Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Publications

1999

Physical and Nutritional Properties of Corn Masa

By-product Streams
Kurt A. Rosentrater
Iowa State University, karosent@iastate.edu

Rolando A. Flores
United States Department of Agriculture

Thomas L. Richard
Iowa State University

Carl J. Bern
Iowa State University, cjbern@iastate.edu

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Physical and Nutritional Properties of Corn Masa By-product Streams
Abstract
Production of corn masa-based products is flourishing in the United States, as is the generation of masa
processing waste. Masa by-products have potential for value-added utilization, an option which could produce
less pollution in the environment and economic benefits for masa processors. Physical and nutritional
properties of these byproducts are needed for the proper design of processing operations and by-product
applications, but information concerning masa byproducts is not currently available. Thus the objective of this
study was to fully characterize typical masa by-product streams. The masa by-products studied had moisture
contents between 88.15% and 89.29% (w.b.), water activity values between 0.999 and 1.000, densities
between 1030.85 and 1047.32 kg/m3 , yield stress values between 1440.04 and 1618.08 N/m2 , pH values
between 6.17 and 6.30, Hunter L values between 35.15 and 49.13, a values between 0.27 and 0.98, and b
values between 6.85 and 9.38. Drying curves were developed to predict drying behavior. The dried by-
products had protein contents between 4.76% and 4.90% (d.b.), crude fat contents from 0.74% to 5.76%
(d.b.), ash contents between 17.41% and 19.09% (d.b.), and carbohydrate contents from 71.93% to 75.41%
(d.b.), which was due primarily to fiber, with hemicellulose levels of 20.82% to 24.06% (d.b.) and cellulose
between 30.55% and 31.83% (d.b.). Dry masa by-products also consisted of 4.68% (d.b.) calcium. Therefore,
dehydrated masa by-products seem very suitable for use as livestock feed additives.

Keywords
Evaluation, Food processing, Food waste, Residue characterization, Residue utilization

Disciplines
Agriculture | Bioresource and Agricultural Engineering

Comments
This article is from Applied Engineering in Agriculture 15, no. 5 (1999): 515–523.

This article is available at Iowa State University Digital Repository: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/abe_eng_pubs/80

fpe 1510 ms 9/25/01 12:52 PM Page 515

PHYSICAL AND NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES

OF CORN MASA BY-PRODUCT STREAMS
K. A. Rosentrater, R. A. Flores, T. L. Richard, C. J. Bern

ABSTRACT. Production of corn masa-based products is flourishing in the United States, as is the generation of masa
processing waste. Masa by-products have potential for value-added utilization, an option which could produce less
pollution in the environment and economic benefits for masa processors. Physical and nutritional properties of these by-
products are needed for the proper design of processing operations and by-product applications, but information
concerning masa byproducts is not currently available. Thus the objective of this study was to fully characterize typical
masa by-product streams. The masa by-products studied had moisture contents between 88.15% and 89.29% (w.b.), water
activity values between 0.999 and 1.000, densities between 1030.85 and 1047.32 kg/m3, yield stress values between
1440.04 and 1618.08 N/m2, pH values between 6.17 and 6.30, Hunter L values between 35.15 and 49.13, a values
between 0.27 and 0.98, and b values between 6.85 and 9.38. Drying curves were developed to predict drying behavior.
The dried by-products had protein contents between 4.76% and 4.90% (d.b.), crude fat contents from 0.74% to 5.76%
(d.b.), ash contents between 17.41% and 19.09% (d.b.), and carbohydrate contents from 71.93% to 75.41% (d.b.), which
was due primarily to fiber, with hemicellulose levels of 20.82% to 24.06% (d.b.) and cellulose between 30.55% and
31.83% (d.b.). Dry masa by-products also consisted of 4.68% (d.b.) calcium. Therefore, dehydrated masa by-products
seem very suitable for use as livestock feed additives.
Keywords. Evaluation, Food processing, Food waste, Residue characterization, Residue utilization.

A
gricultural processing industries produce great after further processing (i.e., dehydration, extrusion, or
quantities of waste materials. From 1991 to 1992 blending with other feed components) (Bohlsen et al.,
agribusinesses in Kansas alone produced over 1997).
72 000 Mg/yr of waste products and processing In recent years, many research efforts have been aimed
residues. Approximately 10% (7173 Mg/yr) of these at the development of livestock feed additives from
wastes were attributable to the grain processing industry agricultural wastes and by-products. One aspect has
(Nelson and Flores, 1994). Due to heightened economic included the investigation of residential wastes as potential
and environmental concerns, landfilling has declined as the feed products (Polanski, 1992). Another area has included
waste disposal method of choice, and disposal alternatives the development of feed ingredients from slaughterhouse
have been more frequently investigated. Current options by-products (Luzier and Summerfelt, 1995; Martins and
include reprocessing / r ecycling, resale, incineration, Guzman, 1994; Wang et al., 1997). The utilization of grain
composting, biomass energy production, land application by-products as livestock feed components has also been
as soil conditioning ingredients, and reuse as livestock feed extensively researched (Ham et al., 1994, 1995; Hussein
ingredients. The last alternative includes both direct and Berger, 1995; Larson et al., 1993). Corn masa
feeding of the waste products and feeding the by-products production is one facet of the grain processing industry that
generates large quantities of waste materials, but to date,
has received little research attention regarding alternatives
Article was submitted for publication in August 1998; reviewed and
for by-product disposal.
approved for publication by the Food & Process Engineering Institute of Corn masa is used in the production of corn snack foods
ASAE in June 1999. Presented as ASAE Paper No. MC98-134. and tortilla chips, and has traditionally been utilized in the
Journal Paper No. J-18033 of the Iowa Agriculture and Home preparation of tortillas, which have been a staple in the diet
Economics Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, Project No. 3326, and of Mexican and Central American peoples for centuries.
supported by Hatch Act and State of Iowa Funds. Contribution No. 99-3-J
from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. Foods made with corn masa include tacos, tostadas,
The authors are Kurt A. Rosentrater, ASAE Student Member, tamales, quesadillas, panuchos, enchiladas, and others
Graduate Student, Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Dept., Iowa (Krause et al., 1992; Ortiz, 1985; Serna-Saldivar et al.,
State University, Ames, Iowa; Rolando A. Flores, ASAE Member 1990). Currently, Mexican foods and corn-based snacks in
Engineer, Associate Professor, Department of Grain Science and
Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas (formerly with
the United States are becoming more popular. Over $4
Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Dept. and Food Science and billion worth of Mexican foods were marketed in 1986, and
Human Nutrition Dept., Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa); Thomas L. approximately $2.5 billion worth of tortilla chips were
Richard, ASAE Member Engineer, Assistant Professor, and Carl J. produced in 1994 (Gomez et al., 1987; Wood, 1994). Corn
Bern, ASAE Fellow Engineer, Professor, Agricultural and Biosystems masa is produced by simulating ancient Aztec methods on
Engineering Dept., Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. Corresponding
author: Rolando A. Flores, Kansas State University, 104 Shellenberger an industrial-scale. Whole corn is boiled with 120 to 300%
Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506-2201; voice: (913) 532-4064; fax: (913) 532 water (original corn weight basis) and 0.1 to 2.0% lime
7010; e-mail: raf@wheat.ksu.edu. (original corn weight basis) for 0.5 to 3.0 h at 80 to 100°C,

Applied Engineering in Agriculture

VOL. 15(5): 515-523 © 1999 American Society of Agricultural Engineers 0883-8542 / 99 / 1505-515 515
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and is then steeped for up to 24 h. This process, called may effectively be developed for these waste materials.
nixtamalization, can be either a batch process or a Physical properties studied included moisture content,
continuous process, depending on production equipment. water activity, density, yield stress, pH, color, and drying
The cooked grain (nixtamal) is then separated from the analysis. Nutritional properties studied included protein,
steep liquor (nejayote), which is rich in lime and dissolved crude fat, ash, mineral composition, amino acid
corn pericarp tissue, is washed to remove any excess lime composition, and fiber content.
and pericarp, and is then stone ground to produce corn
masa. The masa will then be molded, cut, or extruded and
then baked or fried to make tortillas, corn chips, or tortilla MATERIALS AND METHODS
chips; or it will be dried and milled into flour (Gomez et SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION
al., 1987; Rooney and Serna-Saldivar, 1987; Serna-Saldivar Corn masa by-product samples, which were gray, pasty,
et al., 1990). semi-solid slurries, were obtained from a local white corn
The steep liquor and the rinse water contain between 2 masa processing facility after the decanting process
and 6% total (dissolved and suspended) solids. Generally (i.e., the samples collected were the separated suspended
the suspended solids (50 to 60% of the total solids) are solids from the waste stream). Five 3.5 L samples were
removed by screening, centrifugation, or decanting, and collected at random times from random batches and
disposed of in landfills. The remaining water and dissolved random production runs, from both batch and continuous
solids are sent to municipal facilities for treatment. The processing lines during the fall of 1996. The 10 samples
total solids in the waste stream, which consist primarily of were then placed in frozen storage at –10°C until testing
fiber-rich pericarp tissues, represent corn dry matter loss commenced. Prior to analysis, the samples were thawed at
that occurs during processing. Estimates of the original room temperature (25°C ± 2°C) for 24 h. All physical
corn dry matter loss have ranged from 5.0% to 17.0%. The properties, except moisture content and drying analysis,
following were found in the literature: 8.5 to 12.5% were determined at room temperature. All nutritional tests
(Pflugfelder et al., 1988), 8.0 to 17.0% (Rooney and Serna- were conducted as specified by the standard method used
Saldivar, 1987), 7.0 to 13.0% (Khan et al., 1982), 5.0 to for each property.
14.0% (Katz et al., 1974), 11.0 to 12.0% (Bressani et al.,
1958), and 13.3% (Gonzalez de Palacios, 1980). Corn dry EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
matter loss during nixtamalization is affected by many To investigate the properties of typical corn masa by-
processing variables, including corn hybrid and quality, products, five samples from each of two processes (a batch
lime type and concentration, cooking and steeping times process and a continuous process) were analyzed; thus two
and temperatures, friction during washing and transport, populations were present in this study. All properties were
and process equipment used. These processing losses can studied using a completely randomized design. For all
be economically significant due to lost masa yield, waste physical property testing (moisture content, water activity,
processing and disposal costs, and potential environmental density, yield stress, pH, color, and drying analysis), five
pollution. This waste generation is of particular concern in replicates were taken from each sample, which led to an
areas of substantial masa processing, such as Mexico City, overall sample size of 25 experimental units for each
where over 2400 Mg of corn is processed every day into production process (population). This maintained the Type-
corn masa for tortilla production (Gonzalez-Martinez, I (α) and Type-II (β) error rates at the 0.05 level and
1984). allowed the detectable statistically significant difference
Gonzalez-Martinez (1984) investigated four biological between populations to remain at 1.0 standard deviations.
treatment options for “nejayote”, including activated Protein, crude fat, and ash testing were performed with two
sludge, anaerobic contact processing, a submerged aerobic replicates taken from each sample, which led to an overall
fixed-film cascade reactor, and an anaerobic packed-bed sample size of 10 experimental units from each population.
reactor. However, little research has been conducted into This maintained the Type-I (α) and Type-II (β) error rates
alternative disposal methods for corn masa dry matter at the 0.05 level, but the detectable difference between
losses (i.e., the separated suspended solids), and none could populations increased to 1.8 standard deviations. Fiber
be found regarding the utilization of corn masa waste solids analysis was conducted with three replicates from each
in livestock feed rations. To effectively utilize and add sample, which produced a sample size of 15 experimental
value to these by-products, physical and nutritional units for each production process. This maintained the
properties for corn masa residual streams must be Type-I (α) and Type-II (β) error rates at the 0.05 level, and
quantified. Characterization of by-product materials the detectable difference between populations was set at
provides data that are essential for livestock diet 1.4 standard deviations (Nelson, 1985). Formal statistical
formulation, design of equipment and processing facilities, analyses on the collected data were performed via
and optimization of unit operations such as spray drying, Microsoft Excel (Microsoft, 1993) and SAS (SAS, 1992)
extrusion, blending, mixing, separating, heating, freezing, software.
dehydration, and material flow (Ferris et al., 1995; Amino acid composition was studied on the continuous-
Stroshine and Hamann, 1995). Little information has been process samples only, as was mineral analysis. One
gathered concerning the properties of corn masa by- replicate from each of the five samples was used in the
products, however. Because the demand for corn masa- amino acid study; whereas, one replicate from two of the
based products is increasing in the United States, the five samples was randomly selected for mineral analysis.
objective of this study was to characterize and quantify the Neither amino acid composition nor mineral composition
physical and nutritional properties of typical corn masa by- was included in the formal statistical analysis that was
product streams so that subsequent by-product applications conducted on all other physical and nutritional properties.

516 APPLIED ENGINEERING IN AGRICULTURE

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES were placed in aluminum moisture dishes that were 8 cm in

Moisture Content and Water Activity. Moisture diameter and 2.5 cm in height and were placed in a forced-
content (wet basis, w.b.) of the masa by-product samples convection laboratory oven (Thelco Model 160DM,
was determined using a method similar to AACC Method Precision Scientific, Inc., Chicago, Ill.). Samples were
44-15A (“Moisture-Air-Oven Methods”) (AACC, 1995). dried at temperatures of 80, 100, and 120°C for 2 h, and
By-product samples of 2 to 3 g were placed in open tared, sample mass over time was measured with an electronic
aluminum moisture dishes and dried at 130°C for 3 h in a balance. Sample masses were recorded every 5 min during
forced-convection laboratory oven (Thelco Model 160DM, the first hour of testing and every 10 min thereafter. Thus,
Precision Scientific, Inc., Chicago, Ill.). After drying, the drying curves were developed on a dry basis (d.b.) and
samples were allowed to cool in a desiccator, and sample drying rate prediction equations as a function of moisture
mass was then measured with an electronic balance (Model content and drying temperature were developed for the two
A-250, Denver Instrument Co., Arvada, Colo.). To by-products.
determine water activity of the masa by-products, 4-g
samples were placed in a previously calibrated water NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES
activity meter (Aqualab Model CX-2, Decagon Devices, Proximate Composition. Proximate analyses of dry
Inc., Pullman, Wash.). masa by-product samples included the determination of
Mass Density. The density of each by-product sample protein, crude fat, and ash contents. Protein and crude fat
was determined using a specific gravity cup (Model H- analyses were conducted by the Meat Laboratory at Iowa
38000-12, Cole-Parmer Instrument Co., Barrington, Ill.) State University, Ames, Iowa. Protein analysis followed the
and an electronic balance. The specific gravity cup has a AACC Standard Method 46-11A (“Crude protein-improved
known mass and volume; hence, to measure sample Kjeldahl method, copper catalyst modification”), using a
density, the cup was filled completely with sample factor of N × 6.25. Crude fat was determined using Method
material, the lid was placed on the cup, excess sample 30-25 (“Crude fat in wheat, corn, and soy flour, feeds, and
material was removed, and the filled cup was then weighed cooked feeds”) (AACC, 1995). Ash content was
on the balance. determined using the AACC Standard Method 08-03
Yield Stress. The yield stress of the by-product samples [“Ash-rapid (2-hour, 600°) method”, 1995], which utilized
was determined using the vane method with a digital 2 g samples placed in a muffle furnace at 600°C for 2 h.
viscometer (Model HBDV II+, Brookfield Engineering, Because protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrate contents sum to
Stoughton, Mass.) and a four-finned vane, which was 1.01 100% in the dry by-product, the carbohydrate contents of
cm in height and 1.2 cm in diameter; each fin was 1.4 mm the dry masa by-product samples could be calculated by
in width. By-product samples were placed in a 150 mL difference.
beaker which was 8 cm in height and 5.3 cm in diameter; Fiber Composition. Fiber analysis was conducted by
the vane was then placed 2 cm below the sample surface, the Forage Quality Laboratory at Iowa State University,
and a controlled constant shear rate of 0.34 s–1 (0.5 rpm) Ames, Iowa, using the Van Soest detergent system to
was applied. Using the vane method with a controlled shear determine Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF), Acid Detergent
rate, the yield stress was determined using the following Fiber (ADF), and lignin fractions of the masa by-product
equation: samples. These methods are widely used for the
determination of fiber composition of biological materials
and potential livestock feed ingredients (Moore and
Tm = π D
3
H + 1 τy (1) Hatfield, 1994; Van Soest et al., 1991).
2 D 3
Mineral Composition. Mineral analyses of the masa
by-product samples were conducted by the Analytical
where Tm is the torque exerted on the vane at yielding, D is Services Laboratory at Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa,
the overall vane diameter, H is the overall vane height, and and included the determination of calcium, potassium,
τy is the resultant yield stress (Dzuy and Boger, 1985; magnesium, and phosphorous. Prior to analysis, all samples
Yoo et al., 1995). were dried at 103°C for 24 h, and the portions used for
pH. To determine the pH of the masa by-product calcium, potassium, and magnesium were then digested in
samples, 10-g samples were placed in a 50-mL glass nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. Calcium and
beaker. A bench-top pH meter (Model PHB-62, Omega magnesium determinations were performed using Method
Engineering, Inc., Stamford, Conn.) was then used to SMEWW 3111 B, which utilized flame atomic absorption
measure the pH. spectrophotometry, and potassium analysis was conducted
Color. The color of each masa by-product sample was using Method SMEWW 3500-K D, which utilized flame
determined using a Hunter Colorimeter (Model LabScan photometry (APHA, 1995). Phosphorous content was
SN-12414, Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc., Reston, determined by dry ashing the samples using Method AOAC
Va.), using a view-port and view-area size of 1.27 cm 2.020c and then performing spectrophotometric
(0.5 in.), and the L-a-b opposable color scales (Hunter, measurements using the molybdovanadophosphate method
1983). The samples were placed in 100 mm × 15 mm prescribed in Method AOAC 2.026 (AOAC, 1980).
plastic petri dishes and were positioned in the instrument Amino Acid Composition. Amino acid profiles of the
for color determination after proper instrument calibration. masa by-product samples were conducted by the Protein
Drying Analysis. The drying studies that were Structure Core Facility at the University of Nebraska
performed on the masa by-products were similar to those Medical Center, Omaha, Nebr. The samples were dried,
conducted by Rosentrater and Flores (1997) on swine subjected to 6 N HCl hydrolysis for 20 h at 110°C, and
blood components. Masa by-product samples of 2 to 3 g

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then analyzed in an automated amino acid analyzer (Model mean values were significantly different (p < 0.05),
6300, Beckman Instruments, Inc., Fullerton, Calif.). however, which may reflect differences in the resulting
material structures due to differences in the batch and
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION continuous processing operations.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Yield Stress. Masa by-products, as shown in table 1,
Moisture Content and Water Activity. The moisture have very large yield stresses that are similar in magnitude
content results are shown in table 1. Masa by-products are to those of minced fish paste (1600-2300 N / m 2 )
very wet materials, even after the decanting process, and (Nakayama et al., 1980). Yield stress is a rheological
have moisture contents near 90% (w.b.). These moisture parameter that quantifies the shear stress required to initiate
levels preclude the direct shipping of the by-product flow in a liquid or semi-solid material, results from the
materials for incorporation into disposal alternatives; existence of particle structures, and is vital for the design of
instead, a drying mechanism will be required to reduce the transport processes and operations (Steffe, 1992). Because
high cost which is associated with the transportation of masa by-products have such large yield stress values,
water. Additionally, the water activity levels for the masa special considerations will need to be given to conveying
by-product samples (table 1) are greater than 0.999; thus operations for these materials during further processing.
the by-products are susceptible to microbial spoilage. pH. The pH results are shown in table 1. It was expected
Water activity quantifies the amount of “free” water that pH values would be fairly high for the masa by-
(i.e., unbound water) available in materials for use by product samples because nixtamalization generally
microorganisms and chemical agents, and hence is a employs a pH greater than 10.0 during the lime cooking
measure of susceptibility to spoilage and deterioration. process (Serna-Saldivar et al., 1990). Instead, the resulting
Products with no free water (aW = 0.0) are not at risk for pH values were fairly low (between 6.17 and 6.30). This
spoilage; whereas, materials with 100% free water (aW = may have occurred due to a large proportion of the lime
1.0) are at risk for rapid spoilage, which is the case for washing away with the rinse water during processing, or
masa by-products. Materials become safe from yeast possibly due to microbial activity during transit between
growth below water activities of approximately 0.9, safe the processing facility and the laboratory. Investigating the
from bacteria growth below approximately 0.8, and safe cause of the low pH values would be a valuable future
from mold growth below approximately 0.6 (Barbosa- study.
Canovas and Vega-Mercado, 1996). Color. The Hunter L, a, and b results are shown in
In order to effectively utilize masa by-products, table 1, and show some differences in color between the
dehydration is necessary to prevent microbial spoilage, and batch-processed and the continuous-processed masa by-
can be accomplished through drying, blending, or extrusion products, even though both processes used the same source
processing to an acceptable moisture level of and hybrid of raw white corn. Essentially, these results
approximately 12% (w.b.), which is typically describe masa by-products as gray material with a small
recommended for feed products because it substantially degree of yellowness.
reduces transportation costs and is microbiologically safe Drying Analysis. Drying analysis of biological
(Beauchat, 1981; Wang et al., 1997). materials is important for the proper design of drying
Mass Density. As shown in table 1, masa by-products processes and equipment. For the masa by-products in this
had density values slightly greater than that of water study, sample mass over time was monitored and used to
(approx. 999 kg/m 3). This was not unexpected due to the determine moisture contents and resulting drying rates at
high moisture contents of the by-product samples. The drying temperatures of 80, 100, and 120°C. A multiple
regression procedure with STEPWISE model selection
Table 1. Physical and nutritional properties of corn masa by-products
(SAS, 1992), selecting only significant terms, was then
used to determine polynomial regression prediction
Batch Continuous
Process Process
equations for drying rates as a function of moisture content
and drying temperature. The regression equation for the
Sample C.V. C.V.
Property Size (n) Mean (%) Mean (%) drying of batch-processed masa by-products, which had a
coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.93 and a sample
Moisture content (%, w.b.)* 25 89.29 0.68 88.15 1.13
Water activity (-)* 25 1.000 0.32 0.999 0.12 variance of 0.099, was determined to be:
Density (kg/m3)* 25 1030.85 1.23 1047.32 1.25
Yield stress (N/m2)* 25 1618.08 9.99 1440.04 19.69 DR = (0.0058) – (0.5719)M + (0.7625)M 2
pH (-) 25 6.30 2.12 6.17 9.35
Color: Hunter L value (-)* 25 49.13 4.96 35.15 6.25 – (0.5061)M 3 +
Color: Hunter a value (-)* 25 0.27 16.34 0.98 24.39 (0.1191)M 4 – (0.0117)M 5
Color: Hunter b value (-)* 25 9.38 11.63 6.85 7.15
Protein (%, d.b.) 10 4.76 8.71 4.90 7.29 + (0.0004)M 6 + (0.0111)(M)(T) (2)
Fat (%, d.b.)* 10 0.74 15.66 5.76 21.35
Ash (%, d.b.) 10 19.09 10.11 17.41 18.36
Carbohydrates (%, d.b.)* 10 75.41 2.30 71.93 3.18 where DR is the predicted by-product drying rate (g H2O/g
NDF (%, d.b.) 15 54.97 4.73 53.32 3.69 sample-h), M is the material moisture content (decimal dry
ADF (%, d.b.) 15 30.91 9.93 32.50 2.81 basis, d.b.), and T is the oven drying temperature (°C). The
Lignin (%, d.b.)* 15 0.36 68.07 0.67 55.89
Calcium (%, d.b.) 2 --- --- 4.68 17.39 graph of this regression function is shown in figure 1. A
Potassium (%, d.b.) 2 --- --- 0.07 15.43 similar regression equation for the drying of continuous-
Magnesium (%, d.b.) 2 --- --- 0.13 13.14 processed masa by-products, which had a coefficient of
Phosphorous (%, d.b.) 2 --- --- 0.57 9.68
determination (R2) of 0.90 and a sample variance of 0.060,
* Denotes a significant difference between batch - and continuous-process was determined to be:
means at the 0.05 level.

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Figure 1–Drying curves for batch-processed corn masa by-products at drying temperatures of 80, 100, and 120°C.

that began at moisture contents of 7.80 and 4.41 (d.b.); and

DR = (0.0017) – (0.6537)M 2 + (0.2719)M 3 at 120°C had falling rate periods that began at moisture
contents of 7.79 and 4.17 (d.b.). For continuous-processed
– (0.0330)M 4 + (0.0001)M 6 + (0.0118)(M)(T) by-products, critical moisture contents decreased with
increasing drying temperature, but drying temperature
– (0.0003)(M 4)(T) + (0.0001)(M 5)(T) (3) seemed to have little effect on critical moisture content for
batch-processed samples. Also, it appears that, at least
The graph of this prediction equation is shown in figure 2. initially, drying rates for the batch-processed by-product
When a material is dried, water is first removed within a are higher than those for the continuous-processed by-
“constant drying rate” period, during which both surface product. The differences in drying behavior between the
and unbound water evaporate at a constant rate. After the two processing techniques may be due to differences in the
unbound water has been removed, the drying rate begins to material structures which result from the cooking process
fall, and the process enters a “falling rate” period, of which used (i.e., continuous vs batch processing).
there may be more than one. At this point, drying is no Thermal Properties. Although thermal analyses were
longer governed by surface evaporation but by mass not actually conducted, enough information was collected
transfer within the material. This moisture transfer may to estimate thermal conductivity, specific heat, and thermal
occur due to several processes, including evaporation diffusivity. Thermal conductivity can be estimated using
within the solid material, diffusion, and capillary two prediction equations (Anderson, 1950; Spells 1961):
movement, and may be adversely affected by gravity,
material pore structures, and case hardening at the material k = kW XW + kS(1 – XW) (4)
surface (Barbosa-Canovas and Vega-Mercado, 1996).
Second derivative analysis was used to determine the k = 0.056 + 0.57XW (5)
inflection points in the regression curves, and thus
determine where the critical moisture contents occurred where k is the estimated thermal conductivity (W/m·K),
(i.e., where the falling rate periods began). Batch-processed kW is the thermal conductivity of water (0.602 W/m·K),
masa by-products at 80°C had falling rate periods that XW is the mass fraction of water (-), and k S is the thermal
began at moisture contents of 6.08, 3.25, and 0.82 (d.b.); at conductivity of organic solids (approx. 0.259 W/m·K).
100°C had falling rate periods that began at moisture Using equation 4, predicted thermal conductivities of
contents of 5.97, 3.27, and 0.82 (d.b.); and at 120°C had batch- and continuous-processed masa by-products were,
falling rate periods that began at 5.95, 3.28, and 0.82 (d.b.). respectively, 0.565 and 0.561 W/m·K, and with equation 5,
Continuous-processed masa by-products at 80°C had 0.565 and 0.558 W / m ·K. Specific heat can also be
falling rate periods that began at moisture contents of 7.81, predicted using two equations (Stroshine and Hamann,
5.27, 2.61, and 2.00 (d.b.); at 100°C had falling rate periods 1995; Choi and Okos, 1986):

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Figure 2–Drying curves for continuous-processed corn masa by-products at drying temperatures of 80, 100, and 120°C.

NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES
cp = 0.837 + 3.348M (6) Proximate Composition. The proximate compositions
of dry masa by-products are shown in table 1, and are vital
cp = 4.180XW + 1.711Xp + 1.928Xf for the assessment of the suitability of masa by-products as
livestock feed additives. The results show that for both
+ 1.547Xc + 0.908Xa (7) processes, the by-products are low in both protein and fat,
moderate in ash content, and high in carbohydrate content.
where cp is the estimated specific heat (kJ/kg·K), M is the Jurgens (1988) has outlined nutritional requirements for
moisture content (decimal wet basis — w.b.), Xp is the various livestock diets. Growing and finishing swine (18 to
mass fraction of protein (-), Xf is the mass fraction of fat 109 kg in body mass) require 13 to 15% crude protein in
(-), Xc is the mass fraction of carbohydrates (-), and Xa is their rations; growing and finishing beef cattle (300 to
the mass fraction of ash (-). Using equation 6, the predicted 400 kg) require 10.6 to 13.5% crude protein; growing and
values of specific heat for the batch- and continuous- finishing sheep (25 to 50 kg) require 12.9 to 17.2% crude
processed masa by-products were, respectively, 3.826 and protein; and poultry require 14.0 to 23.2% crude protein.
3.788 kJ / k g·K, and using equation 7, 3.848 and Consequently, to effectively utilize masa by-products as a
3.817 kJ/kg·K. Thermal diffusivity can then be determined livestock feed source, a high-protein supplemental material,
using: such as soybean meal, should be used in addition to the
masa by-products for the development of a feed ingredient.
Fiber Composition. The fiber composition results are
α= k (8)
ρc p shown in table 1. Carbohydrates in organic materials
consist of nitrogen-free extract and crude fiber. Nitrogen-
free extract contains soluble sugars and starches, which are
where α is the thermal diffusivity (m2 /s), and ρ is the mass easily digested by livestock. Crude fiber, on the other hand,
density (kg/m 3 ). Using equations 4 and 6 to estimate consists of cellulose and hemicellulose (which can be
thermal conductivity and specific heat, the predicted digested only by ruminant animals due to microflora in the
thermal diffusivities for batch- and continuous-processed rumen) and lignin, which is essentially indigestible.
masa by-products were, respectively, 1.43 × 10–7 and 1.41 Ruminant microflora produce cellulase, the enzyme
× 10 –7 m2 /s. These values were all very similar to those for necessary to digest cellulose. Neutral Detergent Fiber
water, which was not unexpected, due to the high moisture (NDF) consists of cell wall materials, provides a measure
contents of the masa by-product samples. Still, a future of the total cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin content of a
investigation of measured thermal properties would be very material, and can be used as an indicator of voluntary feed
beneficial to verify the predicted estimates. intake for livestock. Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) provides a
measure of total cellulose and lignin content of a material

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(Jurgens, 1988). Utilizing the above relationships, it was Table 3. Statistically significant correlation coefficients
(p < 0.05) for masa by-product properties
determined that the hemicellulose contents of batch- and
continuous-processed masa by-products, respectively, were Correlation
Variable Associations Coefficient (r)
24.06 and 20.82% (d.b.), and the cellulose contents,
respectively, were 30.55 and 31.83% (d.b.). Masa by- a b –0.767
products are high in cellulose and hemicellulose and are a Density 0.744
a Fat 0.819
low in lignin, and therefore would be well suited for use as a Moisture content –0.704
potential feed ingredients for ruminant animals, which can b Density –0.690
digest these fibrous materials. b Fat –0.905
Mineral Composition. The mineral compositions of Carbohydrate a –0.808
Carbohydrate Density – 0.718
dry continuous-processed masa by-products are shown in Carbohydrate Moisture content 0.778
table 1. Of all minerals studied, calcium occurred in the L a –0.828
greatest quantity, with a mean value of 4.68% (d.b.), which L b 0.978
accounted for 26.9% of all ash material in the dry masa by- L Density –0.700
product. The remaining minerals studied—potassium, L Fat –0.944
Lignin Yield stress –0.865
magnesium, and phosphorous—combined, accounted for Moisture content Density –0.886
only 4.4% of all ash in the dry by-product. These results
suggest that masa by-products are potentially a source of
both calcium and fiber for livestock diets. However, highly significant correlations occurred between L and b
because substantial variability occurred in the data, it (r = 0.978), L and Fat Content (r = –0.944), and b and Fat
would be beneficial to conduct a further study of mineral Content (r = –0.905), and thus warrant further exploration.
content. To further investigate the relationships and interactions
Amino Acid Composition. The amino acid between the masa by-product properties, a principal
compositions of dry continuous-processed masa by- components analysis was conducted on the 15 measured
products are shown in table 2. Even though corn masa by- properties using the mean property values for each sample.
products are low in protein content, the protein which is Principal components analysis is used to reduce the
present is rich in the essential amino acids leucine and dimensionality of multivariate data by summarizing the
proline, and in the nonessential amino acids alanine, variance in the data and projecting it into a set of
asparagine, glutamine, and glycine. However, masa by- uncorrelated orthogonal linear combinations of the original
products are low in the essential amino acids arginine, variables. For this study, these linear combinations, or
histidine, and methionine, and in the nonessential amino principal components, have the form:
acid tyrosine.
yP.C. = a1X1 + a2X2 + . . . + a15X15 (9)
PROPERTY RELATIONSHIPS
The relationships between the 15 measured physical and where yP.C. is a principal component value, or score, a1
nutritional properties in the study were investigated using a through a 15 are the principal component coefficients
correlation analysis of the mean property values for each (i.e., eigenvectors), and X1 through X15 are the original
sample. Fifteen of the resulting Pearson product-moment property variables that were measured in the study (Everitt
correlations (Speigel, 1994) were significant (p < 0.05) and Dunn, 1991). The results for the principal components
(table 3). The remainder of the correlations were not. The analysis are presented in table 4, which shows the
correlation coefficient (r) quantifies the strength of the eigenvectors and eigenvalues for the first five principal
linear relationship between two variables, and as shown in components. The first five principal components accounted
the table, eight of the variable combinations in the study for 92.6% of the total variability in the data, and thus
had resulting correlation coefficients greater than 0.80 and provide both a convenient and comprehensive summary of
thus exhibited fairly strong linear relationships. The most the information contained in the original 15 property
variables, utilizing a reduced dimensionality of only five
Table 2. Amino acid composition of the protein in dry continuous- variables. Although the interpretation of principal
process corn masa by-products (amino acid g/100 g protein, d.b.) components is very subjective, the first principal
Amino Acid Mean (n = 5) C.V. (%) component appears to be an indication of material
Alanine 11.35 2.99
structure, while the second principal component appears to
Arginine 2.22 5.87 be an indication of chemical composition. Another
Asparagine 8.06 2.25 advantage in using principal components analysis to
Glutamine 13.85 2.14 summarize data is the ability to easily identify outliers,
Glycine 10.18 4.88 through examination of scatterplots of the calculated
Histidine 2.58 3.24
Isoleucine 3.58 1.25 principal component scores. Using this approach, it was
Leucine 10.13 3.62 determined that an outlier did occur in the continuous-
Lysine 4.62 5.17 process by-product data. This outlier was produced by two
Methionine 1.10 9.09 yield stress readings that were somewhat lower than the
Phenylalanine 3.72 5.51
Proline 9.38 0.89
typical yield stress values for the by-product materials, and
Serine 6.44 1.77 might indicate a possible difference in material structure
Threonine 6.10 2.01 due to the continuous-cooking process. Even though the
Tyrosine 0.62 17.67 current study has been fairly extensive, it would be useful
Valine 6.03 0.74 to further investigate these relationships and interactions.

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Table 4. Eigenvectors of the first five principal components Barbosa-Canovas, G. V., and H. Vega-Mercado. 1996. Dehydration of
for masa by-product properties* Foods. New York, N.Y.: Int. Thomson Publishing.
Property P.C. 1 P.C. 2 P.C. 3 P.C. 4 P.C. 5 Beauchat, L. R. 1981. Microbial stability as affected by water
activity. Cereal Foods World 26(7): 345-349.
Moisture content (%, w.b.) 0.316 0.251 0.096 –0.280 –0.015
Bohlsen, D., S. Weeder, and S. Wang. 1997. Tracking organic
Water activity (-) 0.136 –0.043 0.539 –0.394 0.143
Density (kg/m3) –0.344 –0.109 –0.094 0.248 0.020 waste. Resource 4(9): 13-14.
Yield stress (N/m2) 0.267 –0.152 –0.412 –0.132 –0.049 Bressani, R., R. Paz y Paz, and N. S. Scrimshaw. 1958. Corn
pH (-) 0.037 –0.333 0.378 –0.281 –0.134 nutrient losses: Chemical changes in corn during preparation of
L (-) 0.353 –0.157 0.122 0.205 0.112 tortillas. J. Agric. Food Chem. 6: 770.
a (-) –0.351 –0.078 0.073 –0.216 –0.141 Choi, Y., and M. Okos. 1986. Thermal properties of liquid foods-
b (-) 0.345 –0.133 0.132 0.173 0.208
review. In Physical and Chemical Properties of Food, ed. M.
Protein (%, d.b.) –0.047 0.312 –0.043 –0.067 0.711
Fat (%, d.b.) –0.326 0.195 0.006 –0.363 –0.075 Okos, 35-77. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE.
Ash (%, d.b.) 0.034 –0.564 0.101 0.217 0.044 Dzuy, N. Q., and D. V. Boger. 1985. Direct yield stress measurement
Carbohydrate (%, d.b.) 0.302 0.338 –0.102 0.148 –0.071 with the vane method. J. Rheology 29(3): 335-347.
NDF (%, d.b.) 0.163 0.355 0.360 0.195 –0.352 Everitt, B. S., and G. Dunn. 1991. Applied Multivariate Data
ADF (%, d.b.) –0.186 0.216 0.292 0.434 –0.232 Analysis. New York, N.Y.: Halsted Press.
Lignin (%, d.b.) –0.248 0.024 0.323 0.240 0.433
Ferris, D. A., R. A. Flores, C. W. Shanklin, and M. K. Whitworth.
Eigenvalue 6.592 2.834 2.141 1.288 1.035 1995. Proximate analysis of food service wastes. Applied
Proportion of 43.94 18.90 14.27 8.59 6.90 Engineering in Agriculture 11(4): 567-572.
variation explained (%) Gomez, M. H., L. W. Rooney, R. D. Waniska, and R. L.
Total variation 43.94 62.84 77.11 85.70 92.60
explained (%) Pflugfelder. 1987. Dry corn masa flours for tortilla and snack
food production. Cereal Foods World 32(5): 372-377.
* P.C. denotes principal component eigenvector. Gonzalez de Palacios, M. 1980. Characteristics of corn and
sorghum for tortilla processing. Unpub. M.S. thesis. College
Station, Tex.: Texas A&M University.
Gonzalez-Martinez, S. 1984. Biological treatability of the
wastewaters from the alkaline cooking of maize (Indian corn).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Environ. Technol. Letters 5(8): 365-372.
Characterization of the residual streams from masa Ham, G. A., R. A. Stock, T. J. Kopfenstein, E. M. Larson, D. J.
processing plants provides physical and nutritional data Shain, and R. P. Huffman. 1994. Wet corn distillers by-products
necessary for effective utilization of these by-product compared with dried corn distillers grains with solubles as a
materials. Masa by-products (i.e., suspended solids source of protein and energy for ruminants. J. Animal Science
removed from masa processing waste water) are very 72(12): 3246.
Ham, G. A., R. A. Stock, T. J. Klopfenstein, and R. P. Huffman.
suitable for use as livestock feed additives, or components
1995. Determining the net energy value of wet and dry corn
thereof. Because these by-products are high in fiber gluten feed in beef growing and finishing diets. J. Animal
(especially cellulose and hemicellulose), they would be Science 73(2): 353-359.
best suited for ruminant diets. Additionally, the products Hunter Associates Laboratory, Inc. 1983. Instruction Manual:
have a substantial calcium content, so there is also potential Hunterlab LabScan Spectro Colorimeter. Reston, Va.: Hunter
for use as a calcium source for livestock diets. No matter Associates Laboratory, Inc.
how masa by-products are eventually utilized, they must be Hussein, H. S., and L. L. Berger. 1995. Effects of feed intake and
dehydrated to reduce transportation costs, to decrease dietary level of wet corn gluten feed on feedlot performance,
microbial activity, and to increase shelf life. This can be digestibility of nutrients, and carcass characteristics of
accomplished through drying, blending, or extrusion growing-finishing beef heifers. J. Animal Science 73(11): 3246.
Jurgens, M. H. 1988. Animal Feeding and Nutrition. Dubuque,
processing, all of which would be appropriate areas for
Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The authors would like to thank the Khan, M. N., M. C. Des Rosiers, L. W. Rooney, R. G. Morgan, and
Recycling and Reuse Technology Transfer Center V. E. Sweat. 1982. Corn tortillas: Evaluation of corn cooking
(RRTTC) at the University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, procedures. Cereal Chemistry 59(4): 279-284.
Iowa, for financial support and the Center for Crops Krause, V. M., K. L. Tucker, H. V. Kuhnlein, C. Y. Lopez-Palacios,
Utilization Research (CCUR) at Iowa State University, M. Ruz, and N. W. Solomons. 1992. Rural-urban variation in
Ames, Iowa, for use of equipment and facilities. They limed maize use and tortilla consumption by women in
would also like to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Guatemala. Ecol. Food & Nutrit. 28(4): 279-288.
Larson, E. M., R. A. Stock, T. J. Klopfenstein, J. H. Sindt, and R.
Hyesun Park during initial stages of nutritional analysis.
P. Huffman. 1993. Feeding value of wet distillers by-products
for finishing ruminants. J. Animal Science 71(8): 2228.
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