Fundamentals of

Electric Circuits
Ning Xie / 谢 宁
xiening@sjtu.edu.cn
SEIEE Building 1-135
Chapter 11 AC Power
Analysis
Terminologies
instantaneous power 瞬时功率
average power 平均功率
real power 有功功率
reactive power 无功功率
apparent power 视在功率
complex power 复功率
power factor 功率因数
effective value 有效值
root mean square 均方根
quadrature 横向相交
power factor correction 功率因数修正 / 补偿
shunt 分流
deliver 传递
conservation 守恒
Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.6 Complex Power
11.8 Power Factor Correction
11.9 Applications
Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.6 Complex Power
11.8 Power Factor Correction
11.9 Applications
Instantaneous power
p(t) = v(t)i(t)
Power at any instant of time, measured in
watts (W), indicating the rate at which an
element absorbs energy.
v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φv) i(t)
Passive
i(t) = Imcos(ωt + φi) Sinusoidal
+
v(t) linear
p(t) = v(t)i(t) source – network
1
= VmIm[cos(φv − φi) + cos(2ωt + φv + φi)]
2
Sketch of instantaneous power
p(t)
1
V I
2 mm

1
V I cos(φv − φi)
2 mm
0 T T t
2 i(t)
v(t)
T 
 Period of p(t) is T0 = = .
2 
 p(t) can be transferred back and forth between
circuit and source due to storage elements.
Average power
1 T
P= p(t)dt
T 0
Average of instantaneous power over one
period, measured in watts (W).
1 T1
P=T VmIm[cos(v − i) + cos(2t + v + i)]dt
0 2
1 1 1 T
= VmImcos(v − i) + VmIm cos(2t + v + i)]dt
2 2 T 0

1
= VmImcos(v − i)
2
AC powers in time domain
i(t)
v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φv)
Sinusoidal + Passive Linear
v(t)
i(t) = Imcos(ωt + φi) source – network

Instantaneous power (W):

1
p(t) = VmIm[cos(φv − φi) + cos(2ωt + φv + φi)]
2
Average power (W):
1 T 1
P= p(t)dt = VmImcos(v − i)
T 0 2
Wattmeter reads average power.
 p(t) and P: A closer look
R R

~ L ~ L ~ R ~ C ~ C

φv − φi = 90º φv − φi = 45º φv − φi = 0º φv − φi = −45º φv − φi = −90º

2 1 2
P=0 P = VmIm P = VmIm P = VmIm P=0
4 2 4
p(t) p(t) p(t) p(t) p(t)

t t t t t

P P P P P

t t t t t
Practice problems
Find the instantaneous power and average
power absorbed by the passive linear network if
a) v(t) = 165cos(10t + 20º) V, and i(t) =
20sin(10t + 60º) A; b) v(t) = 120cos(377t + 45º)
V, and i(t) = 10sin(377t − 10º) A
i(t)
Sinusoidal + Passive Linear
v(t)
source – network
AC powers in phasor domain
v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φv) ⇔ V = Vm∠φv = Vmejφv
i(t) = Imcos(ωt + φi) ⇔ I = Im∠φi = Imejφi

1
P = VmImcos(φv - φi) can be taken as Re( ? )
2
1 1
where ? = VmImcos(φv - φi) + j VmImsin(φv - φi)
2 2
1 *
= VI
2
AC powers in phasor domain
1 *
Complex power (VA): S  VI
2
1 * 1 1
VI = VmImcos(φv - φi) + j VmImsin(φv - φi)
2 2 2
= P + jQ
1 *
where P = Re( VI ) is real power, W
2
1 *
Q = Im( VI ) is reactive power, VAR
2
Real power in two special cases
Purely resistive circuit Purely reactive circuit
φv = φi φv - φi = ±90º

1 1 2 1
P = VmIm = Im R = | I |2R 1
2 2 2 P = VmImcos90º = 0
where | I |2 = I·I* 2

A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all

times, while a reactive load (L or C) absorbs
zero average power.
 Practice problems
1. Calculate the average power absorbed by an
impedance Z = 30 - j70 Ω when a voltage
V = 120∠0º V is applied across it.
2. A current I = 20∠30º A flows through an
impedance Z = 40∠(-22º) Ω. Find the
average power delivered to the impedance.
 Practice problems
3. Find the average power supplied by the source
and the average power absorbed by the resistor,
capacitor, or inductor in the circuit.
I 4Ω 3Ω

+ +
5∠30º V – -j2 Ω 160∠45º V – j1 Ω

(a) (b)
Practice problems
4. Determine the power generated by each source
and the average power absorbed by each
passive element in the circuit.
20 Ω -j5 Ω

+
4∠0º A j10 Ω – 60∠30º V
Practice problems
5. Determine the power generated by each source
and the average power absorbed by each
passive element in the circuit.
8Ω j4 Ω

+ +
40∠0º V – -j2 Ω – 20∠90º V
Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.6 Complex Power
11.8 Power Factor Correction
11.9 Applications
Review
RTh a
When RL = RTh, power
transferred to RL reaches
VTh +– RL
its maximum, and
Thevenin b VTh2
equivalent pmax
4RTh
where RL: load resistance
RTh: Thevenin resistance
AC circuit and its Thevenin
equivalent
a ZTh a I
Linear +
ZL VTh – ZL
circuit
b b
Original circuit Thevenin equivalent

ZL = RL + jXL, ZTh = RTh + jXTh

VTh VTh
I
ZTh ZL RTh RL j XTh XL
Average power delivered to load
1 2 RL | VTh |2
P = | I | RL =
2 2 RTh RL 2 (XTh XL)2
P | VTh |2 RTh RL 2 (XTh XL)2 2RL RTh RL
=
RL 2 RTh RL 2 (XTh XL)2 2
Setting to zero RL = RTh2 XTh XL 2

P | VTh |2RL(XTh XL)

=
XL RTh RL 2 (XTh XL)2 2

Setting to zero XL = -XTh

Maximum average power theorem
for sinusoidal steady state
Maximum power is transferred to the
load when
ZL = RL + jXL = RTh - jXTh = ZTh*
(load is matched to source).
RL | VTh |2
P
2 RTh RL 2 XTh XL 2

RL = RTh VTh 2
Pmax
XL = -XTh 8RTh
For purely resistive load

RL = RTh2 XTh XL 2

XL = 0
RL = RTh2 XTh2 = | ZTh |

Maximum power is transferred to

purely resistive load when
ZL = RL = | ZTh |
Practice problems
1. Find the load impedance ZL that absorbs the
maximum average power for the circuit. Calculate
that maximum average power.
-j4 Ω j10 Ω

8Ω 6A 5Ω ZL
Practice problems
2. Determine the load impedance ZL that
maximizes the average power drawn from the
circuit. What is the maximum average power?
4Ω j5 Ω

8Ω
+
10∠0º V – ZL
-j6 Ω
 Practice problems
3. Find the value of RL that will absorb the
maximum average power. Calculate that power.
40 Ω -j30 Ω

+
150∠30º V – j20 Ω RL
 Practice problems
4. The resistor RL in the circuit is adjusted until it
absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate RL
and the maximum average power absorbed by it.
80 Ω j60 Ω

+
120∠60º V – 90 Ω -j30 Ω RL
Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.6 Complex Power
11.8 Power Factor Correction
11.9 Applications
 Overview
Effective value of a periodic current is the
dc current that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as the periodic current.
i(t) Ieff
+
+
v(t) – R Veff R
–

AC circuit Ieff =
1 T
i2dt DC circuit
T 0
1 T R T
P= i2Rdt = i2dt P = Ieff2R
T 0 T 0
 Overview
Effective value of a periodic voltage is the
dc voltage that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as the periodic voltage.
i(t) Ieff
+
+
v(t) – R Veff R
–

AC circuit Veff =
1 T
v2dt
DC circuit
T 0
1 T v2 1 T Veff2
P= dt = v2dt P=
T 0 R TR 0 R
Effective value and RMS value
For any periodic function x(t), its rms value
1 T
Xrms = x2dt
T 0

Effective value of a periodic signal is

its (square) root mean (or average)
square value.
1 T 1 T
E.g., Ieff = 2
i dt = Irms, Veff = v2dt = Vrms
T 0 T 0
Sinusoid and phasor in RMS
value
For v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φv), i(t) = Imcos(ωt + φi)
1 T Vm
Vrms = Vm2cos2(t+v)dt =
T 0 2
1 T Im
Irms = Im2cos2(t+i)dt =
T 0 2
V I
Vrms = = Vrms∠φv Irms = = Irms∠φi
2 2
V Vmv Vrms
Z= = =
I Imi Irms
Average power in RMS value
1 V m Im
P = VmImcos(φv - φi) = cos(φv - φi)
2 2 2
= VrmsIrmscos(φv - φi)

For purely resistive circuit (φv = φi),

1 2 V 2
P = Im R = Irms2R = rms
2 R
NB
 Sinusoid is often specified in terms of its
maximum (or peak) value or its rms value
since its average value is zero
 Voltmeters and ammeters read rms values.
1
 P = VrmsIrmscos(φv - φi) without , which is
2
read by wattmeter.
 RMS values should be clearly indicated, e.g.,
V = 120∠0º V rms, I = 60∠−30º A rms
Practice problems
1. Determine the rms value of the current waveform
in Fig. If the current is passed through a 2 Ω resistor,
find the average power absorbed by the resistor.
i(t)
10

0 t
2 4 6 8 10
−10
Practice problems
2. Find the rms value of the current waveform. If
the current flows through a 9 Ω resistor, calculate
the average power absorbed by the resistor.
i(t)
8

t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Practice problems
3. Find the rms value of the full-wave rectified
sine wave. Calculate the average power dissipated
in a 6 Ω resistor.
v(t)

10

t
0 π 2π 3π
Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.6 Complex Power
11.8 Power Factor Correction
11.9 Applications
Apparent power and power factor
Apparent power (VA): S  VrmsIrms
Recalling
1
P = VmImcos(φv - φi) = VrmsIrmscos(φv - φi)
2
= Scos(φv - φi)
where cos(φv - φi) is power factor (pf)
φv - φi is power factor angle.
More about power factor
P
 pf = cos(φv - φi) = ∈ [0, 1]:
S
− Purely resistive load | Purely reactive load
− Must be specified whether leading (capacitive
load) or lagging (inductive load)
 φv - φi = θ for circuit: I V = Vm∠φv
+
ZL I = Im∠φi
V –
ZL = | ZL |∠θ
 pf affects bills consumers pay.
Practice problems
1. Obtain the power factor and the apparent power of a
load whose impedance is Z = 60 + j40 Ω when the
applied voltage is v(t) = 160 cos(377t + 10º) V.
2. A series-connected load draws a current i(t) =
4cos(100πt + 10º) A when the applied voltage is v(t) =
120cos(100πt − 20º) V. Find the apparent power and the
power factor of the load. Determine the element values
that form the series-connected load.
Practice problems
3. Determine the power factor of the entire circuit as seen
by the source. Calculate the average power delivered by
the source. 6Ω

+
30∠0º V rms – 4Ω -j2 Ω
Practice problems
4. Calculate the power factor of the entire circuit as seen
by the source. What is the average power supplied by the
source? 10 Ω 8Ω

+
120∠0º V rms – j4 Ω -j6 Ω
Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.6 Complex Power
11.8 Power Factor Correction
11.9 Applications
 Definition of complex power
1 *
Complex power (VA): S = VI = VrmsI*rms
2
I
+
= S∠(φv - φi) = Sej(φv - φi)
V Load Z
– = P + jQ
V I
where V = Vm∠φv, I = Im∠φi, Vrms = , and Irms =
2 2
P = VrmsIrmscos(φv - φi), real power (W)

Q = VrmsIrmssin(φv - φi) reactive power (VAR)

Complex power in terms of Z
V 2
Complex power (VA): S = ZI2rms = rms∗
Z
I
+ = I2rms(R + jX)
V Load Z
– = P + jQ
V Vrms
where Z = = = R + jX
I Irms
P = I2rmsR, real power (W)

Q = I2rmsX, reactive power (VAR)

Real power and reactive power
 P: actual (average) power dissipated by

or delivered to resistive part of load.

 Q: a measure of energy exchanging

between source and reactive part of load.

− Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf)
− Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf)
− Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf)
 Real power and reactive power in
two special cases
Purely resistive circuit Purely reactive circuit
(φv = φi) (φv - φi = ±90º)

1 1 1
P = VmImcos0º = VmIm P = VmImcos90º = 0
2 2 2

1 1 1
Q = VmImsin0º = 0 Q = VmImsin(±90º) = ± VmIm
2 2 2

Only reactive part of load (L or C) exchanges

reactive power with source.
Power triangle
Im S = VrmsI*rms

+Q(lagging pf)
= S∠φ

φ = P + jQ (VA)
φ P Re where
S = P 2 Q2
-Q(leading pf)
Q
where φ = φv - φi φ = arctan P
Practice problems
1. The voltage across a load is v(t) = 60 cos(ωt − 10º) V
and the current through the element in the direction of the
voltage drop is i(t) = 1.5 cos(ωt +50º) A. Find: (a) the
complex and apparent powers, (b) the real and reactive
powers, and (c) the power factor and the load impedance.
2. For a load, Vrms = 110∠85º V and Irms = 0.4∠15º A.
Determine: (a) the complex and apparent powers, (b) the
real and reactive powers, and (c) the power factor and the
load impedance.
Practice problems
3. A load Z draws 12 kVA at a power factor of 0.856
lagging from a 120 V rms sinusoidal source. Calculate: (a)
the average and reactive powers delivered to the load, (b)
the peak current, and (c) the load impedance.
4. A sinusoidal source supplies 20 kVAR reactive power
to load Z = 250∠-75º Ω. Determine: (a) the power factor,
(b) the apparent power delivered to the load, and (c) the
rms voltage.
 AC powers in summary
i(t)
Sinusoidal + Passive linear
v(t)
source – network

Time domain Phasor / Frequency domain

v(t) = Vmcos(ωt + φv) V = Vm∠φv Vrms = V / 2 = Vrms∠φv
i(t) = Imcos(ωt + φi) I = Im∠φi Irms = I / 2 = Irms∠φi
Instantaneous power (W): Complex power (VA):
1
p(t) = VmIm[cos(φv − φi) 1 * Vrms2
S  VI = VrmsIrms = ZI rms = ∗
* 2
2 2 Z
+ cos(2ωt + φv + φi)]
= VrmsIrms∠ϕ = S∠ϕ = Sejϕ
Average power (W):
1 T = P + jQ
P= p(t)dt
T 0 where S is apparent power (VA)
1 cosϕ is power factor
= VmImcos(v − i)
2
= VrmsIrmscosφ P is real power (W)
where ϕ = φv − φi Q is reactive power (Var)
Conservation of ac power
I Z1 Z2 ZN I
∙∙∙
+V – + V – +V – I1 I2 IN
1 2 N
+ +
V – V – Z1 Z2 ∙ ∙ ∙ ZN

(a) Loads in series (b) Loads in parallel

All forms of ac power of sources (except

apparent power) equal respective sums
of powers of individual loads, i.e.,
S = S1 + S2 + ∙∙∙ + SN
 Practice problems
1. A load is fed by a voltage source through a transmission
line as shown in Fig. The impedance of the line is
represented by the (4 + j2) Ω impedance and a return path.
Find the real power and reactive power absorbed by: (a)
the source, (b) the line, and (c) the load.
I 4 Ω j2 Ω

+ 15 Ω
220∠0º V rms –
-j10 Ω
Source Transmission line Load
Practice problems
2. In the circuit, the 60 Ω resistor absorbs an average
power of 240 W. Find V and the complex power of each
branch of the circuit. What is the overall complex power
of the circuit? (Assume the current through the 60 Ω
resistor has no phase shift.)
20 Ω

30 Ω j20 Ω
+
V –
-j10 Ω 60 Ω
Practice problems
3. In the circuit, Z1 = 60∠−30º Ω and Z2 = 40∠45º Ω.
Calculate the total: (a) apparent power, (b) real power, (c)
reactive power, and (d) pf, supplied by the source and
seen by the source.
I
I1 I2
+
120∠10º V rms – Z1 Z2
Practice problems
4. Two loads connected in parallel are respectively
2 kW at a pf of 0.75 leading and 4 kW at a pf of
0.95 lagging. Calculate the pf of the two loads.
Find the complex power supplied by the source.
Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.6 Complex Power
11.8 Power Factor Correction
11.9 Applications
What is pf correction?
Pf correction: process of increasing pf
closer to unity without altering voltage
or current to original load by installing
reactive elements in parallel with load
(usu. shunt capacitors) .

Low lagging pf  High power losses

An illustration

+ IL

V Inductive
load
–

Given V = 220∠0º V rms, IL = 4.20 A rms, the real power

absorbed by the load is 400 W, a) determine reactive
power and complex power seen by the load; b) if the load
is purely resistive, find the current such that the load
dissipates the same real power.
How to correct pf – perspective
from phasor diagram
cosφ1 I cosφ2
+ IL + IL IC

V Inductive V Inductive C
load load
– –
Original inductive load Inductive load with improved pf

IC - φ1 reduced to φ2, pf increased.

- Given V, | IL | reduced to | I |,
φ2
φ1 V loss decreased.
I - Unity pf can be achieved by
IL choosing suitable C.
 How to correct pf – perspective
from power triangle
Original circuit:
QC
S1
S2 Q1 P = S1cosφ1
Q2
φ1 φ2 Q1 = S1sinφ1 = Ptanφ1
P
Corrected circuit: P = S2cosφ2, Q2 = S2sinφ2 = Ptanφ2

 QC = P(tanφ1 - tanφ2) = Vrms2 / XC = ωCVrms2

QC P(tan1 − tan2)
C= =
Vrms 2 Vrms2
NB
 Voltage across load and P dissipated by

load is not affected by pf correction.

 For capacitive load (pf is leading), pf

correction is done by shunt inductor with

Vrms2 Vrms2
L= =
QL P(tan1 − tan2)
Practice problems
1. When connected to a 120 V (rms), 60-Hz
power line, a load absorbs 4 kW at a lagging
power factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance
necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.
2. Find the value of parallel capacitance needed
to correct a load of 140 kVAR at 0.85 lagging pf
to unity pf. Assume that the load is supplied by a
110 V (rms), 60 Hz line.
Outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.4 Effective or RMS Value
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.6 Complex Power
11.8 Power Factor Correction
11.9 Applications
Wattmeter
i i
±
Current coil
Current coil
±
+
R Voltage coil v ZL
± –
+
v
–
Vm
Given Vrms = ∠φv of v(t)
2
Voltage coil i and Irms =
Im
∠φi of i(t),
± 2
The measured power P = VrmsIrmscos(φv - φi)
Practice problems
Find the wattmeter readings for the two circuits.
(a) ±
4 Ω -j2 Ω

±
+
120∠30º V rms – j9 Ω 12 Ω

(b) 12 Ω j10 Ω
±

+
± 8Ω
150∠0º V rms –
-j6 Ω
Assignment

Problems 11.7, 11.13, 11.31, 11.36,

11.37, 11.38, 11.53, 11.58