AC Power Analysis

Objectives:
 Know the difference between instantaneous power and average power
 Learn the AC version of maximum power transfer theorem
 Learn about the concepts of effective or rms value
 Learn about the complex power, apparent power and power factor
 Understand the principle of conservation of AC power
 Learn about power factor correction
 Instantaneous AC Power
 Instantaneous Power p(t) is the power at any instant of time.
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v ) i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + θi )
1 1
=
p (t ) v=
(t )i (t ) Vm I m cos(θ v − θi ) + Vm I m cos(2ωt + θ v + θi )
2 2
 Instantaneous AC Power
 Instantaneous Power p(t) is the power at any instant of time.
p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
θ v , v(t ) Vm cos(ωt + θ v )
Assume a sinusoidal voltage with phase=
θi , i (t ) I m cos(ωt + θi )
Assume a sinusoidal current with phase =
1 1
p (t ) v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos(θ v − θi ) + Vm I m cos(2ωt + θ v + θi )
2 2
p(t ) = CONSTANT POWER+SINUSOIDAL POWER (frequency 2ω )

1 1
p (t ) v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos(θ v − θi ) + Vm I m cos(2ωt + θ v + θi )
2 2

 The instantaneous power is composed of two parts.

• A constant part.
• The part which is a function of time.
 Instantaneous and Average Power
 The instantaneous power p(t) is composed of a constant part (DC) and a time
dependent part having frequency 2ω.
p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v ) i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + θi )
1 1
p (t ) = Vm I m cos(θ v − θi ) + Vm I m cos(2ωt + θ v + θi )
2 2
Instantenous Power p(t)

Average Power
=P 1
2 Vm I m cos(θ v − θi )
Instantaneous and Average Power
p(t =) 12 Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i ) + 12 Vm I m cos(2ω t + θ v + θ i =) p1 (t ) + p2 (t )
 Average Power
The average power P is the average of the instantaneous power over one period .

p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) Instantaneous Power

1 T
P = ∫ p (t )dt Average Power
T 0
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v ) i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + θi )
1 T 1 T 1 T

T ∫0 ∫ ∫
P =p (t ) dt 1
Vm I m cos(θ v − θ i )dt + 1
Vm I m cos(2ω t + θ v + θ i )dt
T 0 2 T 0 2
1 T 1 T
P 1
2 Vm I m cos(θ v − θi ) ∫ dt + 2 Vm I m ∫ cos(2ωt + θ v + θi )dt
1
T 0 T 0
= 12 Vm I m cos(θ v − θi ) + 0 (Integral of a Sinusoidal=0)

P 1
2 Vm I m cos(θ v − θi )
1
=P 1
2Re  VI 
= Vm I m cos(θ v − θi )
∗

2
 Average Power
The average power P, is the average of the instantaneous power over one period .

=P 1
2 Vm I m cos(θ v − θi )
1
=P Re  VI 
=
1
2
∗
Vm I m cos(θ v − θi )
2
 A resistor has (θv-θi)=0º so the average power becomes:

= = =
1 1 2 1 2
PR 2Vm I m 2Im R 2 I R
1. P is not time dependent.
2. When θv = θi , it is a purely resistive load case.
3. When θv– θi = ±90o, it is a purely reactive load case.
4. P = 0 means that the circuit absorbs no average power.
Instantaneous and Average Power
 Example 1 Calculate the instantaneous power and
average power absorbed by a passive linear network if:
v(t ) = 80 cos (10 t + 20°)
i (t ) = 15 sin (10 t + 60°)
1 1
p (t ) Vm I m cos(θ v − θi ) + Vm I m cos(2ωt + θ v + θi )
2 2
=385.7 + 600cos(20t − 10°) W

P= 385.7 W is the average power flow

 Average Power Problem
 Practice Problem : Calculate the average power absorbed by each of the five
elements in the circuit given.
Average Power Problem
 Apparent Power and Power Factor
 The Average Power depends on the rms value of voltage and current and the
phase angle between them.

=P 1
2 θ v − θ i ) VRms I Rms cos(θ v − θ i )
Vm I m cos(=
 The Apparent Power is the product of the Rms value of voltage and current. It is
measured in Volt amperes (VA).

1
=S = Vm I m VRms I Rms
2
 The Power Factor (pf) is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and
current. It is also the cosine of the angle of load impedance. The power factor may
also be regarded as the ratio of the real power dissipated to the apparent power of
the load.
P
pf= = cos(θ v − θi )
S
P= Apparent Power × Power Factor= S × pf
 Apparent Power and Power Factor
 All the apparent power is consumed if the circuit is purely resistive.
All the apparent power is stored if the circuit is purely reactive.
Not all the apparent power is consumed if the circuit is partly reactive.

Purely resistive θv– θi = 0, Pf = 1 P/S = 1, all power are

load (R) consumed

Purely reactive θv– θi = ±90o, P = 0, no real power

load (L or C) pf = 0 consumption

Resistive and θv– θi > 0 • Lagging - inductive load

reactive load θv– θi < 0 • Leading - capacitive load
(R and L/C) P/S < 1, Part of the apparent
power is consumed
 Complex Power
 The COMPLEX Power S contains all the information pertaining
to the power absorbed by a given load.

2
1 ∗ V
=S = I∗Rms I 2=
VI VRms = Rms Z Rms
∗
2 Z

VRms ∠θ v
VRms = I Rms ∠θi
I Rms =
S VRms I Rms ∠(θ v − θi )
VRms I Rms cos(θ v − θi ) + jVRms I Rms sin(θ v − θi )
=P + jQ =Re{S} + j Im{S} =
Real Power+Reactive Power
 Complex Power
 The REAL Power is the only useful power delivered to the load.

The REACTIVE Power represents the energy exchange between the

source and reactive part of the load. It is being transferred back and
forth between the load and the source
The unit of Q is volt-ampere reactive (VAR)

S =P + jQ =Re{S} + j Im{S}
=Real Power+Reactive Power

S=I Rms Z =
2
I Rms ( R + jX ) =
2
P + jQ

P =VRms I Rms cos(θ v − θ=

i) Re{S=
} I 2
Rms R
Q =VRms I Rms sin(θ v − θ=
i) Im{S=
} I 2
Rms X
 Resistive Circuit and Real Power

v(t ) = Vm sin(ωt + θ ) i (t ) = I m sin(ωt )

1 1
=
p (t ) v=
(t )i (t ) Vm I m cos(θ ) [1 − cos(2ωt ) ] + Vm I m sin(θ ) sin(2ωt )
2 2
VRms I Rms cos(θ ) [1 − cos(2ωt ) ] + VRms I Rms sin(θ ) sin(2ωt )
= VRms I Rms − VRms I Rms cos(2ωt ) θ = 0° RESISTIVE
p(t ) is always Positive
Inductive Circuit and Reactive Power

v(t ) = Vm sin(ωt + θ ) i (t ) = I m sin(ωt )

1 1
=
pL (t ) v=
(t )i (t ) Vm I m cos(θ ) [1 − cos(2ωt ) ] + Vm I m sin(θ ) sin(2ωt )
2 2
= VRms I Rms cos(θ ) [1 − cos(2ωt ) ] + VRms I Rms sin(θ ) sin(2ωt )
= VRms I Rms sin(2ωt ) θ= 90° INDUCTIVE
pL (t ) is equally both positive and negative, power is circulating
Inductive Circuit and Reactive Power
 If the average power is zero, and the energy supplied is returned
within one cycle, why is a reactive power of any significance?
 At every instant of time along the power curve that the curve is
above the axis (positive), energy must be supplied to the inductor,
even though it will be returned during the negative portion of the
cycle. This power requirement during the positive portion of the
cycle requires that the generating plant provide this energy during
that interval, even though this power is not dissipated but simply
“borrowed.”
 The increased power demand during these intervals is a cost
factor that must that must be passed on to the industrial consumer.
 Most larger users of electrical energy pay for the apparent power
demand rather than the watts dissipated since the volt-amperes
used are sensitive to the reactive power requirement.
 The closer the power factor of an industrial consumer is to 1, the
more efficient is the plant’s operation since it is limiting its use of
“borrowed” power.
Capacitive Circuit and Reactive Power

v(t ) = Vm sin(ωt + θ ) i (t ) = I m sin(ωt )

1 1
=
pC (t ) v=
(t )i (t ) Vm I m cos(θ ) [1 − cos(2ωt ) ] + Vm I m sin(θ ) sin(2ωt )
2 2
VRms I Rms cos(θ ) [1 − cos(2ωt ) ] + VRms I Rms sin(θ ) sin(2ωt )
= −VRms I Rms sin(2ωt ) θ=−90° CAPACITIVE
pC (t ) is equally both positive and negative, power is circulating
 Complex Power
 The COMPLEX Power contains all the information pertaining to the power
absorbed by a given load.

1 ∗
Complex Power=S =P + jQ = VI =VRms I Rms ∠(θ v − θi )
2
Apparent Power=S= S= VRms I Rms= P2 + Q2
Real Pow= =
er=P Re{S} S cos(θ v − θi )
=
Reactive Power =
=Q Im{S} S sin(θ v − θi )
P
Power Factor= =cos(θ v − θi )
S
• Real Power is the actual power dissipated by the load.
• Reactive Power is a measure of the energy exchange between source and reactive
part of the load.
 Power Triangle
 The COMPLEX Power is represented by the POWER TRIANGLE similar to
IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE. Power triangle has four items: P, Q, S and θ.

a) Power Triangle b) Impedance Triangle Power Triangle

Q=0 Resistive Loads (Unity Pf )

Q<0 Capacitive Loads (Leading Pf )
Q>0 Inductive Loads (Lagging Pf )
 Power Triangle
 Finding the total COMPLEX Power of the three loads.

PT = 100 + 200 + 300 = 600 Watt

QT =
0 + 700 − 1500 =
−800 Var
S=
T 600 − j800
= 1000∠ − 53.13°
 Power Triangle

S =P + jQ =S1 + S 2 =( P1 + P2 ) + j (Q1 + Q2 )
Real and Reactive Power Formulation
Real and Reactive Power Formulation
Real and Reactive Power Formulation
Real and Reactive Power Formulation

v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ v ) i (t ) = I m cos(ωt + θi )

VRms I Rms cos(θ v − θi ) [1 + cos 2(ωt + θ v ) ] + VRms I Rms sin(θ v − θi ) sin 2(ωt + θ v )
p (t ) =
=P × [1 + cos 2(ωt + θ v ) ] + Q × sin 2(ωt + θ v )
=Real Power + R eactive Power

P is the REAL AVERAGE POWER

Q is the maximum value of the circulating power flowing back and forward

rms I rms cos θ

P V= Q Vrms I rms sin θ
Real and Reactive Powers

REAL POWER

CIRCULATING POWER
 Real and Reactive Powers

• Vrms =100 V Irms =1 A Apparent power = Vrms Irms =100 VA

• From p(t) curve, check that power flows from the supply into the load for the
entire duration of the cycle!
• Also, the average power delivered to the load is 100 W. No Reactive power.
 Real and Reactive Powers

Power Flowing Back

• Vrms =100 V Irms =1 A Apparent power = Vrms Irms =100 VA

• From p(t) curve, power flows from the supply into the load for only a part of
the cycle! For a portion of the cycle, power actually flows back to the source
from the load!
• Also, the average power delivered to the load is 50 W! So, the useful power is
less than in Case 1! There is reactive power in the circuit.
 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
• Thévenin’s theorem, as stated for sinusoidal AC circuits, is changed only
to include the term impedance instead of resistance.
• Any two-terminal linear ac network can be replaced with an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source and an impedance in series.
• VTh is the Open circuit voltage between the terminals a-b.
• ZTh is the impedance seen from the terminals when the independent
sources are set to zero.
 Norton Equivalent Circuit
• The linear circuit is replaced by a current source in parallel with an impedance.
IN is the Short circuit current flowing between the terminals a-b when th e
terminals are short circuited.

 Thevenin and Norton equivalents are related by:

=VTh Z=
N IN ZTh Z N
 Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Finding the maximum average power which can be transferred from
a linear circuit to a Load connected.

a) Circuit with a load b) Thevenin Equivalent circuit

• Represent the circuit to the left of the load by its Thevenin equiv.
• Load ZL represents any element that is absorbing the power generated
by the circuit.
• Find the load ZL that will absorb the Maximum Average Power from
the circuit to which it is connected.
Maximum Average Power Transfer Condition
• Write the expression for average power associated with ZL: P(ZL).
ZTh = RTh + jXTh ZL = RL + jXL
2 RL
VTh VTh 1 2 VTh
I = = P = I RL 2
ZTh + Z L ( RTh + jX Th ) + ( RL + jX L ) 2 ( RTh + RL ) 2 + ( X Th + X L ) 2
Ajust R L and X L to get maximum P
VTh RL ( X Th + X L )
2
∂P
=
∂X L ( R + R ) 2 + ( X + X ) 2  2
 Th L Th L 
∂P VTh ( RTh + RL ) + ( X Th + X L ) − 2 RL ( RTh + RL ) 
2 2 2

=
∂RL 2 2
2 ( RTh + RL ) + ( X Th + X L ) 
2

∂P ∂P
=
0 ⇒ XL =
− X Th =
0 ⇒ RL =RTh 2 + ( X Th + X L ) 2 =
RTh
∂X L ∂RL
Z L =RL + jX L =RTh − jX Th =ZTh∗
 Maximum Average Power Transfer Condition

• Therefore: ZL = RTh - jXTh = ZTh will generate the maximum

power transfer. 2 2
I L RL V
• Maximum power Pmax = Pmax = Th
2 8 RTh

• For Maximum average power transfer to a load impedance ZL we

must choose ZL as the complex conjugate of the Thevenin
impedance ZTh.

∗
Z L =RL + jX L =RTh − jX Th =Z Th
2
VTh
Pmax =
8 RTh
 Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Practice Problem : Calculate the load impedance for maximum power transfer
and the maximum average power.
Maximum Average Power Transfer
 Maximum Average Power for
Resistive Load
 When the load is PURELY RESISTIVE, the condition for maximum power
transfer is:

XL = 0 ⇒ RL = RTh 2 + ( X Th + X L ) 2 = RTh 2 + X Th 2 = ZTh

 Now the maximum power can not be obtained from the Pmax formula given before.
 Maximum power can be calculated by finding the power of RL when XL=0.

RESISTIVE
LOAD
●
 Maximum Average Power for Resistive Load
 Practice Problem : Calculate the resistive load needed for maximum power
transfer and the maximum average power.
 Maximum Average Power for
Resistive Load

RL

 Notice the way that the maximum power is calculated using the Thevenin
Equivalent circuit.
 Practice Problem : The 60 Ω resistor absorbs 240 Watt of average power. Calculate V
and the complex power of each branch. What is the total complex power?
 Practice Problem : The 60 Ω resistor absorbs 240 Watt of average power. Calculate V
and the complex power of each branch. What is the total complex power?
 Practice Problem: Two loads are connected in parallel. Load 1 has 2 kW, pf=0.75
leading and Load 2 has 4 kW, pf=0.95 lagging. Calculate the pf of two loads and the
complex power supplied by the source.

LOAD 1 LOAD 2
2 kW 4 kW
Pf=0.75 Pf=0.95
Leading Lagging
 Conservation of AC Power
 The complex, real and reactive power of the sources equal the respective sum of
the complex, real and reactive power of the individual loads.

a) Loads in Parallel b) Loads in Series

For parallel connection:
1 1 1 1
S= V I* = V (I1* + I*2 ) = V I1* + V I*2 = S1 + S2
2 2 2 2
Same results can be obtained for a series connection.
Complex power is Conserved