“Electronics

Assignment”
Application of Op Amp”

Submitted to: DR.M kashif

Class: B.S PHY (Eve) 6th
ROLL NO: 15419
 Inverting amplifier

The Inverting Operational Amplifier configuration is one of the simplest and

most commonly used op-amp topologies.
Negative feedback;
 is the process of “feeding back” a fraction of the output signal back to the
input, but to make the feedback negative, we must feed it back to the negative
or “inverting input” terminal of the op-amp using an external
 Feedback Resistor called Rƒ. This feedback connection between the output
and the inverting input terminal forces the differential input voltage towards
zero.
This is because the junction of the input and feedback signal ( X ) is at the same
potential as the positive ( + ) input which is at zero volts or ground then, the
junction is a “Virtual Earth”. Because of this virtual earth node the input
resistance of the amplifier is equal to the value of the input resistor, Rin and the
closed loop gain of the inverting amplifier can be set by the ratio of the two
external resistors.
−R f
Gain=
R
Transresistive Amplifier CIRCUIT;
The simple light-activated circuit above, converts a current generated by the
photo-diode into a voltage. The feedback resistor Rƒ sets the operating voltage
point at the inverting input and controls the amount of output. The output
voltage is given as Vout = Is x Rƒ. Therefore, the output voltage is proportional
to the amount of input current generated by the photo-diode.
Non inverting operational amplifier;

In this configuration, the input voltage signal, ( VIN ) is applied directly to the
non-inverting ( + ) input terminal which means that the output gain of the
amplifier becomes “Positive” in value in contrast to the “Inverting Amplifier”
circuit we saw in the last tutorial whose output gain is negative in value. The
result of this is that the output signal is “in-phase” with the input signal.
Feedback control of the non-inverting operational amplifier is achieved by
applying a small part of the output voltage signal back to the inverting ( – )
input terminal via a Rƒ – R2 voltage divider network, again producing negative
feedback. This closed-loop configuration produces a non-inverting amplifier
circuit with very good stability, a very high input impedance,  Rin approaching
infinity, as no current flows into the positive input terminal, (ideal conditions)
 and a low output impedance.
Rf
Gain=1+
R

VOLTAGE FOLLWER (UNITY GAIN BUFFER)

If we made the feedback resistor, Rƒ equal to zero, (Rƒ = 0), and

resistor R2 equal to infinity, (R2 = ∞), then the circuit would have a fixed gain
of “1” as all the output voltage would be present on the inverting input terminal
(negative feedback). This would then produce a special type of the non-
inverting amplifier circuit called a Voltage Follower or also called a “unity
gain buffer”.
As the input signal is connected directly to the non-inverting input of the amplifier
the output signal is not inverted resulting in the output voltage being equal to the
input voltage, Vout = Vin. This then makes the voltage follower circuit ideal as a
Unity Gain Buffer circuit because of its isolation properties.
ADVANTAGE;
The advantage of the unity gain voltage follower is that it can be used when
impedance matching or circuit isolation is more important than amplification as it
maintains the signal voltage. The input impedance of the voltage follower circuit is
very high, typically above 1MΩ as it is equal to that of the operational amplifiers
input resistance times its gain ( Rin x AO ). Also its output impedance is very low
since an ideal op-amp condition is assumed.

 SUMING AMPLIFIER;
The Summing Amplifier is another type of operational amplifier circuit
configuration that is used to combine the voltages present on two or more
inputs into a single output voltage. the inverting operational amplifier that
the inverting amplifier has a single input voltage, (Vin) applied to the
inverting input terminal. If we add more input resistors to the input, each
equal in value to the original input resistor, (Rin) we end up with another
operational amplifier circuit called a Summing Amplifier, “summing
inverter” or even a “voltage adder” 
Rf
v out = (V1+V2+V3. . .)
R

SUMMING AMPLIFIER APLICATIONS;

measuring temperature, you could add a negative offset voltage to make the
output voltage or display read “0” at the freezing point or produce an audio
mixer for adding or mixing together individual waveforms (sounds) from
different source channels (vocals, instruments, etc) before sending them
combined to an audio amplifier.
SUMMING AMPLIFIER AUDIO MIXER;

Another useful application of a Summing Amplifier is as a weighted sum

 digital-to-analogue converter. If the input resistors, Rin of the summing
amplifier double in value for each input, for example, 1kΩ, 2kΩ, 4kΩ, 8kΩ,
16kΩ, etc, then a digital logical voltage, either a logic level “0” or a logic
level “1” on these inputs will produce an output which is the weighted sum
of the digital inputs.
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER;

In this DAC summing amplifier circuit, the number of individual bits that
make up the input data word, and in this example 4-bits, will ultimately
determine the output step voltage as a percentage of the full-scale analogue
output voltage.
Also, the accuracy of this full-scale analogue output depends on voltage levels of
the input bits being consistently 0V for “0” and consistently 5V for “1” as well as
the accuracy of the resistance values used for the input resistors, Rin.
 Differential Amplifier;
 The differential amplifier amplifies the voltage difference present on its
inverting and non-inverting inputs.But as a standard operational amplifier
has two inputs, inverting and no-inverting, we can also connect signals to
both of these inputs at the same time producing another common type of
operational amplifier circuit called a Differential Amplifier.
EQUATION:
v R3
out= ¿¿
R

 Wheatstone bridge differential amplifier

The standard Differential Amplifier circuit now becomes a differential

voltage comparator by “Comparing” one input voltage to the other. For
example, by connecting one input to a fixed voltage reference set up on one
leg of the resistive bridge network and the other to either a “thermistors
” or a “Light Dependant Resistor” the amplifier circuit can be used to detect either
low or high levels of temperature or light as the output voltage becomes a linear
function of the changes in the active leg of the resistive bridge .
Light activated Differential Amplifier

Here the circuit above acts as a light-activated switch which turns the output relay
either “ON” or “OFF” as the light level detected by the LDR resistor exceeds or
falls below some pre-set value. A fixed voltage reference is applied to the non-
inverting input terminal of the op-amp via the R1 – R2 voltage divider network.
The voltage value at V1 sets the op-amps trip point with a feed back
potentiometer, VR2 used to set the switching hysteresis. That is the difference
between the light level for “ON” and the light level for “OFF”.
The second leg of the differential amplifier consists of a standard light dependant
resistor, also known as a LDR, photo resistive sensor that changes its resistive
value (hence its name) with the amount of light on its cell as their resistive value is
a function of illumination.
4:Thermistors

It is also possible to detect temperature using this type of simple circuit

configuration by replacing the light dependant resistor with a thermistor. By
interchanging the positions of VR1 and the LDR, the circuit can be used to detect
either light or dark, or heat or cold using a thermistor.
LIMITATION
One major limitation of this type of amplifier design is that its input impedances
are lower compared to that of other operational amplifier configurations, for
example, a non-inverting (single-ended input) amplifier. Each input voltage source
has to drive current through an input resistance, which has less overall impedance
than that of the op-amps input alone. This may be good for a low impedance
source such as the bridge circuit above, but not so good for a high impedance
source
OP AMP COMPARATORS;

The comparator is an electronic decision making circuit that makes use of an

operational amplifiers very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, there is no
feedback resistor.
The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another
analogue voltage level, or some preset reference voltage, VREF and produces an
output signal based on this voltage comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage
comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which
is the largest of the two.

We have seen in previous tutorials that the operational amplifier can be used with
negative feedback to control the magnitude of its output signal in the linear region
performing a variety of different functions. We have also seen that the standard
operational amplifier is characterised by its open-loop gain AO and that its output
voltage is given by the
expression: VOUT = AO(V+ – V-) where V+ and V- correspond to the voltages at the
non-inverting and the inverting terminals respectively. We said before that the
basic op-amp comparator produces a positive or negative voltage output by
comparing its input voltage against some preset DC reference voltage. Generally, a
resistive voltage divider is used to set the input reference voltage of a comparator,
but a battery source, zener diode or potentiometer for a variable reference voltage
COMPARATOR REFERNCE VOLTAGES;

In theory the comparators reference voltage can be set to be anywhere between 0v

and the supply voltage but there are practical limitations on the actual voltage
range depending on the op-amp comparator being device used.
Positive and Negative Voltage Comparators;
A basic op-amp comparator circuit can be used to detect either a positive or a
negative going input voltage depending upon which input of the operational
amplifier we connect the fixed reference voltage source and the input voltage too.
In the examples above we have used the inverting input to set the reference voltage
with the input voltage connected to the non-inverting input.
But equally we could connect the inputs of the comparator the other way around
inverting the output signal to that shown above. Then an op-amp comparator can
be configured to operate in what is called an inverting or a non-inverting
configuration.
Positive Voltage Comparator
The basic configuration for the positive voltage comparator, also known as a non-
inverting comparator circuit detects when the input signal, VIN is ABOVE or more
positive than the reference voltage, VREF producing an output at VOUT which is
HIGH as shown.
Non-inverting Comparator Circuit

In the inverting configuration, which is the opposite of the positive configuration

above, the reference voltage is connected to the non-inverting input of the
operational amplifier while the input signal is connected to the inverting input.
Then when VIN is less than VREFthe op-amp comparators output will saturate
towards the positive supply rail, Vcc.
Likewise the reverse is true, when VIN is greater than VREF, the op-amp comparators
output will change state and saturate towards the negative supply rail, 0v
Window Comparator:
A Window Comparator is basically the inverting and the non-inverting
comparators above combined into a single comparator stage. The window
comparator detects input voltage levels that are within a specific band
or window of voltages, instead of indicating whether a voltage is greater or less
than some preset or fixed voltage reference point.
This time, instead of having just one reference voltage value, a window comparator
will have two reference voltages implemented by a pair of voltage comparators.
One which triggers an op-amp comparator on detection of some upper voltage
threshold, VREF(UPPER)and one which triggers an op-amp comparator on detection of
a lower voltage threshold level, VREF(LOWER). Then the voltage levels between these
two upper and lower reference voltages is called the “window”, hence its name.
COMPARATOR VOLTAGE DETECTOR;

the voltage divider network provides a set of reference voltages for the individual
op-amp comparator circuits. To produce the four reference voltages will require
five resistors. The junction at the bottom pair of resistors will Produce a reference
voltage that is one-fifth the supply voltage, 1/5Vcc using equal value resistors. The
second pair 2/5Vcc, a third pair 3/5Vcc and so on, with these reference voltages
increasing by a fixed amount of one-fifth (1/5) towards 5/5Vcc which is
actually Vcc.
As the common input voltage increases, the output of each op-amp comparator
circuit switches in turn starting with the lower comparator, A4 and upwards
towards A1 as the input voltage increases.
Op-amp Comparator with Positive Feedback
We have seen here that operational amplifiers can be configured to operate as
comparators in their open-loop mode, and this is fine if the input signal varies
rapidly or is not too noisy. However if the input signal, VIN is slow to change or
electrical noise is present, then the op-amp comparator may oscillate switching its
output back and forth between the two saturation states, +Vcc and -Vcc as the
input signal hovers around the reference voltage, VREF level. One way to overcome
this problem and to avoid the op-amp from oscillating is to provide positive
feedback around the comparator.
As its name implies, positive feedback is a technique for feeding back a part or
fraction of the output signal that is in phase to the non-inverting input of the op-
amp via a potential divider set up by two resistors with the amount of feedback
being proportional to their ratio.
HYSTERSIS;
The use of positive feedback around an op-amp comparator means that once the
output is triggered into saturation at either level, there must be a significant change
to the input signal VIN before the output switches back to the original saturation
point. This difference between the two switching points is
called hysteresis producing what is commonly called a Schmitt trigger circuit.

VOLTAGE DIVIDER EQUATION

Where: β (beta) can be used to indicate the feedback fraction.

When the input signal is less than the reference voltage, VIN < VREF, the output
voltage will be HIGH, VOH and equal to the positive saturation voltage. As the
output is HIGH and positive, the value of the reference voltage on the non-
inverting input will be approximately equal to: +β*Vcc called the Upper Trip Point
or UTP.
As the input signal, VIN increases it becomes equal too this upper trip point
voltage, VUTPlevel at the non-inverting input. This causes the comparators output to
change state becoming LOW, VOL and equal to the negative saturation voltage as
before.
But the difference this time is that a second trip point voltage value is created
because a negative voltage now appears at the non-inverting input which is equal
to: -β*Vcc as a result of the negative saturation voltage at the output. Then the
input signal must now fall below this second voltage level, called the Lower Trip
Point or LTP for the voltage comparators output to change or switch back to its
original positive state.
So we can see that when the output changes state, the reference voltage at the non-
inverting input also changes creating two different reference voltage values and
two different switching points. One called the Lower Upper Trip Point (UTP) and
the other being called the Lower Trip Point (LTP). The difference between these
two trip points is called Hysteresis.
The amount of hysteresis is determined by the feedback fraction, β of the output
voltage fed back to the non-inverting input. The advantage of positive feedback is
that the resulting comparator Schmitt trigger circuit is immune to erratic triggering
caused by noise or slowly changing input signals within the hysteresis band
producing a cleaner output signal as the op-amp comparators output is only
triggered once.

Non-inverting Op-amp Comparator with Hysteresis

The Voltage Comparator
Although we can use operational amplifiers such as the 741 as a basic comparator
circuit, the problem with this is that op-amps are only optimised for linear
operation. That is where the input terminals are at virtually the same voltage level
and its output stage is designed to produce a linear output voltage that is not
saturated for long periods of time. Also standard operational amplifiers are
designed to be used in closed-loop applications with negative feedback from its
output to its inverting input.
A dedicated voltage comparator on the other hand is a non-linear device that
allows for heavy saturation, due to its very high gain, when the input signals differs
by a relatively small amount. The difference between an op-amp comparator and a
voltage comparator is in the output stage as a standard op-amp has an output stage
that is optimized for linear operation, while the output stage of a voltage
comparator is optimized for continuous saturated operation as it is always intended
to be close to one supply rail or the other and not in between.
The Voltage Adder
The Adder, also called a summing amplifier, produces an inverted output voltage
which is proportional to the sum of the input voltages V1 and V2. More inputs can
be summed. If the input resistors are equal in value (R1 = R2 = R) then the
summed output voltage is as given and the gain is +1. If the input resistors are
unequal then the output voltage is a weighted sum

The Voltage Subtractor

The Subtractor also called a differential amplifier, uses both the inverting and non-
inverting inputs to produce an output signal which is the difference between the
two input voltages V1 and V2 allowing one signal to be subtracted from another.
More inputs can be added to be subtracted if required.
If resistances are equal (R = R3 and RA = R4) then the output voltage is as given
and the voltage gain is +1. If the input resistance are unequal the circuit becomes a
differential amplifier producing a negative output when V1 is higher than V2 and a
positive output when V1 is lower than V2.