sustainability

Review
Sustainable Water Security Based on the SDG
Framework: A Case Study of the 2019 Metro Manila
Water Crisis
Halim Lee 1 , Jaewon Son 2 , Dayoon Joo 3 , Jinhyeok Ha 4 , Seongreal Yun 5 , Chul-Hee Lim 6
and Woo-Kyun Lee 1, *
1 Department of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea;
halimlee@korea.ac.kr
2 Graduate School of International Studies, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea; jaewon_son@korea.ac.kr
3 Department of International Commerce and Department of Political Science and International Relations,
Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea; dayoonjoo@yonsei.ac.kr
4 Department of International Studies, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea; glen1221@yonsei.ac.kr
5 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea;
yunseongreal@gmail.com
6 Institute of Life Science and Natural Resources, Korea University, Seoul 02481, Korea;
limpossible@korea.ac.kr
* Correspondence: leewk@korea.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-2-3290-3470




Received: 26 June 2020; Accepted: 21 August 2020; Published: 24 August 2020


Abstract: Despite being Asia’s fastest-growing economy, as of 2015, the Asian Development Bank
(ADB) ranked the Philippines 33rd out of 48 countries in terms of water security. This verifies that
economic development does not always lead to better provisions of basic needs. This study attempts
to discover the fundamental issues that decrease water security in Metro Manila, the capital region
of the Philippines. With El Niño disrupting the optimal weather conditions, Metro Manila is facing
the lasting impacts of a water shortage crisis, which is the worst in the past decade. This research
inspects the role of climate change in exacerbating El Niño, and its threat to the water security of
the developing city. Furthermore, other factors that influence Metro Manila’s water security are
discussed. Upon establishing a correlation between climate change and El Niño, Metro Manila’s
general water management strategy is evaluated to better assess the multiple factors that have led
to the current water shortage crisis. This paper is intended to recommend necessary and feasible
proactive measures that are geared towards water security in Metro Manila, and possibly other cities
with similar circumstances.

Keywords: water security; Metro Manila; climate change; El Niño; SDGs

1. Introduction
Water is a fundamental resource for humans and their well-being. It has been one of the most
crucial factors in human development. The recent rapid population growth, economic development,
and accumulated disaster risk, along with climate change, have exacerbated water scarcity issues [1].
As widespread urbanization accelerates the demand for water, conflicts between countries over access
to water resources have increased significantly. Despite being the fastest-growing economy in Asia as
of 2015, the Philippines was ranked 33rd out of 48 countries by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in
terms of water security [2]. This reflects the Philippines’ inability to give water security the same level
of importance as economic development. Thus, the Philippines’ water-related strategies and the main
factors in its water security are timely subjects to discuss.

Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860; doi:10.3390/su12176860 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 2 of 19

Doroteo reported that the Philippines has been consistently exposed to high incidents of hazards,
such as tropical storms, tsunamis, earthquakes, and droughts, owing to its geographical location [3].
Metro Manila, the capital region of the Philippines, is experiencing the full magnitude of water
insecurity, despite it being the most economically developed region within the country. The region has
implemented Disaster Risk Reduction Management (DRRM) as a proactive measure for preventing
these disasters. However, its DRRM faced several challenges that hindered the system from acting as
an effectively proactive measure. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR)
reported that the biggest limitation to this system was the absence of a powerful governing body that
enables more efficient DRRM with administrative and financial powers [4]. Iuchi et al. argue the
importance of instituting a governing system that can thoroughly lead all phases of preparedness,
mitigation, response, and recovery, to better manage more frequent mega-disasters [5].
Since March 2019, thousands of households in Metro Manila have been reeling from intermittent
to no water supply [6]. This severe water crisis has resulted in crop losses in the Philippines, amounting
to 464 million Philippine pesos (PHP) [7]. Moreover, approximately 6 million people in the Philippines
have suffered from the insufficient water supply. One of the causes that led to this water crisis was
the lack of effective and resilient infrastructure, which was exacerbated by the improper management
of several projects by Manila Water, a company that provides water treatment, water distribution,
sewerage and sanitation services to the east side of Metro Manila. When its project to replenish the
water demands of the region was delayed, Manila Water cut the water supply in at least six cities in
the east zone of Metro Manila, and seven towns in the nearby Rizal province without appropriate
warning [8]. In addition, climate change has significantly impacted the water security of Metro
Manila [9]. It has led to irregularities in weather patterns and changes in the natural cycle of the El
Niño phenomenon [10]. In the Philippines, El Niño is related to high temperatures and severe dry
spells. It is commonly followed by La Niña, which is characterized by heavy rains, severe typhoons and
flooding [11]. El Niño refers to warmer than normal sea surface temperatures in the eastern tropical
Pacific due to anomalous atmospheric circulation patterns known as the Southern Oscillation [12]. It is
a complex and naturally occurring weather pattern that occurs when ocean temperatures in the Pacific
Ocean near the equator vary from the norm. Although El Niño is a natural phenomenon, climate
change extends and intensifies the El Niño cycle [13]. While it is clear that climate change has led to
increased disaster risk in the Philippines, assessing its actual impact on the water crisis could provide
reliable information for implementing water-related policies and mitigating climate change.
Despite the numerous pieces of evidence showing that water security research requires a
methodological integration across the natural sciences and social sciences/humanities to mutually
understand the complex socio-ecological dynamics, the existing research is fragmented across various
institutions, locations and practices, not only at the global scale but also at the local scale [14–16].
Employing such interdisciplinary approaches to science will incorporate the enhancement of its
legitimacy, the delivery of useful knowledge to society, and the enrichment of the research. A thorough
understanding of the links between climate change in aggravating El Niño and the relevant Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) contributing to water security in Metro Manila is necessary to develop
solutions that are based on a sound understanding of both physical and social systems.
This study aims to examine the role of climate change in the current Metro Manila water crisis and
identify other factors that have contributed to the crisis. Moreover, it evaluates the current conditions
by utilizing the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) framework through an interlinkage analysis
tool, which employs a multi-conceptual approach to realize international development and provide an
alternative focus. Thus, this study was conducted with the dual purpose of understanding the main
triggers of water security in Metro Manila and identifying effective mechanisms that align with the
SDG framework. This study also explores the relationship between climate change and sustainable
water security in Metro Manila by focusing on two research statements: (1) climate change plays a
significant role in the 2019 Metro Manila water crisis owing to its causal relationship with the El Niño
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with the El Niño phenomenon; (2) Metro Manila’s water-related strategies to solve the water shortage
phenomenon; (2) Metro Manila’s water-related strategies to solve the water shortage issue will be more
issue will be more effective if proactive and participatory approaches are adopted.
effective if proactive and participatory approaches are adopted.
2.
2. Literature
Literature Review
Review and
and Theoretical
Theoretical Framework
Framework

2.1.
2.1. Literature
Literature Review
Review
As water resources
As water resourcesare areaffected
affectedby byclimate
climate change,
change, numerous
numerous studies
studies have
have been
been conducted
conducted overover
the
the
years years to establish
to establish a relationship
a relationship betweenbetween them. Similarly,
them. Similarly, there arethere are dedicated
studies studies dedicated to the
to the efficiency
efficiency of water-related
of water-related strategies.strategies.
However,However, therescattered
there are only are only scattered studies investigating
studies investigating the links the links
between
between climate change in aggravating El Niño and the relevant SDGs
climate change in aggravating El Niño and the relevant SDGs to contribute toward mapping out theto contribute toward mapping
out the water-related
water-related strategiesstrategies
integrating integrating
both theseboth these
aspects aspectsTherefore,
[14–16]. [14–16]. Therefore, this discuss
this paper will paper willthe
discuss the compatibility of Metro Manila’s water strategies with climate
compatibility of Metro Manila’s water strategies with climate change variations in the environment change variations in the
environment through interlinkages
through interlinkages with related SDGs.with related SDGs.
Wang
Wang et et al.
al. researched
researched the relationship between
the relationship between the the high
high frequencies
frequencies of of El
El Niño
Niño and
and the
the global
global
mean
mean temperature (GMT) [17]. Although El Niño is a natural phenomenon, climate change has
temperature (GMT) [17]. Although El Niño is a natural phenomenon, climate change has
accelerated
accelerated its its frequency
frequency andand intensity.
intensity. Conversely,
Conversely, El El Niño
Niño exacerbates
exacerbates climate
climate change
change by by releasing
releasing
heat
heat from
from thethe Pacific
Pacific Ocean
Oceaninto intothe
theatmosphere.
atmosphere.Furthermore,
Furthermore,Wang Wangetetal.al.
researched
researched thethe
impact
impactof
aof1.5 °C ◦ increase, which is the target set by the UN Intergovernmental
a 1.5 C increase, which is the target set by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC),
(IPCC), on on the
the severity
severity of
of the
the El
El Niño
Niño and
and LaLa Niña
Niña phenomena.
phenomena. AccordingAccording to to the
the result,
result, the
the frequency
frequency
of extreme El Niño events will double linearly under the 1.5 °C◦ warming
of extreme El Niño events will double linearly under the 1.5 C warming scenario. This increase scenario. This increase in
frequency
in frequency could
couldlastlast
up up
to atohundred
a hundred years, even
years, evenafter thethe
after stabilization of the
stabilization GMT,
of the GMT, as as
shown
shownin
Figure
in Figure1 [17]. ThisThis
1 [17]. implies that the
implies thatnext
thegeneration will bewill
next generation significantly affectedaffected
be significantly by the rise
by intheaverage
rise in
temperatures.
average temperatures.

Change in
Figure 1. Change in extreme
extreme El
El Niño
Niño events
events and
and the
the Global
Global Mean
Mean Temperature
Temperature (GMT)
(GMT) over
over time.
time.
Nature Climate Change [17].
Source: Nature

El Niño
El Niño affects
affects precipitation
precipitation patterns
patterns and
and contributes
contributes to to drought.
drought. TheThe Food
Food and
and Agriculture
Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) focused on the relationship
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) focused on the relationship between El Niño between El Niño and
and the
the
droughts in
droughts in Indonesia,
Indonesia, and
and stated
stated that
that severe
severe droughts
droughts are
are associated
associated with with El
El Niño
Niño [18]. Indonesia,
[18]. Indonesia,
similarly to the Philippines, is located in Southeast Asia and is vulnerable to climateTherefore,
similarly to the Philippines, is located in Southeast Asia and is vulnerable to climate change. change.
research onresearch
Therefore, the impacts of climate
on the impactschange and El
of climate Niño on
change andIndonesia
El Niño on is highly relevant
Indonesia in therelevant
is highly case of the
in
Philippines.
the ThePhilippines.
case of the key purposeThe of FAO’s research
key purpose ofwas to determine
FAO’s research was the relationship
to determine between droughts
the relationship
and El Niño.
between Theyand
droughts concentrated
El Niño. Theyon two different relationships:
concentrated on two different the relationships:
relationship between El Niño
the relationship
and precipitation,
between El Niño andand that between Eland
precipitation, Niño andbetween
that the landEltemperature.
Niño and the They analyzed
land precipitation
temperature. They
analyzed precipitation deficits by comparing El Niño seasons with neutral and La Niña seasons. As
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 4 of 19

deficits by comparing El Niño seasons with neutral and La Niña seasons. As a result, they verified
that, during the El Niño season, dry periods are 300% more likely to occur than during the neutral
period. On the other hand, it proved that El Niño events do not affect the land temperature at the same
magnitude. Furthermore, the likelihood of hot periods increased by 22% during El Niño, compared to
normal conditions and La Niña events. Utilizing this analysis by FAO, we can observe that climate
change affects the characteristics and frequency of El Niño, which negatively impacts water security in
countries located in tropical regions, such as the Philippines. Considering this as the basic principle,
this study identifies Metro Manila’s current characteristics and determines if it can achieve sustainable
water security.

2.2. Theoretical Framework: Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Sustainable development has various definitions, but its most frequently quoted definition is
“development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”. This was provided by the World Commission on Environment
and Development in 1987 [19]. The SDGs were adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2015, based
on the agreement of 193 countries to achieve 17 goals by 2030. The framework incorporates economic,
social and environmental aspects for sustainable development to ensure that “no one will be left
behind” [20].
Vladimirova investigated SDG 6, which focuses on clean water and sanitation, and found that
it is key to achieving the remaining 16 SDGs. Besides meeting the primary purpose of clean water
distribution, it also achieves goals that focus on education (SDG 4), human health (SDG 3), economic
growth (SDG 8), gender equality (SDG 5), and social justice (SDG 16) [21]. Dr. Geeta Rao Gupta, Deputy
Executive Director of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), once stated that “if we do not
achieve Goal 6, the other goals and targets will not be achieved [22]”. Thus, researchers deem SDGs a
viable framework to evaluate other facets that may contribute to water security. Torres-Slimming et al.
highlighted that understanding and responding to local contexts is critical to effectively improve water,
sanitation and hygiene in order to contribute to SDG 6 [23]. However, they pointed out that an in-depth
understanding of local knowledge, practices and perceptions is often overlooked, which also adds a
rationale to our research investigating the local contexts of Metro Manila.
Nerini et al. emphasized the importance of the linkage between climate change impacts and
SDGs [16]. They argue that literature which systematically evaluates context-specific synergies and
trade-offs between climate action and the SDGs15 are limited. They further highlight that understanding
the potential impacts of climate change on all sustainable development domains is necessary to raise
awareness and policy support for climate action. Karnib presents a qualitative nexus approach to
evaluate the interconnections of the sustainable development targets (SDTs) that directly and indirectly
affect one another [24]. He argues that a qualitative SDGs nexus method makes the evaluation of the
effects of both direct and indirect interlinkage relations among the SDTs possible. He further points
out that the key advantage of this approach is that it generates a science-informed analysis of the
interactions across SDTs and SDGs, especially where quantitative interaction-based methods could not
be readily applied due to insufficient data.
Despite the inherent interconnection of water security with economic and social conditions, little
effort has been made in South Asia to understand their interdependence in terms of resource use and
policies [25]. Understanding and managing the links between water, the economy and social conditions
is essential for formulating policies to create more resilient and adaptable societies [26]. This paper
aims to deepen the understanding and exploration of policy options that minimize trade-offs and
maximize synergies among the three sectors. Doing so will support the formulation of cross-sectoral
policies and, as a result, suggest ways to build more resilient and adaptable societies in the Philippines.
Issues related to water, the economy and social security in Metro Manila, and the associated challenges,
will be assessed through a case study. It will discuss how policy and institutional factors lead to the
unsustainable use of resources. Moreover, it will analyze the importance of the environmental, social
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 5 of 19

Sustainability
and economic 2020, factors
12, x FORin
PEER REVIEW trade-offs
managing 5 of 19
and enhancing synergies—both of which are crucial in
achieving the SDGs. This section details a broad framework for better coordination among the three
for better coordination among the three sectors, and the results of the SDG interlinkage analysis are
sectors, and the results of the SDG interlinkage analysis are presented in the final section.
presented in the final section.
3. Methodology of Research
3. Methodology of Research
Interlinkages Analysis
Interlinkages Analysis
This study was conducted with a qualitative approach based on the UN SDGs, through an SDG
This study
interlinkages was conducted
analysis. Figure 2 with
shows a qualitative
the researchapproach based
flow of this on To
study. theprovide
UN SDGs, morethrough an to
structure SDGthe
interlinkages
research, the analysis. Figure 2ashows
authors adopted the research
systematic literatureflow of this
review study.asTo
process provide more
a reference structure
[27]. This to
process
the
wasresearch,
referenced theasauthors
it allowsadopted a systematic
the performance of literature
synthesized review process
research on aasspecific
a reference [27]. using
question, This
process was clear
structured, referenced as it allows
and replicable the performance
procedures of synthesized
[28]. Furthermore, research
compared on a specific question,
to conventional narrative
using
reviews,structured,
it provides clear
more and replicable
accuracy in theprocedures [28]. Furthermore,
research process compared
[29]. The review to conventional
was structured into four
narrative reviews, it provides more accuracy in the research process [29]. The review was structured
main phases:
into four main phases:
(1) Define the review’s motivation and the selection of research questions. During this phase, the
(1) Define
authorsthealso
review’s motivation
selected andframework,
a theoretical the selection of research
a case questions.
study area During
and a tool this phase,
to perform the
the SDGs
authors also selected
interlinkage analysis;a theoretical framework, a case study area and a tool to perform the SDGs
interlinkage analysis;
(2) Selection of the articles in a structured process involving the inclusion/exclusion of
(2) Selection
relevantof the articles in a structured process involving the inclusion/exclusion of relevant
literature;
literature;
(3) SDGs interlinkage analysis and visualization process using the tool chosen in the first phase;
(3) SDGs interlinkage analysis and visualization process using the tool chosen in the first phase;
(4) Work on the results by synthesizing the findings through a case study summary, answering
(4) Work on the results by synthesizing the findings through a case study summary, answering
review questions, and reaching the discussion and conclusion.
review questions, and reaching the discussion and conclusion.

Researchflow
Figure2.2.Research
Figure flowof
ofthis
thisstudy.
study.

The SDGs have been deployed to thoroughly discuss the close link between clean water and
sanitation (SDG 6) and the other SDGs, especially climate action (SDG 13); industry, innovation and
infrastructure (SDG 9); and reduced inequalities (SDG 10). The linkages of SDG 6 with the other SDGs
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 6 of 19

The SDGs have been deployed to thoroughly discuss the close link between clean water and
sanitation (SDG 6) and the other SDGs, especially climate action (SDG 13); industry, innovation and
infrastructure (SDG 9); and reduced inequalities (SDG 10). The linkages of SDG 6 with the other SDGs
highlights the importance of adopting a holistic approach in tackling water security issues. By applying
selected targets and/or indicators of SDGs 6, 9, 10 and 13, this study not only analyzes the link between
increased access to water, climate change, infrastructure and reduced inequalities, but also focused on
the necessary challenges that the Philippine government will face when improving the sustainability
of water resources.
To investigate the relationship of SDG 6 with the other SDGs, interlinkages among SDGs should
be evaluated. Using the SDG Interlinkages Analysis & Visualisation tool V3.0 (Kanagawa, Japonia) the
SDG interlinkages were quantified and analyzed. Understanding SDG interlinkages can support policy
integration and help minimize conflicts, avoid trade-off and seek synergies to make the achievements
inclusive across all 17 SDG areas, specifically SDGs 6, 9, 10 and 13, which are explored in this case
study [30]. In order to develop the SDG Interlinkages Analysis & Visualisation tool V3.0, Zhou and
Moinuddin identified the indicators with verifiable data, and mapped them with the SDG targets [31].
They collected time-series data (2001–2014) of the indicators for 27 countries, including the Philippines.
They used the results from these two processes for the quantification of the identified interlinkages,
based on the correlation analysis of corresponding indicators using their time-series data. After this,
a quantified country-specific network of the interlinkages between SDG targets was constructed for
the Philippines.
In the visualization tool, the indicators are identified using the official indicators that are enlisted
in the Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and Targets of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development [32]. A set of indicators corresponding to 113 targets were used
for the SDG Interlinkages Analysis & Visualisation Tool based on the data availability. Time-series
data running from 1990 to 2019 for each of the indicators was collected from publicly available and
internationally recognized sources. They used the UN Statistics Division’s SDG Indicators Global
Database [33] as a primary data source, and some additional data was collected from the World Bank
SDGs database [34]. When specific data or indicators were not available, time-series data for each
indicator was collected from publicly available sources, including the World Bank and various United
Nations agencies as shown in Table 1. To create a complete time series, a statistical method based on
the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR10) was used to fill in the gaps for particular indicators,
based on which a complete time-series data set for all the 51 indicators was prepared [31].
‘Interlinkages’ can refer to those between goals, between a goal and relevant targets, or between
targets. Interlinkages encompass direct relations between two targets or indirect relations which bridge
two targets via a third target or more intermediate ones. Furthermore, interlinkages can be defined
by their causal relationship, or by other types of relations. For the SDG Interlinkages Analysis &
Visualisation Tool, interlinkages were defined as direct causal relations between the targets. Causal
links were quantified based on the correlation analysis of the country-specific time-series data of
the indicators, corresponding to the relevant targets. The correlation coefficients, ranging between
−1 and 1, indicated a linear relationship between each pair of targets. Positive coefficients (e.g., 0.9)
represent positive linear relations, and negative coefficients (e.g., −0.2) represent negative linear
relations. Coefficients with larger absolute values (e.g., 0.9 with an absolute value of 0.9) exhibit
stronger linear relationships between two targets, and those with smaller absolute values (e.g., −0.2
with the absolute value of 0.2) exhibit weaker linear relationships.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 7 of 19

Table 1. The input data used for the SDG Interlinkages Analysis.

Target Indicator Description Data Source

WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Proportion of population practicing
6.2 6.2.1 Programme for Water Supply,
open defecation, by urban/rural (%)
Sanitation and Hygiene (2017)
Waterbody extent (permanent and
Global Surface Water Explorer
6.6 6.6.1 maybe permanent) (% of total
extraction for UN Environment
land area)
Total official development assistance
Creditor Reporting System (CRS)
(gross disbursement) for water
database, 2018, The Organisation for
6.a 6.a.1 supply and sanitation, by recipient
Economic Co-operation and
countries (millions of constant 2016
Development (OECD)
United States dollars)
Passenger volume (passenger The International Transport Forum at
9.1 9.1.2
kilometres), by mode of transport the OECD (ITF-OECD)
Manufacturing value added as a UNIDO MVA 2019 Database.
9.2 9.2.1
proportion of GDP (%) Available at https://stat.unido.org
Annual Survey of Philippine
Proportion of small-scale industries
9.3 9.3.1 Business and Industry (ASPBI),
in total industry value added (%)
Philippine Statistics Authority
UNIDO MVA 2019 Database.
Carbon dioxide emissions per unit of
Available at https://stat.unido.org.
manufacturing value added
9.4 9.4.1 IEA (2018), CO2 Emissions from Fuel
(kilogrammes of CO2 per constant
Combustion.
2010 United States dollars)
https://www.iea.org/statistics
Research and development UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS)
9.5 9.5.1 expenditure as a proportion of Survey on Research and
GDP (%) Experimental Development Statistics
Creditor Reporting System (CRS)
Total official flows for infrastructure,
database, 2018, The Organisation for
9.a 9.a.1 by recipient countries (millions of
Economic Co-operation and
constant 2016 United States dollars)
Development (OECD)
Proportion of medium and high-tech
UNIDO CIP 2018 Database.
9.b 9.b.1 industry value added in total value
Available at https://stat.unido.org.
added (%)
Proportion of population covered by
9.c 9.c.1 ITU estimate
a mobile network, by technology (%)
Labour share of GDP, comprising
10.4 10.4.1 wages and social protection ILOSTAT—SNA—National Accounts
transfers (%)
Regulatory Tier 1 capital to
10.5 10.5.1 http://data.imf.org/FSI
risk-weighted assets (%)
Proportion of members of
10.6 10.6.1 developing countries in international WTO Annual Report 2015
organizations, by organization (%)
Tariff rate, applied, weighted mean,
10.a 10.a.1 World Development Indicators
all products (%)
DAC Statistics database, 2018,
Total assistance for development, by
The Organisation for Economic
10.b 10.b.1 recipient countries (millions of
Co-operation and
current United States dollars)
Development (OECD)
Remittance costs as a proportion of World Development Indicators
10.c 10.c.1
the amount remitted (%) database, World Bank
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 8 of 19
4. Results

4. Results
4.1. SDGs Interlinkages Analysis

4.1.Figure 3 shows theAnalysis

SDGs Interlinkages linkages among the targets within SDGs 9, 10, 13 and 6 [30]. Each node
represents one SDG target, and each line with an arrow between two nodes represents a linkage
Figure 3 shows the linkages among the targets within SDGs 9, 10, 13 and 6 [30]. Each node
between the two targets. Black and red lines represent positive and negative linkages, respectively.
represents one SDG target, and each line with an arrow between two nodes represents a linkage
In addition, a dotted line implies that indicator-level data is not available for the relevant targets.
between the two targets. Black and red lines represent positive and negative linkages, respectively.
In addition, a dotted line implies that indicator-level data is not available for the relevant targets.

Figure 3. SDGs Interlinkages Analysis of Metro Manila, Philippines. Source: Author’s elaboration
using 3.the
Figure SDGInterlinkages
SDGs InterlinkagesAnalysis
Analysisof&Metro
Visualisation Tool [30]. https://sdginterlinkages.iges.jp/
Manila, Philippines. Source: Author’s elaboration
visualisationtool.html.
using the SDG Interlinkages Analysis & Visualisation Tool [30].
https://sdginterlinkages.iges.jp/visualisationtool.html.
Several targets of SDG 6 are related to those of SDGs 9, 10 and 13. For example, SDG target 6.6,
which focuses
Several on protecting
targets of SDG 6 and restoring
are related towater-related
those of SDGsecosystems, is linked
9, 10 and 13. to SDG SDG
For example, targettarget
9.4, which
6.6,
explores
which upgrading
focuses infrastructure
on protecting and retrofitting
and restoring industries
water-related to make them
ecosystems, sustainable,
is linked to SDG and
targetto 9.4,
SDG
which explores upgrading infrastructure and retrofitting industries to make them sustainable, and and
target 13.3, which focuses on improving education, raising awareness, and increasing the human to
institutional
SDG target 13.3,capacity to achieve
which focuses climate change
on improving mitigation,
education, raisingadaptation,
awareness,impact reduction,
and increasing theand early
human
warnings.
and Tablecapacity
institutional 2 shows totheachieve
overall climate
result ofchange
the SDGs Interlinkages
mitigation, Analysis,
adaptation, which
impact was produced
reduction, and
using the SDG Interlinkages Analysis & Visualisation Tool. It shows the specific
early warnings. Table 2 shows the overall result of the SDGs Interlinkages Analysis, which was targets of SDGs 9, 10
and 13 that have direct causal relations with SDG 6.
produced using the SDG Interlinkages Analysis & Visualisation Tool. It shows the specific targets of
SDGs 9, 10 and 13 that have direct causal relations with SDG 6.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 9 of 19

Table 2. Targets with direct causal relations to SDG 6.

Correlation
SDG 6 Target Related SDG Target
Coefficient
6.1 Safe and affordable drinking 9.c Significantly increase access to ICT and strive to provide
0.955
water for all universal and affordable access to internet in LDCs by 2020
9.c Significantly increase access to ICT and strive to provide
0.955
universal and affordable access to internet in LDCs by 2020
9.4 Upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make
them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and
6.2 End open defecation and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound 0.94
provide access to sanitation technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking
and hygiene action in accordance with their respective capabilities
10.b Encourage official development assistance and financial
flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the
need is greatest, in particular least developed countries,
0.802
African countries, small island developing States and
landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their
national plans and programmes
9.c Significantly increase access to ICT and strive to provide
0.926
universal and affordable access to internet in LDCs by 2020
9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by
2030, significantly raise industry’s share of employment and
−0.792
gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances,
and double its share in least developed countries
6.6 End open defecation and
provide access to sanitation 9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other
and hygiene enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial
−0.971
services, including affordable credit, and their integration into
value chains and markets
9.4 Upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make
them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and
greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound 0.949
technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking
action in accordance with their respective capabilities
9.b Support domestic technology development, research and
innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a
0.189
conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial
diversification and value addition to commodities
9.4 Upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make
them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and
greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound 0.247
6.a Protect and restore technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking
water-related ecosystems, action in accordance with their respective capabilities
including mountains, forests,
wetlands, rivers, aquifers, 10.b Encourage official development assistance and financial
and lakes flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the
need is greatest, in particular least developed countries,
0.159
African countries, small island developing States and
landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their
national plans and programmes
10.6 Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing
countries in decision-making in global international economic
−0.376
and financial institutions in order to deliver more effective,
credible, accountable and legitimate institutions

4.2. Scoreboard for Interlinkages between SDG 6 and Other SDGs

Interconnecting SDG 6 to the related SDGs requires a major shift in the decision-making process
towards adopting a holistic view, developing institutional mechanisms to coordinate the actions of
diverse actors, and strengthening complementarities and synergies among the three sectors with
SDG 6 [35]. Figure 4 presents a general overview of the relations between SDG 6 and other SDGs in
Metro Manila by integrating policies and strategies in these sectors and supporting the move from
SDG targets 6.a and 10.6 exhibit the weakest linear relationship, given its smaller absolute value (e.g.,
−0.2 with an absolute value of 0.2). This further implies that SDG target 10.6, which is influential in
the decision-making process in global international economic and financial institutions, should be
improved in Metro Manila, compared to other targets to deliver more effective, credible, accountable
and legitimate
Sustainability institutions
2020, 12, 6860 in the region. Hereafter, the authors will analyze Metro Manila,
10 of 19
Philippines’ case by employing the methodology presented in the above section, with the use of the
SDG framework as a basis. Taking Metro Manila’s local context into account, the case study will be
a sectoral to a holistic approach. The key elements of this approach are strengthening cross-sectoral
analyzed in the aspects of the environment (SDG 13), infrastructure (SDG 9), and social condition
coordination, harmonizing public policies, aligning cross-sectoral strategies and incentive structures,
(SDG 10) synthetically, and how each of these factors relates to the water security (SDG 6) of Metro
strengthening regulation, and facilitating the use of interconnected investment and technologies in
Manila.
Metro Manila.

Figure 4. The relation between SDG 6 and other SDGs in Metro Manila. Source: author’s elaboration.
Figure 4. The relation between SDG 6 and other SDGs in Metro Manila. Source: author’s elaboration.
Figure 4 presents the SDG scoreboard representing the interlinkages between the targets of
SDGs 9, 10 and 6. Causal links in Figure 4 were quantified based on the correlation analysis of the
country-specific time-series data of indicators corresponding to the relevant targets. The correlation
coefficients, ranging between −1 and 1, indicate a linear relationship between each pair of targets.
Positive coefficients (e.g., 0.955 between SDG targets 6.1 and 9.c) represent positive linear relations,
and negative ones (e.g., −0.792 between SDG targets 6.6 and 9.2) represent negative linear relations.
As coefficients with larger absolute values (e.g., 0.9 with an absolute value of 0.9) indicate stronger
linear relationships between two targets, SDG 6.1 and SDG 6.2 exhibit the strongest correlation—with
SDG 9.c—among all the available interlinkages of the targets of SDG 6, 9 and 10. It also indicates
that SDG targets 6.a and 10.6 exhibit the weakest linear relationship, given its smaller absolute value
(e.g., −0.2 with an absolute value of 0.2). This further implies that SDG target 10.6, which is influential
in the decision-making process in global international economic and financial institutions, should be
improved in Metro Manila, compared to other targets to deliver more effective, credible, accountable
and legitimate institutions in the region. Hereafter, the authors will analyze Metro Manila, Philippines’
case by employing the methodology presented in the above section, with the use of the SDG framework
as a basis. Taking Metro Manila’s local context into account, the case study will be analyzed in the
aspects of the environment (SDG 13), infrastructure (SDG 9), and social condition (SDG 10) synthetically,
and how each of these factors relates to the water security (SDG 6) of Metro Manila.

4.3. Case Study: Metro Manila, Philippines

On 7 March 2019, 62 barangays (villages) in the east zone of Metro Manila had no water supply and
did not receive enough warning from the government. Within a week, over 52,000 households across
200 barangays were affected. This number does not include those with low water pressure. Maynilad,
which supplies water to the west side of Metro Manila, experienced no significant problems [36].
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 11 of 19

On the other hand, Manila Water, the private concessionaire responsible for the east zone of Metro
Manila, admitted to its failure in preparing the region for a water crunch of this scale, despite being
aware of the severe supply shortage. Manila Water claimed that the current water crisis is due to the El
Niño event and delayed infrastructure. In addition, despite the onset of the rainy season, thousands of
homes continue to experience no running water for 8–20 h daily, owing to inefficient planning and
over-dependence on natural phenomena. In this section, the fundamental triggers of the water crisis
and the issue are discussed from a sustainable development perspective.

4.3.1. Environment
While the Philippines’ economy is growing rapidly, one in ten people still lack access to clean
water. Although Metro Manila is the capital region of the country, it faces water shortages. Particularly,
the 2019 Metro Manila water crisis that began in March 2019 demonstrated the region’s proneness to
water scarcity. The city faces uneven and limited water distribution. One of the reasons for the acute
water shortage in Metro Manila has been identified as the increased frequency and duration of the
El Niño phenomenon due to climate change. According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
climate change—and its impact on the El Niño phenomenon—have exacerbated the recent increase in
temperature and dried up water sources [37].
Owing to unexpectedly long periods of drought, the water levels of several dams—such as
Angat Dam and La Mesa Dam—decreased, as shown in Figure 5 [38]. On 29 June 2019, the water
level of Angat Dam reached a staggering low of 157.98 m. Furthermore, it had nearly surpassed the
all-time low record of 157.56 m, as registered on 18 July 2010 [38]. This is far below its normal level
of 212 m, operational level of 180 m, and critical level of 160 m. While Angat Dam provides water
to approximately 96% of the people in Metro Manila, this decrease in water level due to insufficient
rainfall has made it difficult for Angat Dam to meet the water demands of the people living in the
city. La Mesa Dam, which typically replenishes this deficit, has not been sufficient during this crisis.
The water level of La Mesa Dam also reached an all-time low of 68.74 m, as of 14 March 2019, which is
Sustainability
below 2020, 12,level
its critical x FOR
ofPEER REVIEW
69 m. 12 of 19

5. Angat
Figure 5. Angat Dam
Dam and
and La
La Mesa
Mesa Dam
Dam Water Levels in 2010 and 2019, when Metro Manila saw
historic lows. Source: Manila
Manila Water’s special report on Water Crisis
Crisis in
in the
the Manila
Manila Concession
Concession [38].
[38].

4.3.2. Infrastructure
Besides the role of environmental factors in Metro Manila’s water crisis, poor sustainable
infrastructure contributed to the water insecurity problems. According to the UN SDGs, economic
growth, social development, and climate action are heavily dependent on investments in
infrastructure, sustainable industrial development and technological progress. To develop high-
quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, fundamental infrastructure (roads,
information and communication technologies, electrical power, sanitation, and water) plays a
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 12 of 19

Climate change has impacted water security owing to its negative impact on the El Niño
phenomenon. If climate change is not mitigated, it will continue to exacerbate water security. Thus,
the Philippine government should focus on SDG 13 (climate action), especially by tackling SDG
indicator 13.2.1, which integrates climate change measures into national policies, strategies and
planning. The most effective proactive measure involves preventing the worsening of El Niño
conditions, which further cements the importance of climate action in achieving sustainable water
security. Although the frequency and duration of the water crisis have increased owing to climate
change, the data supporting the causal relationship between climate change and the 2019 water crisis of
Metro Manila are insufficient. Metro Manila is experiencing extreme water insufficiency as the La Mesa
reservoir can no longer consistently offset the supply deficit during peak seasons [38]. However, other
areas affected by the prolonged El Niño season—local and international—have not been affected to the
same extent [39]. This suggests that the assumption that climate change is primarily responsible for
the current water crisis in Metro Manila is incorrect.
In fact, Manila Water admitted that it has been aware of the coming El Niño but failed to
mobilize appropriate preventative measures that could have minimized the damage currently being
inflicted on Metro Manila [40]. Environmental factors may create natural conditions suitable for longer
periods of drought, but proactive mechanisms can divert a calamity through the establishment of
efficient infrastructure.

4.3.2. Infrastructure
Besides the role of environmental factors in Metro Manila’s water crisis, poor sustainable
infrastructure contributed to the water insecurity problems. According to the UN SDGs,
economic growth, social development, and climate action are heavily dependent on investments in
infrastructure, sustainable industrial development and technological progress. To develop high-quality,
reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, fundamental infrastructure (roads, information
and communication technologies, electrical power, sanitation, and water) plays a significant role,
particularly in developing countries. Padowski et al. [41] reported that urban growth and development
rely on local hydrologic conditions, as well as methods for the procurement and management of water.
Although freshwater resources are not accessible to all urban areas, heavy investments in large-scale
hydraulic infrastructure—such as dams, aqueducts and well fields—help urban areas develop water
systems for transferring, storing and regulating water resources. Thus, it helps overcome the water
insecurity issues associated with urban growth and/or geographical features.
The primary source of Metro Manila’s water supply is Angat Dam [42]. However, according to
news reports, owing to technical limitations, Manila Water was unable to draw sufficient water from
the dam even when its water level was manageable [43]. This is because the aqueducts and tunnels in
Angat Dam can draw merely 4 billion L per day. The only way to address this problem is to create
additional aqueducts. The Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS), the overarching
agency responsible for providing water and sewerage services to all of Metro Manila and some parts of
the surrounding cities, is already working on this. However, this process requires a significant amount
of time. Another issue is the high level of water loss faced by Metro Manila’s main concessionaires.
Manila Water has denied claims regarding its leakage problem, arguing that its non-revenue water or
water-loss percentage has been approximately 11% since 2010. However, if the 31.7% water loss from
Maynilad is taken into consideration (the international standard is 20%), Metro Manila clearly has
problems associated with its water infrastructure. This indicates that Metro Manila’s infrastructure is
vulnerable to inefficient project planning and execution.
Besides Angat Dam’s technical limitation, La Mesa Dam’s low water level, which reached its
lowest in 12 years as of March 2019, was a problem [36]. This indicates that Manila Water can no longer
depend on its emergency supply of rainwater collected from the La Mesa watershed. Furthermore,
La Mesa Dam’s low level does not allow it to pass through a majority of the water intake gates. Water can
only pass through the lowest level of the gates, which is said to be the main inhibitor of the reservoir’s
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 13 of 19

replenishment. Eventually, this design inefficiency affected approximately 52,000 households within the
east zone of Metro Manila by 7 March 2019, when Manila Water implemented operational adjustments
in response to the critically low water level of the La Mesa Dam. Delays in pending projects have also
affected water allocation in Metro Manila. Laguna lake was set to be a water source for Metro Manila,
but inadequate designs for its Cardona water treatment plant’s discharge pipe have led to significant
delays. Manila Water’s COO, Geodino Carpio, disclosed in a press release that “had this particular
project been energized on time, we (Metro Manila) would not be facing this severe problem [40]”.
Such delays have occurred in other water sourcing projects in Metro Manila. Spokespersons and
administrators in charge of Metro Manila’s water infrastructure projects blame the issues on the delays
in water infrastructure projects.
Owing to the aforementioned reasons, it can be argued that infrastructure plays a key role in
improving water security. Bruns and Frick-Trzebitzky (2014) found that infrastructure mediates the
flow of water resources between nature and society, and within society [44]. Moreover, infrastructure
is an important factor in reducing existing inequalities; it relates closely to SDG 9, which calls for
the building of resilient water-related infrastructure. According to target 9.1, high-quality, reliable,
sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and trans-border infrastructure, should be
developed to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and
equitable access for all. Bocchini et al. (2014) argue that “resilience” combines structural analyses with
social and economic aspects, and reliance on techniques for life-cycle analysis and decision-making [45].
As indicated by previous studies on resilience and infrastructure, the resilience of infrastructure
depends on governance and policies. Metro Manila should adopt infrastructure policies that are
supported by careful planning and efficient execution. Infrastructure designs at a community level
should be implemented according to short-term and long-term needs to achieve sustainability.

4.3.3. Social Condition

Among the multiple factors that contributed to the Metro Manila water crisis of 2019,
overpopulation may have played the biggest role. Manila City, a city within Metro Manila, was declared
as the most densely populated city in the world; additionally, another six cities within the capital
region were listed in the top 45 [46]. Metro Manila has experienced a boom in population over the past
few decades. From having 5.93 million residents in 1980, it is home to approximately 13.08 million, as
of 2018 [47]. Population growth is referred to as ‘the elephant in the room’ among SDGs. There is no
explicit mention of tackling global population growth as a means of resolving the most critical problem
of our time. Metro Manila was dubbed as the most congested city in Asia as of 2019, which is a clear
indication that the region is facing a serious level of overpopulation [48]. Despite this, water sources
and distribution systems are not being significantly improved to address the growing demands. In fact,
Angat Dam supplies water to approximately 96% of Metro Manila’s 13 million residents. This growing
population—not to mention the increasing frequency and duration of droughts caused by climate
change—makes the diversification of water reservoirs vital in the coming years. The current Metro
Manila water crisis is a testament to how this is no longer a future threat. When thousands of homes in
Metro Manila did not receive water in March 2019, Manila Water claimed that the interruption was
caused by swelling demands. As shown in Figure 6, Manila Water is capable of extracting 1600 million
L per day (MLD) of water from Angat Dam, yet it demands up to 1750 MLD of water [42]. Unlike the
available resources, the population continues to grow, putting the entire Metro Manila region under
the threat of severe water stress.
crisis of Metro Manila. Based on the information provided by Manila Water, commercial centers,
tourist areas and wealthier residential areas were largely unaffected by the water crunch, whereas
neglected areas experienced up to seven days of no running water [42]. Thus, water shortage was
experienced in varying degrees, with the poorest suffering the most. This lack of shared concern
among the2020,
Sustainability entire
12, Metro
6860 Manila region dampens the sense of urgency to resolve the water shortage
14 of 19
crisis.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Manila
Manila Water’s
Water’s water
water demand
demand and
and supply.
supply. Source:
Source: Manila
Manila Water
Water [42].
[42].

SDG
Even 10 stresses
though theretheisimportance
no separate of SDGaddressing
dedicatedthe to needs
populationof disadvantaged and marginalized
growth, the continuing growth
populations.
of the population According to the 2017
is consistently Annual
implied Poverty other
throughout IndexSDGs.survey, of the topreduced
Specifically, 70% in inequalities
the income
stratum,
(SDG 10)62.8%can behave access to in
instrumental clean water through
optimizing a pipe inand
the population their own dwelling.
securing However,
water security with
in Metro
respect to the bottom 30%, only 22% enjoy this privilege [51]. Target
Manila. Being the capital region of the Philippines, Metro Manila offers numerous opportunities. 10.1 aims for higher growth in
incomes
According ortoexpenditure per capita
target 10.4, fiscal, wagefor andthe bottom
social 40% ofpolicies
protection the population, in comparison
must be adopted to achieve with the
better
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equality. average growthopportunities
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and ensuringhas been
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across the 17dynamic
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the Philippines theviable
difference has been
solutions marginal.
to address From 2016
the severe to 2017,ofthe
congestion income
Metro Manilaper [49].
capitaBesides
of the
bottom 30% witnessed
the inequalities among these a 12% increase,
regions, which within
inequality was just slightly
Metro Manilahigher than
is also an the
issue.national average
The Philippine
growth
government of 11.37% [52].
pays little Therefore,
attention the Philippine
to tackling low socialgovernment
mobility, which must actively
refers to the boost
degreethe economic
of mobility of
growth of the
individuals orpoor
groups to ensure
from loweran acceptable
to higher level of variation
socioeconomic in access
status to clean
indicators, water and
according standard
to Galiani of
[50].
living
Thus, among
systemic theflaws
different
forcesocioeconomic
the poor to stay groups.
poor. With water becoming a scarce resource, there is
Metro Manila, like many rapidly urbanizing
discrimination in the accessibility of water. This scenario areas in Asia, is
is being facing many
manifested social
in the challenges
current that
water crisis
hinder
of Metro theManila.
efficientBased
distribution of basic utilities.
on the information Thereby
provided is little
Manila indication that the population
Water, commercial centers, within
tourist
Metro Manila will stop growing or that the wealth inequality within
areas and wealthier residential areas were largely unaffected by the water crunch, whereas neglected the region will be alleviated
soon. With these up
areas experienced macrosocial
to seven dayschallenges taken water
of no running into account,
[42]. Thus, stakeholders
water shortage havewas theexperienced
obligation to in
collaborate
varying degrees,and develop
with thealternative measures
poorest suffering thein a microsocial
most. This lack of scale to ensure
shared concern that cleanthe
among water is
entire
accessible to all. However, the lack of coordination and accountability,
Metro Manila region dampens the sense of urgency to resolve the water shortage crisis. along with the politicization
of Metro
SDGManila’s
10 stresses water
the service
importancesystem, has made the
of addressing thetransition
needs of to sustainable water
disadvantaged management
and marginalized
all the more challenging
populations. According totothe achieve.
2017 Annual Poverty Index survey, of the top 70% in the income stratum,
62.8% Inhave
the 1990s,
accessthe to lack
cleanofwater
infrastructure
through to address
a pipe the demands
in their own dwelling.of a rapidly growing
However, withpopulation
respect to
caused a power
the bottom 30%,and only water
22% crisis
enjoyinthisMetro Manila.
privilege In aTarget
[51]. bid to10.1prevent
aimssuch a calamity,
for higher growth the in
Philippine
incomes
Congress granted the privatization of the MWSS by passing the Water
or expenditure per capita for the bottom 40% of the population, in comparison with the national Crisis Act in 1995 [53]. MWSS
awarded its 25-year
average growth rate.concessions to Manila
The Philippines has Water
been able (easttozone)
maintainand this
Maynilad
optimal Water Services
dynamic (west
in recent
zone)
years, in
but 1997, followed by
the difference hasa been
2009 marginal.
agreementFrom of a 15-year
2016 to extension [54]. The
2017, the income privatization
per capita of theofbottom
Metro
Manila’s
30% witnessedwater aservices in 1997which
12% increase, brought wasabout dramatic
just slightly improvements
higher to wateraverage
than the national servicegrowth
delivery.
of
11.37% [52]. Therefore, the Philippine government must actively boost the economic growth of the
poor to ensure an acceptable level of variation in access to clean water and standard of living among
the different socioeconomic groups.
Metro Manila, like many rapidly urbanizing areas in Asia, is facing many social challenges that
hinder the efficient distribution of basic utilities. There is little indication that the population within
Metro Manila will stop growing or that the wealth inequality within the region will be alleviated
soon. With these macrosocial challenges taken into account, stakeholders have the obligation to
collaborate and develop alternative measures in a microsocial scale to ensure that clean water is
accessible to all. However, the lack of coordination and accountability, along with the politicization of
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 15 of 19

Metro Manila’s water service system, has made the transition to sustainable water management all the
more challenging to achieve.
In the 1990s, the lack of infrastructure to address the demands of a rapidly growing population
caused a power and water crisis in Metro Manila. In a bid to prevent such a calamity, the Philippine
Congress granted the privatization of the MWSS by passing the Water Crisis Act in 1995 [53].
MWSS awarded its 25-year concessions to Manila Water (east zone) and Maynilad Water Services
(west zone) in 1997, followed by a 2009 agreement of a 15-year extension [54]. The privatization of
Metro Manila’s water services in 1997 brought about dramatic improvements to water service delivery.
However, the 2019 water crisis of Metro Manila put this public–private partnership under serious
reassessment. As the east zone of Metro Manila began experiencing water crunches on 7 March 2019,
disputes within the water sector caused a delay in investigating the primary cause of the water service
disruptions. Manila Water, the east zone concessionaire, claimed to have been aware of the impending
water shortage months prior to 7 March. This raised concerns that Manila Water’s preparations
were insufficient, and that the severity of the problem had not been properly communicated to other
agencies. However, Manila Water claims that the two private concessionaires have proposed several
projects, including the introduction of additional water sources and water system facilities, in response
to the demand projections of MWSS since 2003 [38]. MWSS released a statement that the approval
and implementation of these proposed projects have been delayed, largely due to the previous board
under the previous Aquino administration [55].
The politicization of the 2019 water crisis incited conflict within the water sector at a time when
cooperation was needed the most. Effective coordination mechanisms are largely lacking, and existing
overarching agencies lack the managerial capacity to closely monitor the activities of the private
concessionaires. Despite the presence of multiple water agencies, they are neither connected vertically
nor horizontally [56]. A robust national system that enables the integration of the water sector must be
implemented in order to ensure proper communication and cooperation among the different agencies.
This will bring about clarity for the agencies’ mandates and allocate accountability for specific areas of
the water system.

4.3.4. A Summary of the Case Study

The case study conducted in Metro Manila revealed that environmental factors in Metro Manila that
negatively contribute to SDG 13 (Climate Action) require appropriate preventative measures to minimize
the water shortage crisis. By tackling specific SDG 13 indicators that aim to integrate climate change
measures into national policies, strategies and planning, the Philippine government should carefully
consider environmental factors to prevent the worsening of El Niño conditions. This demonstrates the
importance of climate action in achieving sustainable water security in Metro Manila. Additionally,
as the infrastructure factors contribute to SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), the lack
of aqueducts and design inefficiencies in the major dams of Metro Manila should be overcome with
careful planning and the efficient execution of policies to build a resilient water-related infrastructure.
Furthermore, although there has been no separate SDG dedicated to population growth, SDG 10 can
be crucial in successfully reducing inequalities not only in Metro Manila but also in other regions.
These inequalities are mainly caused by systematic flaws that lead to discrimination in access to water.
Overall, a holistic approach that interconnects the three related SDGs that focus on the environment,
infrastructure and social conditions with SDG 6 would contribute towards developing institutional
mechanisms to coordinate the actions of various actors and strengthen the complementarities and
synergies of the three sectors with SDG 6.

5. Discussion
This study contributes to examining the linkage and role of climate change in the 2019 water
crisis in Metro Manila, along with El Niño. Contrary to the first research statement, this research
suggests the relatively limited role of climate change in the prevailing water crisis of Metro Manila.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 16 of 19

Though climate change and its subsequent impact on El Niño increases the frequency and duration
of water shortages, it is difficult to conclude that El Niño is the principal trigger of the current water
crisis. This becomes more apparent when taking into account that other regions of the Philippines and
other countries have not been affected by El Niño to the same extent. Instead, Metro Manila’s societal
features, infrastructure, disasters and DRRM play more significant roles in the crisis.
Through qualitative analysis of these factors and the utilization of the SDG scoreboard, the authors
have demonstrated the interconnectivity of water security to numerous factors besides the El Niño
phenomenon. In support of the second research statement, they suggest that utilizing a holistic and
proactive approach to planning water systems can be sufficient in preventing water-related calamities,
despite the negative impacts of climate change. The current development mechanisms of Metro
Manila do not address the fundamental causes of recurring water shortages. In fact, it generates
more risks by utilizing funds inefficiently to alleviate the problem. The 2019, the Metro Manila water
crisis demonstrated the region’s lack of capacity to address the leakage problem and manage its
resources adequately. Furthermore, it is evident that their disaster warning system needs significant
improvement to send out an adequate warning that can prompt effective risk minimization.
This case study demonstrates the significance of the SDG approach in achieving sustainable water
security by suggesting solutions based on SDG targets and indicators, as the approach entails the
development of not only water-specific strategies but also other facets, including the environment,
society and infrastructure. Given that a limited number of studies have been conducted on the 2019
water crisis in Metro Manila, this study is one of the first to explore water sustainability in relation to
the SDGs by specifically finding correlations between SDG 6 and the other SDG targets that represent
the environment, infrastructure and social conditions of Metro Manila. By linking water security with
these factors, this paper provides some clarity on their interconnectedness, and affirms the vitality of
securing sustainable water systems by adopting a holistic approach.
However, some limitations must be highlighted. As this catastrophe is an ongoing phenomenon,
there is insufficient quantitative data to predict the expected total damage of the water crisis and
provide an in-depth analysis. By analyzing quantitative data when it becomes available, the study
would be able to provide detailed strategies to resolve the prevailing water crisis.
This study highlights the major contributors to the water crisis by offering general but necessary
approaches to address the root causes. By providing a holistic approach towards evaluating recurrent
water crises in developing countries, especially in South East Asia, the approach can also serve as a
guide to establishing efficient and sustainable strategies for possible funding agencies that have an
interest in mobilizing water development projects in developing countries such as the Philippines.

6. Conclusions
As the Philippines moves towards economic development, it must establish objectives that align
with the SDG targets. There is an urgent need to reinterpret Metro Manila’s water security owing to a
series of fundamental flaws in its infrastructure and society. Climate change will continue to negatively
impact natural cycles; the frequency and duration of water shortages will continue to increase. While
climate change mitigation is vital in the long run, adaptive proactive measures can be effective in
minimizing the impacts of droughts.
This study investigated the multidisciplinary aspects of the regional development of Metro Manila
based on a qualitative analysis. Future research should not only analyze Metro Manila’s water security
by focusing on its infrastructure, environmental and social conditions, but also consider assessing the
overall outcome of regional development cases in the Philippines, thereby covering comprehensive
sectors. To avoid generalization, it is also essential to understand how this study can be replicated in
other regions of the Philippines, or in other countries.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 6860 17 of 19

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.L., C.-H.L., J.S., J.H., D.J. and S.Y.; methodology, H.L. and J.S.; formal
analysis, H.L., J.S. and D.J.; investigation, H.L., C.-H.L., J.S., and D.J.; writing—original draft preparation, H.L.,
J.S., J.H., D.J. and S.Y.; writing the manuscript of this study, H.L.; review and editing, H.L., J.S., D.J. and C.-H.L.;
visualization, H.L.; supervision, C.-H.L. and W.-K.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) (Grant
no. 2018K1A3A7A03089842) and the Ministry of Science and ICT, South Korea (Grant no. 2018R1A2B6005682).
Acknowledgments: The authors appreciate the financial support from the NRF, and feel gratitude to Woo-Kyun
Lee and the IEETP (International Environmental Expert Training Program), which was supported by the Ministry
of Environment, and Korea Environment Corporation. Special thanks to Chul-Hee Lim of Korea University
for constructive feedback and comments and Joel Guenter for proofreading. We deeply feel thankful to the
three anonymous reviewers for their comments and critical reading which helped improve and clarify this
manuscript greatly.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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