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Academic Research & Writing Skills Part 1 & 2

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 Academic Research & Writing Skills
Part I

Toni Kennedy

Manager Library & Information Services (DOCLIS) with the NSW Department of
Corrective Services

This paper, presented in two parts over two issues, will focus on the writing skills
required for communicating your re-search clearly and effectively.
Academic writing is formal writing. Many novice writers have trouble telling informal
writing apart from formal writing. They resort to informal writing, since it’s easier and
more familiar.

Essays, reports, presentations and research papers are just some examples of
documents written in the academic style. Academic writing, when used appropriately,
presents a polished and professional image. Academic writing skills encompass strong
composition, excellent grammar, and a consistent stylistic approach, providing proper
credits and references.

Are you grappling with how to communicate your research clearly and effectively?

These guidelines will explore ways of developing your skills for presenting a convincing
and cohesive argument, creating a logical structure, and achieving coherence and
cohesion between and within the text.

Part I will focus on the following:

Process Overview
Research
Search Strategy
Boolean Searching
Internet Research
Organising the Information
Taking Notes
Essay Plan/Outline
Example of Note Taking & Essay Planning Process

Process Overview

The following procedure is useful when writing an extended essay or assignment.

Task Product

ƒ Read the question and understand what you are Essay subject.
required to do. Think about the subject, the purpose
and the audience.

ƒ Think about what you know about the subject. Write Diagrams or notes.
it down in some way.

ƒ Go to the library and find relevant books or articles. Reading list.

ƒ Find the books on your reading list and study them. List of materials studied.

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 1

 ƒ Make notes on these books and articles. Notes.
ƒ Record full details of the materials you use for the
reference list.

ƒ Organise your essay/assignment. Essay plan/Outline.

ƒ Type or write your first draft. First draft.

ƒ Write up your reference list using the appropriate Reference list

referencing system (possibly using software to
assist e.g. Procite, Endnote, Zotero)

ƒ Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other List of revisions/changes.
members of your class and your lecturer if possible.

ƒ Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any Second draft.

comments that were made in your discussions.
ƒ Produce your second draft.

ƒ Proofread your draft. Assignment with changes

marked.

ƒ Produce a final typed version. Final assignment.

ƒ Check everything. Hand in.

Research
You will probably start by looking at
When you have understood the question secondary sources, for example
or what you are expected to write, you dictionaries, encyclopaedias and online
will need to do some reading to find out databases (indexes and full text) that
what has been published in your field of you can use to help you to find the
study. It is most unlikely that you will primary sources - the full text of
find the information you need about your articles, books, government and
topic in just one specific section of the company reports, etc. that you need to
library. You need to think and look as read for your essay. Use the library
widely as you can about possible subject computer catalogue to find useful
areas that may be relevant to your topic. books, audiovisual items and journal
articles for your topic.
Many sources are available in several
formats - as hard copy or on-line via the Search Strategy
Internet. In the last few years there has
o Have a firm concept of what it is
been a great increase in the amount of
you are looking for - have it as a
information that can be found on-line.
sentence
Using the Internet, it is possible to
o Are you looking for general
search for the details of books, journal
information or something specific?
articles and conference proceedings, as
o What type of 'document' are you
well as for data such as statistics, maps
looking for - article citation, full
and diagrams. The number of journal
text article, book
titles that you are able to access on-line
o List synonyms for each concept
is growing rapidly. Internet gateways
o Select the appropriate database –
and subject databases can also be good
Medline, PsychInfo etc
starting points for your research.
o Do the search, preferably using the
individual database’s advanced

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 2

 techniques (eg. Boolean or phrase
searching or subject headings)
o Refine the search if necessary
o If you do not find anything
relevant, try a different search
engine

Boolean Searching

Boolean logic refers to the logical

relationship among search terms. On
Internet search engines, the options for
constructing logical relationships among
search terms extend beyond the
traditional practice of Boolean searching.

Boolean logic consists of three logical

operators:

• OR e.g. cats NOT dogs

• AND
• NOT In this search, we retrieve records in
which ONLY ONE of the terms is
Each operator can be visually described present. This is illustrated by the shaded
by using Venn diagrams, as shown area with the word cats representing all
below. the records containing the word "cats".
No records are retrieved in which the
word "dogs" appears, even if the word
OR
"cats" appears there too

Internet Research
Here are a few basic guidelines to
remember:
o Don't rely exclusively on Net
resources
o Narrow your research topic before
logging on
o Know your subject directories and
search engines
e.g. college OR university o Keep a detailed record of sites you
visit and the sites you use
In this search, we will retrieve records in o Double-check all URLs that you put
which AT LEAST ONE of the search in your paper
terms is present. We are searching on
the terms college and also university The following points are guidelines for
since documents containing either of evaluating specific resources you find on
these words might be relevant. OR logic the Net. The key to the whole process is
is most commonly used to search for to think critically about what you find on
synonymous terms or concepts. the Net; if you want to use it, you are
responsible for ensuring that it is
AND reliable and accurate.
o Authority
o Affiliation
o Audience Level
o Currency
o Content Reliability/Accuracy

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 3

Organising the Information A. Hamlet is idealistic.
B. Hamlet is aware of his own
Taking Notes faults, whereas others are self-
Good notes should be accurate, clear satisfied.
and concise. They should show the C. Hamlet does not want to take
organisation of the text, and the revenge without grounds for
relationship between the ideas. The acting.
main reasons why note-taking is III. Hamlet becomes morally
important include: compromised while delaying.
o When you are reading or listening, A. The turning point in Hamlet's
taking notes helps you concentrate. moral decline is his killing of
In order to take notes - to write Polonius.
something sensible - you must B. Hamlet's moral decline
understand the text. continues when he sends
o Taking notes helps you to make Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
sense of the text. It does not mean to their death.
writing down every word. You need C. Hamlet already began his moral
to actively decide what is important decline before the turning point
and how is related to what you in the play, the killing of
have already written. Polonius.
o Notes help you to maintain a 1. Hamlet treats women badly.
permanent record of what you have 2. Hamlet criticizes others in the
read or listened to. This is useful play for acting falsely to get
when you are including information ahead, but in adopting the
you have read or heard into your disguise of madness he, too, is
essay. presenting a false face to the
world.
When you're reading, first survey the IV. Though Hamlet becomes more
text to find the main points and the compromised the longer he delays,
subsidiary points and how they are killing the king would have been a
related. Then, reduce the points to morally questionable act.
notes. Make sure links and relationships V. Conclusion: The play Hamlet
between the ideas are shown. Good questions the adequacy of a
notes need to be organised system of ethics based on honour
appropriately. Make sure you write down and revenge.
where your notes have been taken from. This is an example of a sentence
It will save you time when you need to outline. Another kind of outline is
check your facts or write a reference list. the topic outline. It consists of
fragments rather than full
sentences. Topic outlines are more
Essay Plan/Outline
open-ended than sentence
Essay outlines are meant to serve you outlines: they leave much of the
and no one else. When you produce your working out of the argument for
outline, you should follow certain basic the writing stage.
principles. Here is an example of an
outline for an essay on Hamlet: Example of a Note Taking & Essay
Planning Process
Thesis: Despite Hamlet's highly
developed moral nature, he becomes The following is an example of a method
morally compromised while delaying his that can be used when taking notes.
revenge. 1. Number all articles that you read
I. Introduction: Hamlet's father asks from 1 onwards – they don’t have
Hamlet not only to seek vengeance to be in any order
but also to keep his mind
untainted. 2. As you read the articles, make a
II. Hamlet has a highly developed list of the topics within the articles
moral nature. that are useful for your essay. Note

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 4

 the number of the article beside 4. Use the resulting topic list to
the topic. decide how you will organise the
information. This will direct you to
3. The result will be a list of topics
what articles you need to consult
with an index to the articles (i.e.
for the information on each topic
which article has information on
(see examples below).
which topic). The list will also show
which topics are the most popular.

Note Taking Example: Essay on Terrorism & Corrections

Topic Number Topic Description Article Number

1 Definitions of terrorism 1,12,15,20

2 Supermax conditions 2, 5, 33

3 Security for terrorist inmates 3, 8, 12, 20

4 Types of terrorism (domestic, international) 3, 7, 11,12, 14

5 Legislation governing terrorist inmates 6,11,21

6 Conditions for inmates in Australia 7, 9, 12, 13, 17

7 Case study of an inmate 7, 13, 16
8 Conditions for inmates overseas 8, 22, 25, 28

9 Human rights concerns 13, 25, 26, 30

Essay Plan/Outline Example Using the Note Taking Method above

1. Introduction ‰ What, how, why etc

‰ State overall position/argument in relation to the
question and/or subject

2. Point 1 ‰ Sub point A (Topic number 5)

(heading?) ‰ Sub point B (Topic number 3)
‰ Sub point C (Topic number 7)

3. Point 2 ‰ Sub point A (Topic number 1)

(heading?) ‰ Sub point B (Topic number 2)
‰ Sub point C (Topic numbers 8 & 10)

4. Point 3 ‰ Sub point A (Topic number 4)

(heading?) ‰ Sub point B (Topic number 6)
‰ Sub point C (Topic numbers 9 & 11)

5. Conclusion ‰ Restate overall position/argument

‰ Relate position/argument to points 1-3

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 5

Note:
Part II of this paper will appear in the June 2009 issue of the Australasian Journal
of Correctional Staff Development. Topics will include: Writing skills: organising
essays; Writing skills: paragraphs; Writing skills: expressing yourself; Reference
List and Useful Links.

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 6

 Academic Research & Writing Skills
Part II

Toni Kennedy

Toni Kennedy is the Manager Library & Information Services (DOCLIS) with the NSW
Department of Corrective Services

Continued from Part I which was published in May 2009 issue of this journal

Writing Skills: Organising Essays

Essays are organised differently according description of aspect B

to their purpose. Essays can be divided into
the following main types.

1. The descriptive essay

etc.
a. Description of object or place
b. Describing a sequence of events.
c. Describing a process
d. Describing and explaining
Conclusion
2. The argument essay
a. The balanced view
b. Describing a sequence of events
b. The persuasive essay
c. The to what extent essay.
Describing a sequence of events is simply
3. Compare and contrast essays telling a story. State clearly when events
happened or how one event caused
a. The contrast essay another. Questions may be introduced by:
b. The compare essay
c. The compare and contrast essays
Give an account of...,
Trace...,
1. The descriptive essay
Examine developments in...
a. Description of object or place Introduction
Describe essays require you to state the
appearance of something, or to state the
major characteristics of it. Note the word
state i.e. you are not asked to comment on
First situation
the subject or to give your personal point of
view on it. Questions are often introduced
by:

Describe .... then A happened

Narrate...
Tell....
Introduction
(major aspects of the subject) then B happened

description of aspect A etc.

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

 What are the implications of...?
Discuss the causes of....
Discuss the reasons for....
Final situation
When we are asked to describe or explain
causes, factors, functions or results, the
purpose is to group the facts. Similar
causes are put together, for instance the
Conclusion economic causes of a situation. There are
basically two main ways to organise this
c. Describing a process type of essay.
This is like telling a story but here the
connections between the facts must be The question is "Describe the causes of A.
clearly shown and explained. Group the Illustrate your answer by specific
events into steps or stages. examples."

Examples of such questions are: Example 1:

Explain/What is the connection between....
Describe the procedures by which...
Introduction to causes of A

Definition of process
Main equipment/Main steps
Cause 1 + example

Step One
leads to
Effects 1

Step Two
leads to Cause 2 with example

Step Three Effects 2

Conclusion Cause 3 with examples

Summary of process

d. Describing and explaining

Effects 3
Some of the words and phrases which
introduce this type of description are:
Explain the causes/reasons....
Account for....
Analyse the causes.... Cause 4 with example
Comment on (the reasons for)....
Show that....
Show why...
Examine the effect of....
Suggest reasons for.... Effects 4
Why did...?

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

 points of view, which should always be
based on evidence, until the final
paragraph. At its simplest your essay plan
etc. will be as follows:

Introduce the argument to the reader.

Conclusion e.g. why it is particularly relevant topic

nowadays
or refers directly to some comments that
Example 2: have been voiced on it recently.

Introduction to causes of A

Reasons against the argument

Causes + examples

Reasons in favour of the argument

Transition

After summarising the two sides,

state your own point of view,
Effects and explain why you think as you do

b. The persuasive essay

This second type of argumentative essay
Conclusion involves stating your own point of view
immediately, and trying to convince the
reader by reasoned argument that you are
2. The argument essay right. Perhaps the essay title will begin with
something like:
There are two main methods of presenting Give your views on....
an argument, and in general the one you What do you think about...?
choose will depend on exactly how the Do you agree that...?
essay title is worded. Consider whether....

a. The balanced view Or perhaps the title itself will be so

If the essay title begins with something controversial that everyone will hold a
like: definite opinion in one direction or another.
Give the arguments for and against.... The form of the essay will be, in outline, as
Assess the importance of.... follows:
Examine the arguments for and against....
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of...? Introduce the topic briefly in general terms,
Evaluate.... and then state your own opinion.
Critically examine the statement that.... Explain what you plan to prove in the
To what extent is...true? essay.
Or even just the word Discuss....

Then it is clear that a balanced essay is

required. That is to say you should present Reasons against the argument.
both sides of an argument, without Dispose briefly of the main objections to
necessarily committing yourself to any
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
 your case.

Aspect 3 - false

Reasons for your argument

the arguments to support your own view,
with evidence and examples.
etc

Conclusion - Do not repeat your point of

Conclusion
view again.
a ‘subtraction’ sum
End your essay with something memorable
e.g. a quotation or a direct question.
3. Compare and contrast essays.
c. The to what extent essay
a. The Contrast essay
In this type of essay the topic is a
Contrast or distinguish between questions
statement. It is obviously true but truth is
usually present you with two or more
never 100%. You must decide how true it
terms, instruments, concepts or procedures
is? Are there some areas where you
that are closely connected, and sometimes
disagree with the statement? If so, describe
confused. The purpose of the essay is to
how far you agree, and your points of
explain the differences between them. The
agreement and disagreement. Words used
question may be of the form:
in the question are:
Contrast....
To what extent....
Distinguish between...
How true....
What is the difference between....?
How far do you agree....?
What are the differences between....?
How are ... and ... different?
A possible answer structure is:

A suitable answer structure would be:

Introduction to problem

Introduction to differences between A and B

Aspect 1 - true

Contrast A & B in terms of first difference

Aspect 1 - false

Contrast A & B in terms of second

difference

Aspect 2 - true

Contrast A & B in terms of third difference

Aspect 2 - false

etc

Aspect 3 - true

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

 Example 1:
Conclusion

Introduction to differences and similarities

b. The Compare essay
between A and B
Compare questions usually present you
with two or more terms, instruments,
concepts or procedures that are closely
connected, and sometimes confused. The
purpose of the essay is to explain the Difference 1
similarities between them. Words used are:
Compare....
What features do ... and ... have in
common?
Difference 2
What are the similarities between....?
How are ... and ... similar?

A suitable answer structure would be:

Difference 3

Introduction to similarities between A and B

etc.

Compare A & B
in terms of first similarity

Transition

Compare A & B
in terms of second similarity
Similarity 1

Compare A & B
in terms of third similarity Similarity 2

etc. Similarity 3

Conclusion etc.

c. The compare and contrast essay

Compare and contrast essays require you
to indicate areas in which the things to be Conclusion
compared are similar and different.
Compare and contrast....
There are two main ways to answer such
questions:

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

Example 2: ƒ Point 1
ƒ Point 2
ƒ Point 3
Introduction to differences and similarities ƒ Conclusion
between A and B

Example of a Research Article

Structure
Aspect 1 - similarities ƒ Introduction
ƒ Literature review
ƒ Methodology (Research design, subjects)
ƒ Results
ƒ Discussion
Aspect 1 - differences ƒ Conclusion

Writing Skills: Paragraphs

Aspect 2 - similarities
A paragraph usually contains a general idea
in one sentence, and 4 - 5 supporting
sentences which expand this idea by giving
explanation, details and/or examples to
Aspect 2 - differences support the main idea. Length can vary. On
the page, the paragraph is a solid block of
writing (like this!) To start a new
paragraph, you should leave a whole line
and start at the beginning of the line after.
Aspect 3 - similarities

Paragraphs are used to separate main

ideas. A new paragraph signals to the
reader that a new idea is about to be
Aspect 3 - differences discussed. The break between paragraphs
gives the reader time to take in each idea.

Having identified the components of your

etc written text, use the resulting organisation
of concepts to set up the best possible
sequence for your text. Introduce each
paragraph with a topic sentence which
introduces the topic. There is a pattern to a
Conclusion series of paragraphs, which you will find in
the diagram below:

Example of a Journal Article Structure

ƒ Introduction

Topic/question: Discuss…..

Introduction Preliminary topic sentence using key word(s) from the

topic/question
What
Identify the elements/issues that will be examined
Why
Explain why this combination of elements is significant, or
why they are being examined together in this paper

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

 How
Prepare your reader for what is to come, by providing a brief
outline of the way you have addressed the question, and
touching on each of your main points in turn by ascribing
them a key word or phrase
Main point Topic sentence incorporating the key word or phrase
(Heading - optional) ascribed to the single main point covered in this paragraph.
Keep this sentence short, simple, clear and strong.
Support sentences which may be more complex but must
relate in an obvious way to the single main point:
- detail(s)
- example(s)
- explanation(s)
- elaboration
- illustration(s)
Concluding sentence which 'wraps up' the examination of
this particular point and moves towards the next (though you
do not need to contrive a 'link sentence' if you paragraphs are
already logically sequenced)
Conclusion Concluding paragraph which 'wraps up' the examination of
the topic or argument.

Writing Skills: Expressing Yourself that you feel expresses your idea
1. Practise using your own words in well, or closely.
good English to express your
thoughts. 5. Practise looking (or listening for)
your most clearly expressed ideas.
2. Decide on a particular idea that you What is it that makes them clear?
have in your mind eg: What makes them communicate?
o your research topic Try this feature again next time.
(investigative)
o a technical concept 6. Read over what you have written.
(scientific) Keep the best and cross out the
o an observation about a person or rest. Re-order the points if
event (detached) necessary. Go from step 2 again to
o your views on a current issue fill in any gaps in the logical
(critical) sequence of your idea.
o your memories of an experience
(experiential) 7. Now you are ready to finally
o your feelings about a certain structure, edit, and polish your
incident (personal) writing according to its purpose. For
example:
3. Start writing immediately. Write only
for yourself. Do not be concerned ƒ Personal journal entry
about grammar or structure, at this (informal, unstructured)
stage. Think of this as brainstorming ƒ Academic journal article
- in sentences rather than (formal, logical structure)
diagrammatically. You can re-order ƒ Report (formal, informative
the thoughts later, but now it is sequence)
important to give words to what you ƒ Essay (formal, critical
are thinking. Write only until you argument )
feel you have no more to say right ƒ Thesis (different chapter,
now. different purpose)
ƒ Review of literature (formal
4. If you have trouble with this stage summary, critique and
try talking onto a tape recorder, juxtaposition)
then use any portions of the tape
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
 This is also a useful series of steps to go There are many ways of writing a list of
through if you are preparing a talk or references, which will vary according to the
presentation. Either write or use a cassette rules of the institution or journal that you
recorder. The value of this exercise is that, are writing for. Some examples include the
by putting your own words to an idea you American Psychological Association (APA),
reach a more thorough understanding of Harvard and Vancouver.
the idea, and can more easily express it
again when required.

A Variation for Non-English Speaking Useful Links

Writers http://www.ncistudent.net/StudySkills/Writi
Try the above steps using your own ngSkills/Introduction.htm
language, if other than English. Take notice
of the differences in the process for each http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
language. What exactly do you do in your http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/advise.html
mind when looking for words in each
http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/library/instruction/r
language? Once you have an idea of your
esearchinternet.html
own thinking methods, you will have better
control over using words to express
yourself in both languages.

Reference List

At the end of all pieces of academic writing,

you need a list of materials that you have
used or referred to. This usually has a
heading: references but may be
bibliography or works cited depending on
the conventions of the system you use.

The object of your writing is for you to say

something for yourself using the ideas of
the subject, for you to present ideas you
have learned in your own way. The
emphasis should be on working with other
people’s ideas, rather than reproducing
their words. The ideas and people that you
refer to need to be made explicit by a
system of referencing. This consists of a list
of materials that you have used at the end
of the piece of writing and references to
this list at various points throughout the
essay. The purpose of this is to supply the
information needed to allow the reader user
to find the sources used for the essay.
Therefore, at the end of your assignment
you need a list of the materials you have
used - a bibliography or a reference list.

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

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