reference
line provided that the rotated width (wn1) has a common superelevation rate and is rotated as a
plane.

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EXAMPLE of a four-lane highway, with a superelevation rate of 4% achieved by rotating two
12 ft it lanes around the centerline. The design speed of highway is 60 mi/h. What is the
appropriate mini-length of superelevation runoff?

Solution :- From above table, maximum relative gradient for 60 mi/h is 0.45%; the "adjustment
factor for rotating two lanes is 0.75. Thus:-

Note 1: that while it is a four-lane cross-section being rotated n = 2, as rotation is around the
centerline.

Note 2: Where separate pavements on a divided highway are rotated around an edge, the full
number of lanes on the pavement would be used.

The length of the tangent runout is related to the of the superelevation runoff, as follows:

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If, in the previous example, the normal drainage cross-slope was 1%, then the length of the
tangent runoff would be:

The total transition length between the normal cross-section to the fully superelevated cross-
section is the sum of the superelevation and tangent runout, 160 + 40 = 200 ft.

To provide drivers with the most comfortable operation, from 60% to 90% of the total runoff is
achieved on the tangent section, with the remaining runoff achieved on the horizontal curve.

AASHTO allows states or other jurisdictions to set a constant percentage split anywhere within
this range as a matter of policy, but also gives criteria for optimal splits based on design speed
and the number of lanes rotated. For design speeds between 15 and 45 mi/h, 80% (one lane
rotated) or 90% (two or more lanes rotated) of the runoff is on the tangent section. For higher
design speeds, 70% (one lane rotated), 80% (two lanes rotated) or 85% (three or more lanes
rotated) of the runoff is on the tangent section.

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Spiral Transition Curves
While not impossible, it is difficult for drivers to travel immediately from tangent section to a
circular curve with a constant radius. A spiral transition curve begins with a tangent (degree of
curve, D = 0) and gradually and uniformly increases the degree of curvature (decreases the
radius) until the intended circular degree of curve is reached.

Use of a spiral transition provides for a number of benefits:

1. Provides an easy path for drivers to follow

2. Provides a desirable arrangement for superelevation runoff

3. Provides a desirable arrangement for pavement widening on curves (often done to

accommodate off-tracking of commercial vehicles)

4. Enhances highway appearance

Note: Spiral transition curves are not always used, because

1) Construction is difficult
2) Construction cost is generally higher than for a simple circular curve.

They are recommended for high-volume situations where degree of curvature exceeds 3o. The
geometric characteristics of spiral transition curves are complex; they are illustrated in Figure
3.11.
The key variables in Figure 3.11 are defined as:

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Length of Spiral

Length of spiral. Generally, the Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid, is used in the
design of spiral transition curves. The radius varies from infinity at the tangent end of the spiral
to the radius of the circular arc at the end that adjoins that circular are. By definition, the radius
of curvature at any point on an Euler spiral varies inversely with the distance measured along the
spiral. In the case of a spiral transition that connects two circular curves having different radii,
there is an initial radius rather than an infinite value.

The following equation, developed in 1909 by Shortt (25) for gradual attainment of lateral
acceleration on railroad track curves, is the basic expression used by some highway agencies for
computing minimum length of a spiral transition curve:

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Maximum radius for use of a spiral

A review of guidance on the use of spiral curve transitions indicates a general lack of
consistency among highway agencies. In general, much of this guidance suggests that an upper
limit on curve radius can be established such that only radii below this maximum are likely to
obtain safety and operational benefits from the use of spiral transition curves.

Such a limiting radius has been established by several agencies based on a minimum lateral
acceleration rate. Such minimum rates have been found to vary from 0.4 to 1.3 m/s2 [1.3 to 4.25
ft/s2]. The upper end of this range of rates corresponds to the maximum curve radius for which
some reduction in crash potential has also been noted. For these reasons, it is recommended that
the maximum radius for use of a spiral should be based on a minimum lateral acceleration rate of
1.3 m/s2 [4.25 ft/s2] (20). These radii are listed in Exhibit 3-36.

Note: The safety benefits of spiral curve transitions are likely to be negligible for larger radii

A Sample Problem

A 4° curve is to be designed on a highway with two 12-ft lanes and a design speed of 60 mi/h. A
maximum superelevation rate of 6% has been established, and the appropriate side-friction factor
for 60 mi/h is found from Figure 3.8 as 0.120. The normal drainage cross-slope on the tangent is
1%. Spiral transition curves are to be used. Determine the length of the spiral and the appropriate
stations for the T.S., S.C., C.S., and S.T. The angle of deflection for the original tangents is 38°,
and the P.I. is at station 1,100 + 62. The segment has a two-lane cross section.

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Solution: The radius of curvature for the circular portion of the curve is found from the degree of
curvature

The length of the spiral may now be compute, using:

The minimum length of the spiral can also be determine length of the superelevation runoff. For
design speed and a radius of 1,432.4 ft

Vertical Curves

The parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in connecting profile grade tangents. The primary
reasons for the use of this type of curve in vertical highway alignments is the convenient manner
in which the vertical offsets can be computed and the smooth transitions created from tangent to
curve and then back to tangent.

When a vertical curve connects a positive grade with a negative grade, it is referred to as a "crest
curve." Likewise, when a vertical curve connects a negative grade with a positive grade, it is
termed a "sag curve." Various configurations of crest and sag curves are illustrated in Figure 3-
10. Variable definitions and basic equations for a typical vertical curve are presented in Figure 3-
11. The sign conventions for and G2 allow the use of the same formulas in the calculation of
offsets and elevations for a sag curve as well as the crest curve shown. Furthermore, the variable
relationships and corresponding formulas are applicable for both the U.S. customary and the
metric system units.

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 Offsets and spot elevations along vertical curves may be computed from the formulas
provided in Figure 7-11. It is usually necessary to calculate elevations at every even 50-ft (20-m)
station, while some special paving operations may require elevations at 25-ft (10-m) intervals or
less. It is often necessary to compute other

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 CHAPTER 4

HIGHWAY EVALUATION

Although economic analysis for highway projects was proposed as a decision making tool in the mid-nineteenth
century, the technique was adopted by highway officials much later. About 1920 the first adequate motor vehicle
running cost data appeared in the literature, but economic analyses for highways did not gain wide acceptance until
after the publications of the AASHTO "Red Book" (1) in 1952. The Red Book was updated in 1960, and others (2-
5) have since updated highway user cost factors and refined economic analysis methodology.

A Stanford Research Institute report prepared for the National Cooperative Highway Research Program served as
the basis for the 1977 edition of the AASHTO Red Book. That document, which contains unit highway user cost
factors based on 1975 levels of vehicle performance characteristics and prices, remains the primary reference source
for economic analyses in the United States. It serves as the primary basis for the material in the following
paragraphs.

Economic studies for highway purposes are done principally for one or more of the following reasons:

• To determine feasibility of a project

• To compare alternative locations
• To evaluate various features of highway design, for example, the type of surface to be used
• To determine priority of improvement
• To allocate responsibility for the costs of highway improvement among the various classes of highway users (and
nonusers, in some cases)
• Occasionally, to compare proposals for highway improvement with proposals for other public projects such as
education

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 4.1.1 Costs of Highway Transportation

HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION COST = Highway investment cost + maintenance + Operating cost +user costs+ Transit user cost

Where bus transit is present, the transportation cost includes the transit capital costs, the costs of operating the transit
system, and the costs that accrue to transit users (fares and travel time costs). Examples of highway transportation
costs are given in Table 4-1.

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 4.1.2 Highway User Cost

1. Motor vehicle operating costs.

2. The value of travel time.
3. Traffic accident costs.

Usually, only those operating costs that depend on the mileage of travel are included in highway
economic analyses, including:
1. The cost of fuel
2. Tires
3. Engine oil
4. Maintenance
5. A portion of depreciation.
6. Registration and parking fees
7. Insurance premiums
8. The time-dependent portion of depreciation may be excluded when estimating the
reduction in user costs due to a highway improvement.

The value of travel time is the product of the total vehicle-hours of travel (by vehicle type)
and the average unit value of time.

The magnitude of travel time depends on average running speed and the number and
duration of stops. Studies have indicated that the perceived value of travel time is sensitive to
trip purpose and time savings per trip.

 Generally, travelers place little value on time savings less than 5 min. For passenger cars,
recommends a travel time value of $3.00 per vehicle per hour based on a value of $2.40
per person-hour and 1.25 persons per vehicle.

 The report recommends time values of $7.00 per hour for single-unit trucks and $8.00 per
hour for combination trucks based on truck driver wages and fringe benefit

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The accidents that occur every year on the streets and highways of the United States
represent a great economic loss besides the pain and suffering they cause. Total economic
loss resulting from motor vehicle accidents in 2000 was estimated to be $201.5 billion. This
total included losses incurred in fatal accidents, accidents involving nonfatal personal injury,
and those involving only property damage. It follows that from economic standpoint highway
improvements that result in decreased accident rates result in monetary saving to the road
user and the public in general.

The National Safety Council issues periodic reports on the costs of vehicular accidents. Such
costs include wage and productivity losses, medical expenses, administrative expenses,
motor vehicle damages, and employer costs. In 2000 the costs of all these items for each
death, injury, and property damage accident were:

Death $1,000,000
Nonfatal disabling injury $ 35,300
Property damage accident (including minor injuries) $ 6,500

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To account for savings in accident costs in highway economic studies, accident rates before and
after the proposed improvement should be estimated. In many instances, the analyst is able to
rely on empirical data that will likely account for regional differences in vehicle mix, driver
behavior, and climate.

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General guidance on typical accident rates for various classes of roadways is given by Table 4-2.
A number of researchers (8-10) have also developed multiple regression equations by which
estimates of accident rates can be made on the basis of roadway and traffic characteristics

4-1.3 Benefits of Highway Improvements

It is obvious that many benefits result from highway improvement or, to put it more broadly,
from improved highway transportation. Some of these benefits are direct and readily apparent;
others are indirect and more difficult to discern. Likewise, some benefits may be readily
evaluated in terms of dollars and cents; others defy evaluation in this fashion, although they are
nonetheless as real and lasting as monetary returns. Sometimes, of course, the consequences of a
given highway improvement are not entirely beneficial; for example, construction of an urban
expressway may produce a decline in ridership on a commuter railroad, and public funds spent
from the general treasury for highways cannot be used, say, for education. Such consequences
should be considered in comprehensive economic analyses.

For purposes of discussion it is convenient to group highway benefits into the following
categories:
(1) Direct benefits that result from a reduction in highway user costs
(2) Indirect benefits, including benefits to adjacent property and to the general public.

The most quantifiable and, to the analyst, the most significant highway benefits are those that
result from a reduction in user costs. As the previous section implies, such benefits result from
decreased operating costs, higher operating speeds, fewer delays, and decreased accident losses.
The procedures for estimating such benefits are described later in this chapter.

Those benefits that accrue to the owner of property located adjacent to or in the vicinity of
improved highways are fairly simple to observe and delineate but are somewhat more difficult to
evaluate. In the vast majority of cases highway improvements result in an increase in the value of
land located adjacent to or served by the highway involved. A simple case of direct property
benefit is that of a farm or a number of farms located on an unimproved earth road that is rough,
muddy in wet weather and dusty in dry. Any degree of improvement of a road of this sort would

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be of direct benefit to the property owners located along it since they would be provided with
easier access to market, schools, and recreational facilities. Similar direct benefits may accrue to
city dwellers that live on an improved residential street. In many other cases, property benefits
may be more difficult to discern and to evaluate.

Benefits of improved highway transportation that are enjoyed by the general public may well be
regarded as the most important of the three classes of benefits that have been listed. These
benefits include many of the advantages commonly associated with modern civilization,
including such things as efficient fire and police protection; rapid postal deliveries; improved
access to educational, recreational, and social facilities; decreased costs of commodities;
improved national defense; and so on ad infinitum. The general advantages of improved
highways are so interwoven with every phase of modern life in this country that it is virtually
impossible to imagine what existence would be like without them. Although it is apparent that
indirect benefits are of great importance, these benefits cannot usually be evaluated except in a
general sense and are therefore seldom used in economic calculations

4-1.4 Present Value Concepts

In economic studies it is important to recognize the time value of money. Because of the
existence of interest, a quantity of money is worth more now than the prospect of receiving the
same quantity at some future date. Therefore, in order to compare costs and benefits of highway
improvements on a sound basis, they must be converted to equivalent values at some common
date. This procedure, which is known as discounting, is accomplished by using a suitable interest
rate in accordance with established principles of compound interest and present value concepts.
Such concepts are more fully described in standard textbooks on economic analysis. The present
value (also termed present worth) P of some future single payment F can be calculated by the
following equation:

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4-1.5 Economic Analysis Techniques

Economic calculations intended to demonstrate economic justification for a particular project, to permit
comparison of alternative schemes or locations, to determine priority of improvement, and so on, may be
carried out by one of several methods. Methods used in engineering economy studies include
(1) benefit-cost ratio,
(2) Net present value,
(3) Comparison of annual costs
(4) Determination of the interest rate at which alternatives are equally attractive.

The benefit-cost ratio (B/C) and net present value (NPV) methods, described here, are commonly used by
highway engineers and administrators.

Benefit-Cost Ratio
Traditionally, in the benefit-cost ratio method, analysis was made by comparing the relations of the
annual road user costs to the annual highway costs for logical alternatives in location and design. The
following formulation of the benefit-cost ratio, which utilizes present values, is now recommended for all
highway and transit applications

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Net Present Value Method

In the net present value method, the procedure is to reduce all benefits and costs to their present value in
accordance with the principles given in Section 4-3. The net present value NPV is defined as the
difference between the present values of the benefits from the project and the costs of developing the
project. The net present value may be computed as follows:

Where B1 and C1 are the benefit and cost for the first year, B2 and C2 for the second year, and so forth;
R is the residual value, i is the discount rate, and n is the analysis period.

Decision Rules in Economic Analysis

Rules of application of the B/C ratio and the net present value techniques depend on whether there are
budgetary constraints and whether the projects under consideration are independent or mutually
exclusive.

Consider first the case where there are no budgetary constraints and independent projects are being
compared; that is, the selection of one project would not preclude the selection of other projects. In this
instance all projects with positive net present values or benefit-cost ratios greater than 1 would be
economically feasible.

Where the investment budget is constrained,* the analyst should select the combination of projects that
produces a maximum net present value but does not exceed the available budget. Alternatively and
approximately, projects may be selected in order of decreasing B/C ratios, adding projects until the
budget is exhausted.

In cases in which several mutually exclusive locations or designs are being compared, the alternative with
the highest net present value would be chosen. If benefit-cost ratios are used to select the preferred
project, the selection must be made in increments.

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Beginning with the lowest-cost alternative having a B/C ratio greater than 1, each increment of additional
cost is justified only if the incremental B/C ratio is greater than 1. This is illustrated by the following
example

4-1.6 Measurement of User Benefits

One of the most difficult aspects of economic analyses for highways is the measurement of
highway user benefits. First, consider highways that do not serve transit vehicles. The unit highway
user cost for a given section of highway HU expressed in dollars per thousand vehicles is the sum of
the basic section costs, accident costs, and delay costs:

HU = (B + A) L + T + D (4-9)

Where B = basic section costs, consisting of the unit cost (time value and vehicle running
costs) associated with vehicle flow and the basic geometries (grades and curves) of the analysis
section A = unit accident costs in the analysis section

L = analysis section length in miles*

T = transition costs—additional unit user time and running costs incurred due to
changes in speeds between accident sections

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 D = additional unit time and running costs caused by delays at intersections, traffic
signals, stop signs, or other traffic control devices.

The highway user benefit AU in Eq. 4-6 is the difference in highway user costs for any two
alternatives:
AU = HU Q -HU 1

Highway user costs are determined largely on the basis of empirical data, and Ref. 6
provides data for the estimation of the basic section costs, transition costs, and delay costs
for various highway and traffic conditions.
The revised manual includes nomographs that give one-way basic section costs for three
classes of vehicles (passenger cars, single unit trucks, and 3-S2 combination trucks) using
four types of highways (freeways, multilane highways, two-lane highways, and arterials).
One of the 12 nomographs that shows the basic section costs for passenger cars on
multilane highways is reproduced as Figure 4-1.

To use Figure 4-1, the nomograph is entered at the lower left with average running speed or
with the volume/capacity ratio for the representative hour of operation for the analysis
section.

Travel time, the inverse of running speed, can be read on the left ordinate of the lower left
graph. A horizontal line at the level of average running speed is then projected to the right
to determine the tangent running cost (along a specified grade) and added running costs
due to curves. Finally, added running costs due to speed change cycles are determined by
entering the upper left graph with the volume/capacity ratio and reading the added cost on
the ordinate. The added costs due to speed change cycles are relatively small except under
level of service F (or queuing) conditions. An example of the use of the nomograph is shown
on the figure.The basic section costs given by Figure 4-1 apply only to paved roadways. The
costs of operating vehicles on gravel and stone roadway surfaces can be estimated by
multiplying the basic section costs from the nomographs (e.g., Figure 4-1) by an adjustment
factor. For passenger cars, such conversion factors range from about 1.1 for a speed of 8
km/hr (5 mph) to about 1.6 for a speed of 96 km/hr (60 mph) (2). Larger values are
recommended for single-unit trucks and truck combinations.As Section 4-1 details, unit

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accident costs can be estimated on the basis of empirical accident rates that reflect regional
effects of vehicle mix, driver behavior, roadway type, and climate, or can be estimated from
the average rates (Table 4-2) and costs (by accident type) previously given.

Empirical studies have made it possible to estimate the costs of speed changes when
vehicles pass between sections with different physical or traffic characteristics. These
section transition costs, symbolized by the letter T in Eq. 4-9, depend on the magnitude of
average speed change. Figure 4-2 provides a means of estimating the transition costs for
one-way traffic based on the speeds on adjacent sections. Reference 6 gives adjustment
factors that can be applied to the graph values to estimate transition costs for single-unit
and combination trucks.Perhaps the most complex aspect of determination of unit highway
user costs for a highway section is the estimation of the costs of intersection delay (referred
to as D in Eq. 4-9). Two nomographs have been published by Anderson et al. (6) to
determine intersection delay costs: one to estimate the unit costs of stopping at a traffic
signal and the other to estimate the unit costs of idling. These nomographs are reproduced
as Figures 4-3 and 4-4. The figures require data on the following traffic and signalization
parameters for the intersection being studied.

1. Green-to-cycle time ratio A.. The ratio of effective green time of the signal (generally
taken to be the actual green time) to the cycle length of the signal, both expressed in the
same unit of time (usually seconds).

2. Saturation flow s. The approach volume in vehicles per hour of green that is found for
the intersection when the load factor is 1.0 and the appropriate adjustment factors are
applied. In the absence of Highway Capacity Manual (12) solutions, recommended
values for saturation flow are 1,700 to 1,800 vehicles per hour times the number of
approach lanes.

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