Energy 35 (2010) 4582e4586

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Carbon dioxide neutral, integrated biofuel facility

E.E. Powell, G.A. Hill*
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, 57 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5A9, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Algae are efficient biocatalysts for both capture and conversion of carbon dioxide in the environment. In
Received 5 October 2009 earlier work, we have optimized the ability of Chlorella vulgaris to rapidly capture CO2 from man-made
Received in revised form emission sources by varying environmental growth conditions and bioreactor design. Here we demon-
11 January 2010
strate that a coupled biodiesel-bioethanol facility, using yeast to produce ethanol and photosynthetic
Accepted 17 February 2010
algae to produce biodiesel, can result in an integrated, economical, large-scale process for biofuel
Available online 3 April 2010
production. Each bioreactor acts as an electrode for a coupled complete microbial fuel cell system; the
integrated cultures produce electricity that is consumed as an energy source within the process. Finally,
Keywords:
Bioethanol
both the produced yeast and spent algae biomass can be used as added value byproducts in the feed or
Photosynthetic food industries. Using cost and revenue estimations, an IRR of up to 25% is calculated using a 5 year
Microbial fuel cell project lifespan.
Economics Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction environmental issues [7], in Canada due to atmospheric conditions

that limit crop production, starch is the preferred raw material for
The development of new, environmentally friendly sources of a bioethanol plant. The economics (capital cost, operating cost, and
energy is of great interest to humanity given the prospect of both profitability) of installing efficient column photobioreactors that
peak oil production and global warming [1]. Concern with the rise consume the CO2 from the bioethanol fermentors and produce
of carbon dioxide in the environment and its link to energy electricity, algae biomass, and oil for biodiesel production as new
production has been an issue for several decades [2]. Carbon co-products from the existing bioethanol facility are to be
capture technology is a positive technology for reducing carbon determined. Biodiesel is an attractive liquid fuel since it provides
dioxide emissions, especially if implemented in bioethanol better efficiency in steam boilers and reduces emissions of
fermentation facilities where it can lead to a net sink of carbon pollutants [8,9]. In addition, it is assumed that a cash inflow is
from the atmosphere [3,4]. It is estimated that of the 160 generated due to carbon credits received from capture and
gigatonnes of CO2 captured each year from the atmosphere, 60% conversion of CO2 during microalgae growth. The algae bioreactors
occurs in surface waters to support the growth of diverse are designed similar to a new external loop airlift photobioreactor
microalgae species. In recent work, we have characterized the under development in our laboratories [10]. Algae growth kinetics
growth kinetics of Chlorella vulgaris and developed a coupled and biomass yield are taken from data being generated in those
photosynthetic microbial fuel cell (MFC) that generates an studies and previous work [5].
electrical current from Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth at the
anode and C. vulgaris growth at the cathode [5,6]. In this work,
a plan to incorporate this dual culture MFC into an existing 2. Integrated facility design
large-scale bioethanol facility is investigated.
A continuous flow, bioethanol fermentation facility is assumed 2.1. Nutrient sources
to already be in operation and producing 130 million L/yr of fuel
grade ethanol. This is a typical capacity for a bioethanol plant in The algae cultures require mineral supplements, light and
Canada. Although it is well known that sugarcane is a superior raw enriched CO2 to support optimum growth [5]. The mineral
material for bioethanol production in terms of economics and supplements are provided by a continuous fresh feed of medium
containing plant growth media (10 kg/m3 of Plant-ProdÒ Fertilizer,
30-10-10, Sure-Gro Inc., Brantford, ON). Light is provided free of
* Corresponding author. Fax: þ1 3069664777. charge by sunlight. CO2 is provided free of charge from the gas
E-mail address: gord.hill@usask.ca (G.A. Hill). discharges of the existing S. cerevisiae fermentors.

0360-5442/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.02.029
 E.E. Powell, G.A. Hill / Energy 35 (2010) 4582e4586 4583

2.2. Existing yeast fermentors 2.4. Downstream algae processing

In order to produce 130 million L/yr of fuel grade ethanol, it is The liquid effluent of the continuous algae photobioreactors is
assumed that three, continuous flow fermentors are in operation mixed and sent for further downstream processing to generate
that contain steady state concentrations of yeast and ethanol equal both biomass (microalgae) and oil (biodiesel) products. Some of
to 20 and 100 kg/m3, respectively. Each fermentor is 10 m in the chemical and physical characteristics of these two products are
diameter, 15 m high and contains 810 m3 of fermentation broth. The shown in Table 1. Fig. 2 demonstrates the downstream processing
flow of medium through each fermentor results in the production scheme to produce these products. First, the dilute algae broth is
of 242 m3/h of beer. Once formed, the beer is sent to downstream concentrated by a factor of 13.3 using a spiral wound, membrane
processing to produce a pure stream of fuel grade ethanol. The filter. This results in a thick broth that is pumped into a continuous
three commercial bioethanol fermentors release 12.6 tonnes/h of flow, hot hexane extraction/settling tank system. The sudden
carbon dioxide, which can be diverted for photosynthetic growth in temperature change and violent mixing causes the microalgae
the microalgae columns. cells to release their oils, which are quickly dissolved in the
hexane. These oils are then separated in a flash tank, and all the
hexane is recycled while the oil leaves as the desired co-product.
2.3. Novel column photobioreactors
The bottoms of the extractor go to a continuous tunnel dryer
where superheated, low-pressure steam evaporates the remaining
In order to provide sufficient light penetration into the algae
water and generates a 10% moisture content, dried algae biomass
cultures, high density, clear polyethylene columns are used to
co-product. Based on the data of Sayyar et al. [11] and Mujumdar
culture the microalgae, and are equally spaced around each yeast
[12], superheated steam at 150  C and at rate of 53,000 tonnes/yr
fermentor as shown in Fig. 1. Each photobioreactor is 1.0 m in
is used for each of the extraction and drying processes. This
diameter and 30 m tall, containing 23.5 m3 of algal broth at
quantity is a small portion of the existing steam already being
a concentration of 15 kgDW/m3. At a dilution rate of 0.05 h1, the
produced for ethanol distillation in the original plant, which
volumetric flowrate through each fermentor is 1.2 m3/h.
consumes steam at a rate of 520,000 tonnes/yr [13].
The physical dimensions of each yeast fermentor, and those of
the surrounding installed column photobioreactors, limit the
maximum number of photobioreactors that can be placed around 2.5. Economic analysis
each fermentor to 23.
The column photobioreactors are filled with stainless steel, The economic analysis evaluates only the newly integrated
platinum doped mesh packing that acts as a cathodic surface. The portion of the biofuel facility, which includes all equipment
yeast fermentors contain the same packing material as the photo- installation and operation costs related to the column photo-
bioreactors, but now this material acts as an anodic surface. These bioreactors, microalgae downstream processing, or adaptation of
two electrodes make up the driving force for current flow, but in the existing yeast fermentors for operation as MFC anodic half cells.
order for that to occur, proton exchange channels are located The existing bioethanol facility itself was neglected in the economic
between each photobioreactor and the yeast fermentor. The analysis as being separate from the new installation and already
channels contain NafionÒ proton exchange membranes (PEMs) operating profitably.
which permit only protons to flow between the two cell cultures. Installed capital costs of the column photobioreactors were
CO2 gas that exits the top of each yeast fermentor is split and piped estimated using Ulrich and Vasudevan's costing data [14]. This
to the bottom of each photobioreactor, where it rises and is includes the cost of the platinum doped electrodes. Operating
consumed by the growing algae cultures. The algae cells are expenses included labour, maintenance and power to operate
cultured at optimum conditions, which include a light intensity of pumps and agitators. Steam usage to flash the hexane and dry the
1.2 W/m2 and 10% CO2 entering in the bottom of the vessel [10]. biomass was not included in costs since it was assumed that this
Sufficient algae photobioreactor volume is provided to consume was available free of charge from the existing bioethanol plant.
a significant amount of the CO2 emitted by the fermentors, and Platinum doped electrodes must also be installed in the fermentors
significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from the existing in the existing facility.
bioethanol facility. The quantitative conversion of CO2 to algae Revenue was calculated for the extracted oil using the current
biomass was calculated using the yield determined previously by spot price for crude oil ($52/bbl), and the algae biomass was costed
Powell et al. [5]. as an animal feed supplement ($0.25/kg). Electricity costs were
determined using the same utility value as used for operating
expenses ($0.12/kW-h). The monetary value of carbon credits was
calculated using a price of $100/tonne. This is a high, subsidized
value, which has been assessed to be needed to curb global
warming [15] and is a reasonable marginal cost value for CO2
emissions based on global greenhouse gas effects such as sea level

Table 1
Some chemical and physical characteristics of microalgae and extracted oil.

Species or Filtered microalgae (% by mass, ash Biological oil

characteristic free and dry basis, std error, [19]) (% by mass, [20])
Water 74 (6) Trace
Ash 4.4 (2.2) Trace
Carbon 59.7 (7.3) 73
Hydrogen 8.6 (1.3) 9
Nitrogen 5.7 (4.0) 5
Oxygen 26.0 (5.1) 13
Heating value (kJ/kg) 27,900 (2400) 34,700
Fig. 1. Sketch demonstrating the location of photobioreactors around a yeast fermentor.
4584 E.E. Powell, G.A. Hill / Energy 35 (2010) 4582e4586

Fig. 2. Block diagram of algae and oil processing system.

rise, agriculture damage, diseases, weather changes and floods [16]. electrodes for the bioethanol fermentors and small pumps to move
However, in reality, carbon credits have a value in Western Canada the algae feed, broth and hexane through the system costed at $500
of only $15/tonne [17]. New federal government regulations will K for the first design, and $950 K for the second. The total installed
force industries to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions to 18% equipment cost is therefore estimated at $8.15 million (2009, Cdn
below their 2006 levels in 2010 or if above these limits, pay $15/ dollars) for the design employing 36 columns. Allowing for fee and
tonne into a greenhouse gas technology development fund [18]. contingency, the estimated total project capital cost is $9.62
million. For the second design, where the maximum 69 columns
3. Results and discussion are installed, the total installed equipment cost is estimated at
$14.9 million (2009, Cdn dollars). Allowing for fee and contingency,
3.1. Sizing of equipment the estimated total project capital cost is $17.9 million.

The flow of CO2 from each yeast fermentor is mixed with air to 3.3. Operating costs
obtain a carbon dioxide concentration of 10% by volume, and
distributed to the column photobioreactors that encircle the Operating expenses are due to labour, nutrient feed, mainte-
fermentor. Two different design scenarios are evaluated. In the first nance, administration, marketing, and electricity. Operators are
scenario, all equipment was sized in order to capture 21% of the CO2 required at 0.27 operators/column at a cost of $60 K/yr. Ten new
produced in the bioethanol plant. This requires a total of 36 operators are hired at a total labour cost of $600 K/yr, and 19
microalgae photobioreactors to be integrated into the facility, with operators at a cost of $1.14 million/yr, for the 36 and 69 column
12 columns surrounding each yeast fermentor. The total volumetric design scenarios, respectively. Nutrient costs are low due to the low
flow of algal broth through all 36 photobioreactors is 42.3 m3/h flowrate of fresh media, estimated at $5 K/yr and $9.5 K/yr (both
giving a total algae production rate of 636 kgDW/h. The second fresh water and fertilizer), respectively. Ten kW of power is needed
design scenario examines the maximum number of columns to pump the fluids and mix the extractors at a cost of $9 K/yr when
possible surrounding each fermentor, according to the physical 36 columns are installed, and $ 14.4 K/yr when 69 columns are
dimensions. With 23 columns per fermentor, or 69 in total, to be installed. Maintenance (includes replacing the NafionÒ
integrated into the existing bioethanol facility, 40% of the CO2 membranes) is $577 K/yr, or $ 1.11 million/yr for the scenario with
produced by the existing yeast fermentations can be consumed. the maximum number of columns. Administration costs (with
The total volumetric flow of algal broth through all 69 photo- benefits) and marketing are estimated to be $830 K/yr and $202 K/
bioreactors in this scenario is 81.3 m3/h giving a total algae yr, respectively, for the design employing a total of 36 photo-
production rate of 1219 kgDW/h. bioreactor columns. Administration costs (with benefits) and
The algae broth flows through 114 m2 of spiral wound marketing are estimated to be $1.59 million/yr and $387 K/yr,
membrane filter cartridges that concentrate the algae to a thick respectively, for the design employing a total of 69 photobioreactor
broth containing 200 kgDW/m3 of algae biomass. 90% of the water columns. The total annual operating cost is $2.22 million for the
stream from the membrane is recycled to the photobioreactors design scenario where 36 photobioreactors are installed, and $4.26
such that only 5 m3/h of fresh nutrient broth needs to be supplied to million for the scenario where 69 photobioreactors are installed.
the photobioreactors.
The concentrated algae broth flows into a 1.0 m3 hexane 3.4. Revenues
extraction tank, which operates at 65  C. This is a two tank system
such that while one tank is mixing the second tank is settling. The CO2 revenue (in the form of carbon credits), at $100/tonne of
hexane from the second tank proceeds to a small flash tank where capture, provides the most substantial positive cash flow for the
hexane is separated with negligible losses and returned to the integrated facility. An annual positive cash flow of $2.21 million can
extractor after condensing in a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger be achieved with a total of 36 column photobioreactors installed in
is also used to heat up the thick algae broth. The bottoms of the the plant. This provides consumption of 21% of the CO2 produced by
settling tank enter a 10 m long, 1.0 m wide tunnel dryer where the existing yeast fermentors. An annual positive cash flow of $4.24
supersaturated steam at 150  C dries the algae into a saleable million can be achieved by installing the maximum number of
powder containing 10% moisture. photobioreactors around each fermentor, consuming 40% of the
CO2 from the bioethanol plant.
3.2. Costing of equipment Power generated by the novel MFC system is based on both
algae cell density (1.0 A/kgDW of algae cells) and high glucose fed
Each column photobioreactor, complete with electrode, had an yeast fermentors generating an operating potential of 1.0 V [6]. This
installed cost of $200 K. For 36 installed columns and 69 installed provides 13 kW of power or a revenue stream of $12 K/yr, for the
columns, the total photobioreactor cost is $7.20 million and $13.8 lesser column design, and 24.5 kW or $23 K/yr, for the maximum
million, respectively. The spiral wound membrane filter costs $100 column design.
K. The dual tank extractor complete with flash tank and heat For the design scenario in which 36 photobioreactors are
exchanger installed was costed at $200 K, while the tunnel dryer installed, the 5000 tonnes DW of algae generated each year is 30%
was costed at $150 K, installed. Other equipment included the oil giving a production of about 1500 tonnes/yr (or 11,500 bbl) of oil
 E.E. Powell, G.A. Hill / Energy 35 (2010) 4582e4586 4585

6.05%. The cumulative cash flow profile for this plant is shown in Fig.
3. For the second scenario, in which the maximum number of
microalgae columns surround each fermentor, for a total of 69, an
analysis of the cumulative cash flow results in an IRR of 25.1%. The
cash flow profile for this plant design is shown in Fig. 4. Since the IRR
of the integrated microalgae plant increases significantly when the
number of columns attached to each fermentor is increased to 23,
the profitability was evaluated again, but using the more realistic
carbon credit value of $15/tonne of CO2. However, even with the
increased capacity of this larger design, the plant did not make any
profit and at a marginal rate of return of 10% lost $9 million after 5
years of operation. It was not possible to generate any positive cash
flow without a subsidized high value for carbon consumption.

4. Conclusions

Algae photobioreactors can be used to capture significant CO2

released from existing bioethanol plants. It is also possible to
Fig. 3. Cumulative cash flow of integrated facility with 36 total photobioreactors.
process the effluent from the bioreactors to produce oil and dried
biomass. However, the economics of this process are only positive if
worth $600 K/yr. When the total number of algae columns is the government provides financial assistance in the form of
increased to the maximum of 69, the 9700 tonnes DW of algae generous carbon credits ($100/tonne of CO2 captured) and a 25%
produced each year results in 2900 tonnes/yr of oil valued at $1.16 capital equipment grant.
million/yr. Finally, the dried algae powder (post-oil removal) is With these investments, the plant is just barely profitable with
considered to be a valuable animal nutrient. It is sold, giving an a low IRR of only 6.05%. By increasing the number of microalgae
annual positive cash flow of $875 K/yr and $1.69 million/yr, for the columns to the maximum spatially possible, the IRR increases to
two designs, respectively. 25.1%. Given the greater IRR that can be achieved with the greater
The total positive annual cash flow to the plant, due to the number of installed photobioreactor columns, it would appear that
addition of the microalgae system, is therefore estimated to be $3.70 the design of this integrated plant is profitable. However, it does not
million when 36 photobioreactor columns are installed, and $7.09 remain so if the profitability is evaluated using a monetary value for
million when 69 columns are installed in the bioethanol facility. carbon credits equal to the present value of $15/tonne. At this point
in time, therefore, the construction of such a facility is not recom-
mended from an economical standpoint.
3.5. Profitability

The facility modification is assumed to be built instantaneously Acknowledgment

and is financed 50% by loans (6% compounded annually), 25% by
a government “green” grant and 25% by equity. The plant and loan The authors would like to thank the Natural Sciences and
are written off over 5 years after start up at a tax rate of 21% and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and Agriculture
using the declining balance depreciation (half in the first year) Canada for financial support.
methodology.
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