Food Chemistry 80 (2003) 9–15

www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Composition and technological properties of the flour

and bran from common and tartary buckwheat
G. Bonafacciaa, M. Marocchinia, I. Kreftb,*
a
Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca sugli Alimenti e la Nutrizione, Via Ardeatina 546, 00178 Rome, Italy
b
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia

Received 19 February 2002; accepted 25 March 2002

Abstract
Common buckwheat and tartary buckwheat were milled in a stone mill. The contents of protein, lipid, starch, dietary fibre and
vitamins B1, B2 and B6 were analysed in the flour and bran. There was a prevalence of unsaturated fatty acids—C18:1, C18:2,
C18:3 and C20:1. In both species most lipid substances are concentrated in the bran. In common buckwheat bran, protein content
was 21.6%, and in tartary buckwheat, 25.3%. There were relatively small differences in the contents of vitamins B1 and B2 between
the two main utilisable milling fractions, but more substantial differences in the contents of vitamins B6 (up to 0.61 mg/100 g in the
tartary buckwheat bran fraction). Total B vitamin content was higher in tartary buckwheat than in common buckwheat. On the
basis of these analyses, it can be concluded that tartary buckwheat bran is an excellent food material with a potential for pre-
ventative nutrition.
# 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Common buckwheat; Tartary buckwheat; Amino acid; Fatty acid; Fibre; Vitamin B

1. Introduction their name according to the area in which they are

produced.
Two types of buckwheat are used around the world: In Europe, buckwheat has been grown for centuries
common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) and tar- and is now, alongside spelt wheat (Bonafaccia, Galli,
tary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum). Which one is Francisci, Mair, Skrabanja, & Kreft, 2000), one of the
used depends on the production zone. Generally, in most important alternative crops, suitable for ecological
Europe, USA, Canada, Brazil, South Africa and Aus- growing, without the use of artificial fertilizers or pesti-
tralia, the more common buckwheat is grown. The same cides. It is used for flour and groats products in central
is true in most Asian buckwheat growing countries, for and eastern Europe (Kreft, 1994). For many years, culti-
example Japan, Korea, and the central and northern vation of buckwheat declined, but recent interest in old,
parts of China. Tartary buckwheat (Lin, Tao, & Li, traditional foods and a re-evaluation of typical regional
1992) is grown and used in the mountainous regions of products, has led to a resurgence in its cultivation. Buck-
southwest China (Sichuan). In northern India, Bhutan, wheat products are known for their resistant starch
and Nepal both types are known, tartary buckwheat (Skrabanja, Laerke, & Kreft, 1998; Skrabanja, Liljeberg,
being grown in more harsh climatic conditions. Kreft, & Björck, 2001) and as an important source of
Many buckwheat flour products are quite similar. antioxidative substances (Kreft, Bonafaccia, & Zigo,
Buckwheat pasta is used in Italy (pizzoccheri), in Japan, 1994; Kreft, Skrabanja, Ikeda, Ikeda, & Bonafaccia, 1996;
as soba and in Korea and China as extruded noodles and Kreft, Knapp, & Kreft, 1999; Nagai, Sakai, Inoue, Inoue,
‘‘cats’ ears’’; also there are buckwheat pizza and ‘‘pole- & Suzuki, 2001; Park et al., 2000; Watanabe, 1998), trace
nta’’ type buckwheat porridge (zganci in Slovenia, sterz elements (Ikeda & Yamashita, 1994), and dietary fibre
in Austria, soba-gaki in Japan). The products change (Steadman, Burgoon, Lewis, Edwardson, & Obendorf
2001). Buckwheat proteins have a high biological value,
* Corresponding author. Tel./Fax: +386-1-5171488. but relatively low true digestibility (Skrabanja, Nygaard,
E-mail address: ivan.kreft@guest.arnes.si (I. Kreft). & Kreft, 2000). Buckwheat protein products have been
0308-8146/02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0308-8146(02)00228-5
10 G. Bonafaccia et al. / Food Chemistry 80 (2003) 9–15

associated with preventative nutrition. In experimental 110 kg/h. The stone mill was used to respect as much as
animals they suppress gallstone formation better than soy possible traditional buckwheat milling practice. Differ-
protein isolate (Tomotake, Shimaoka, Kayashita, ent milling fractions were obtained: flour, bran and
Yokoyama, Nakajoh, & Kato, 2000). They are associated husk fraction.
with retardation of mammary carcinogenesis by lowering Milling yields were:
serum estradiol, and with suppression of colon carcino-
genesis by reducing cell proliferation (Kayashita, Shi- common buckwheat: flour 55.4%, bran 24.2%, husk
maoka, Nakajoh, Kishida, & Kato, 1999; Liu et al., 2001). 17.4%, milling losses 3.0%.
There are, however, only a few reports on the technolo- tartary buckwheat: flour 55.6%, bran 24.4%, husk
gical quality of buckwheat (Bonafaccia & Kreft, 1994; 15.7%, milling losses 4.3%.
Ikeda, 1997; Ikeda, Kishida, Kreft, & Yasumoto, 1997).
Common buckwheat is grown in all parts of Slovenia.
The ‘green’ social attitude here is widespread (Vadnal, All procedures were repeated and analysed indepen-
1993), so it is important to develop and to extend dently three times.
environmentally-conscious technologies and to increase
the growing of alternative crops such as buckwheat. In 2.3. Chemical analyses
Italy, common buckwheat is grown in the Alpine region
(Valtellina and Val Venosta) and is used for preparing Amino-acid analyses were performed using Beckman
typical, regional food products. Tartary buckwheat was System Gold (Moore, Spackman, & Stein, 1958).
grown in both countries in past centuries but, since AACC (1995) methods were used to determine moisture
about 1980, this has ceased. As far as we know, the content (44–15A). Protein was determined by the Kjel-
cross border region Islek—which covers northern dahl method (979.09; AOAC, 1990), using a nitrogen to
Luxemburg, the Westeifel (Germany) and the border protein conversion factor of 5.75. Ash was determined
area of the German-speaking part of Belgium—is at according to the method of ICC (1990). Starch was
present the only place in Europe where the tartary determined by the glucose oxidase/peroxidase assay for
buckwheat is still grown for human food, on approxi- glucose (Karkalas, 1985), performed on samples after
mately 50 ha. The Luxemburg ministry of agriculture the dual alpha-amylase and amyloglucosidase hydro-
has charged the University of Ljubljana to perform a lysis (Holm, Björck, Drews, & Asp, 1986). Lipids were
pluriannual research project in order to develop the extracted with chloroform and methanol (2:1 v/v),
cultivation and utilization of tartary buckwheat. trans-esterified with BF3, and analysed by gas chroma-
As mentioned above, some studies have been reported tography with a capillary column (SP 2330, 30 meter,
on compositional and nutritional characteristics, Supelco, Palo Alto CA, USA) and a flame ionisation
including contents of rutin, quercetin, polyphenols and detector. Fatty acids were identified by comparison with
minerals, but there is little information about the qual- a chromatographic profile of standards (Finotti, Mor-
ity of lipids, the content of B vitamins and about tech- etto, Marsella, & Mercantini, 1993). Lipid content was
nological parameters, like granulometry and colour, in determined by the method 985.29 according to AOAC
common and tartary buckwheats. (1990). Vitamins were analysed by HPLC (WATERS 625
The aim of this study was to compare the chemical LC System, WATERS 486 tuneable absorbance detector,
composition of common and tartary buckwheats and to Milford, MA 01757, USA) according to Hasselmann,
evaluate the main utilisable grain milling fractions of Frank, Grimm, Diop, and Soules (1989) and Rees
the two species. (1989). Dietary fibre was determined according to Prosky,
Asp, Schweizer, Devries, and Furda (1988). All analyses
were performed in three independent determinations.
2. Material and methods
2.4. Granulometry analysis
2.1. Buckwheat samples
Granulometry analysis was performed by an auto-
Common buckwheat cv. Siva, grown in Dolenjska, matic sieve (Buhler ML1–300) with circular oscillation.
Slovenia in 1999, and a domestic population of tartary Running time was 5 min, oscillation frequency 200
buckwheat from Islek, grown in 1999 in the northern turns/min, with a run of 25 mm.
part of Luxemburg, were used.
2.5. Colour
2.2. Milling process
Colour value (L*, a* and b*) analysis was performed
The milling process was performed by a flint-stone using a reflectance colorimeter Minolta, Chroma-Meter
mill (Bergerac; Dordogne, France), with a capacity of Cl-200, according to method CIE (1971).
 G. Bonafaccia et al. / Food Chemistry 80 (2003) 9–15 11

L* value is the brightness of the colour in the range of higher proportion of soluble fibre in tartary buckwheat
values from 0 (black) to 100 (white); the higher the than in common buckwheat, but this may well depend
values, the brighter the colour. The value of a* indicates on the varieties studied. Such results may depend, also.
the redness of sample namely (green) to + (red). The on growing conditions and milling methods. Steadman
b* value indicates the yellowness of the sample namely et al. (2001) obtained comparable results for common
(blue) to + (yellow). buckwheat grown in the USA (tartary buckwheat was
not studied), but the proportion of soluble fibre in total
2.6. Statistical analysis fibre was higher in their samples.

The data were statistically analysed using STATG 3.2. Amino acid composition
(Statgraphics 5.0, Statistical Graphics Corporation, USA).
The amino acid compositions of the flour and bran
products of common and tartary buckwheat are repor-
3. Results and discussion ted in Table 3. The amino acid composition is similar in
the two buckwheat species and is characterized by a
3.1. Chemical composition high lysine content, amounting to about 6 mg/100 g of
proteins. Similar amino acid composition results were
The chemical composition of common buckwheat is reported earlier for common buckwheat (Pomeranz &
given in Table 1. In the bran, protein content was above Robins, 1972; Bonafaccia & Kreft, 1994).
21%, and lipid content around 7%. In the flour, these
values were 10% for protein and 2% for lipid content. 3.3. Vitamins
For tartary buckwheat, the trend was the same (Table 2)
and the protein content of the bran was about 25%. The samples showed a good content of B vitamins, as
The value of buckwheat proteins in the diet for seen in Table 4. Because vitamin B1 (thiamine) is
preventative nutrition was noted in the Introduction. involved mainly in energy metabolism, recommended
Buckwheat has proteins of relatively low digestibility levels of this compound are defined in comparison to
(Eggum, Javornik, & Kreft, 1980; Ikeda et al., 1986; energetic uptake, and generally the requirement is 0.4 mg/
Skrabanja et al., 2000), and this may explain the effects 1000 kcal (Commission, 1993). Tartary buckwheat flour
on lowering serum estradiol. The relatively high content (200 g) satisfy the daily requirement for a diet of 2000 kcal.
of proteins in buckwheat bran milling fractions There are relatively small differences in the contents
indicates their potential for preventative nutrition. of vitamins B1 and B2 between the two main utilisable
Fibre analysis (Tables 1 and 2) showed that common milling fractions, but more substantial differences in the
and tartary buckwheat contain similar amounts. The content of B6 vitamins (up to 0.61 mg/100 g in the tar-
soluble fraction was found especially in the bran, at tary buckwheat bran fraction). Tartary buckwheat bran
levels of around 1%. Our analyses showed a somewhat (100 g) contains about 6% of the daily therapeutic doses

Table 1
Chemical composition of common buckwheat and milling products (% dry-weight basis S.D.a)

Protein Ash Fat Starch Dietary fibre

Total Soluble Insoluble % sol.

Grain 11.7 0.04 2.190.01 2.88 0.06 55.80.15 27.380.19 0.78 0.07 26.600.16 2.85
Bran 21.6 0.08 4.080.01 7.20 0.04 40.70.21 26.370.27 0.91 0.10 25.460.25 3.45
Flour 10.6 0.04 1.820.02 2.34 0.08 78.40.27 6.770.18 0.88 0.06 5.890.12 12.99
a
Standard deviation for three independent determinations.

Table 2
Chemical composition of tartary buckwheat and milling products (% dry-weight basis S.D.a)

Protein Ash Fat Starch Dietary fibre

Total Soluble Insoluble % sol.

Grain 11.10.01 2.81 0.01 2.810.09 57.4 0.12 25.970.35 0.540.09 25.430.24 1.73
Bran 25.30.06 4.97 0.01 7.350.11 37.6 0.31 24.760.26 1.180.07 23.580.21 4.77
Flour 10.30.02 1.80 0.01 2.450.08 79.4 0.29 6.290.12 0.520.09 5.77 0.11 8.27
a
Standard deviation for three independent determinations.
12 G. Bonafaccia et al. / Food Chemistry 80 (2003) 9–15

of pyridoxine, effective (along with folic acid and vita- The B vitamin content is higher in tartary buckwheat
min B12) in the reduction of blood plasma homo- than in common buckwheat. Some difference in the
cysteine levels and in the decrease of the rate of content of Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) was found between
restenosis after coronary angioplasty (Schnyder et al., flour and bran. The highest quantity of this vitamin is
2001). concentrated in the bran, with 0.21 and 0.32 mg /100 g
for the common and tartary buckwheat, respectively.
Table 3 Given the superior protein content and the B vitamin
Amino acid composition of common and tartary buckwheat products
profile, tartary buckwheat bran exhibits the properties
(g/100 g protein)
of an excellent food material.
Common buckwheat Tartary buckwheat

Bran Flour Bran Flour 3.4. Fatty acid composition

Ala 4.35 4.63 4.31 4.69 The fatty acid composition in common and tartary
Arg 10.5 9.91 11.0 9.63
Asp 10.3 10.2 10.1 10.3
buckwheat are listed in Table 5. In the common buck-
Cys 2.06 2.73 2.61 2.66 wheat, unsaturated fatty acids (C18:1, C18:2, C18:3,
Glu 18.8 17.6 18.4 17.1 C20:1) prevail. In the tartary buckwheat, there is rela-
Gly 6.11 6.09 6.01 5.92 tively less unsaturated fatty acid and instead more of the
His 2.66 2.47 2.73 2.62 principal saturated fatty acids C16:0 and C18:0, as
Ile 3.77 3.93 3.96 4.23
Leu 6.51 6.92 6.35 7.11
reflected in the unsaturated/saturated fatty acids ratio.
Lys 5.47 5.84 5.88 6.18 In both species, most lipid substances are con-
Met 1.09 1.41 1.33 1.42 centrated in the bran fraction.
Phe 4.54 4.62 4.46 4.71
Pro 4.04 4.45 4.08 4.52 3.5. Granulometry analysis
Ser 5.17 5.02 5.20 5.19
Thr 3.55 3.71 3.47 3.72
Tyr 2.71 2.70 2.85 2.87 The granulometry values of milling products, flours
Val 5.13 5.23 5.19 5.19 and bran, for common and tartary buckwheat, are pre-
sented in Fig. 1. In the flours studied, the size of the

Table 4
Contents of vitamins B1, B2 and B6 in common and tartary buckwheat and their milling products (mg/100 g)

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)

Common buckwheat
Grain 0.22 0.06 0.100.03 0.170.04
Bran 0.31 0.08 0.210.03 0.580.06
Flour 0.28 0.02 0.140.05 0.150.04
Tartary buckwheat
Grain 0.41 0.04 0.120.02 0.250.03
Bran 0.61 0.08 0.320.04 0.610.06
Flour 0.40 0.07 0.280.02 0.180.03

Table 5
Fatty acid composition of common and tartary buckwheat (g/100 g total fatty acids)

Fatty acid Common buckwheat (%) Tartary buckwheat (%)

Myristic (C14:0) 0.0 0.0

Palmitic (C16:0) 15.6 19.7
Palmitoleic (C16:1) 0.0 0.0
Stearic (C18:0) 2.0 3.0
Oleic (C18:1) 37.0 35.2
Linoleic (C18:2) 39.0 36.6
Linolenic (C18:3) 1.0 0.7
Arachidonic (C20:0) 1.8 1.8
Eicosaenoic (C20:1) 2.3 2.0
Behenic (C22:0) 1.1 0.8
Saturated 20.5 25.3
Unsaturated 79.3 74.5
Unsaturated/saturated 3.87 2.94
 G. Bonafaccia et al. / Food Chemistry 80 (2003) 9–15 13

particles is very similar, with a prevalence of particles in 4. Conclusion

the range from 130 to 85 mm. In the milling products of
tartary buckwheat, there was a higher proportion of The comparative study of the chemical composition
bran (particles > 363 mm). Larger particles are mainly of the main utilisable grain milling fractions of common
parts of the cotyledons, folded through the endosperm. and tartary buckwheat has shown that bran of tartary
Flour consists mainly of the endosperm particles. buckwheat has even higher thiamine, riboflavin and
The higher percentage of milling losses in tartary pyridoxine content than common buckwheat products.
buckwheat is probably due to the small size of some In addition to the relatively good fatty acid composi-
tartary buckwheat grains, which could be lost during tion, the high dietary fibre and protein content of bran
the sieving and milling process. of tartary buckwheat, the vitamin B levels make it an
excellent food material with a potential for use in pre-
3.6. Colour ventative nutrition.
Tartary and common buckwheats have a potential,
Results of the colour analysis are shown in Fig. 2. L* not only as functional foods, but also as ‘ethnic’ foods
value is the brightness of the colour in the range of of local traditions in different parts of Europe. It would
values from 0 to 100; the higher the values the brighter also be possible to design some novel foods by imitating
being the colour. In the samples tested in this study, the traditional foods. As bread is readily available, cheap
brightness component of the seed is lighter than that of and nutrious and may, in some European countries,
the milling products. The common buckwheat cultivar constitute the main part of one or more of the daily
studied is the Slovenian cv. Siva, which has an excep- meals (Tas & El, 2000), it is a challenge to fortify bread
tionally light silver grey grain husk, while many other with tartary buckwheat bran. There is a rapidly growing
common buckwheat cultivars, especially those originat-
ing in Russia, Canada and Asia have dark grains (dar-
ker than tartary buckwheat), and some even nearly a
black grain husk colour.
No substantial differences between common buck-
wheat and tartary buckwheat were observed in any of
the characteristics studied. Higher a* and b* values in
tartary buckwheat milling products indicate that they
have a slightly stronger yellow-red cast.

Fig. 1. Percentage distribution of sieving fractions (granulometry Fig. 2. Colour values (L*, a* and b*) for common and tartary buck-
analysis) of common and tartary buckwheat flour and bran. wheat grain, bran and flour.
14 G. Bonafaccia et al. / Food Chemistry 80 (2003) 9–15

interest in this type of functional food product in Ikeda, K. (1997). Molecular cookery science, In: Cookery science for
Europe. the 21st century (Vol. 4). Tokyo: Kenpaku-sha Pub.
Karkalas, J. (1985). An improved enzymic method for the determina-
tion of native and modified starch. Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture, 36, 1019–1027.
Acknowledgements Kayashita, J., Shimaoka, I., Nakajoh, M., Kishida, N., & Kato, N.
(1999). Consumption of a buckwheat protein extract retards
The authors gratefully acknowledge the cooperation 7,12-dimethylbenz[alpha]anthracene-induced mammary carcino-
of Mr. Diego Filippini, Filippini s.p.a., Teglio, Italy in genesis in rats. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 63,
1837–1839.
the production of milling products; and of Mr. Chris- Kreft, I. (1994). Traditional buckwheat food in Europe. Bulletin of the
tian Zewen, Administration des Service Techniques de Research Institute for Food Science, 57, 1–8.
l‘Agriculture, Division Agronomique, Service de la Kreft, I., Bonafaccia, G., & Zigo, A. (1994). Secondary metabolites of
mutualité agricole, Luxemburg, for providing the sam- buckwheat and their importance in human nutrition. Pre-
ples of tartary buckwheat and for suggestions. We hrambenotehnoloska i Biotehnoloska Revija, 32, 195–197.
Kreft, I., Skrabanja, V., Ikeda, S., Ikeda, K., & Bonafaccia, G. (1996).
thank Dr. L. Bruschi and E. Finotti of INRAN for their Dietary value of buckwheat. Zbornik BFUL, 67, 73–78.
support in analyses. Kreft, S., Knapp, M., & Kreft, I. (1999). Extraction of rutin from
This research was supported by the Ministry of Agri- buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) seeds and determina-
culture, Luxemburg, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of tion by capillary electrophoresis. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Italy, and the Ministry of Education, Science and Sports Chemistry, 46, 2020–2023.
Lin, R., Tao, Y., & Li, X. (1992). Preliminary division of cultural and
of Slovenia. ecological regions of Chinese buckwheat. Fagopyrum, 12, 48–55.
Liu, Z., Ishikawa, W., Huang, X., Tomotake, H., Kayashita, J.,
Watanabe, H., Nakajoh, M., & Kato, N. (2001). A buckwheat pro-
tein product suppresses 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon carci-
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