This FM has been renumbered from FM 3-11 to FM 3-11.

11

FM 3-11.11
MCRP 3-3.7.2

FLAME,
RIOT CONTROL
AGENT,
AND
HERBICIDE
OPERATIONS

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to US Government agencies only to

protect technical or operational information from automatic dissemination under the
International Exchange Program or by other means. This determination was made
10 November 1993. Other requests for this document will be referred to Commandant, US
Army Chemical School, ATTN: ATSN-CM-DD, 401 MANSCEN Loop, Suite 1029, Fort Leonard
Wood, MO 65473-8926.

DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or
reconstruction of the document.
 FM 3-11.11/MCRP 3-3.7.2
C1
Change 1
Field Manual Headquarters
No. 3-11.11 Department of the Army
Marine Corps Reference Publication United States Marine Corps
No. 3-3.7.2 Washington, DC, 10 March 2003

FLAME, RIOT CONTROL AGENT, AND

HERBICIDE OPERATIONS
1. Change FM 3-11, 19 August 1996, as follows. The number of this field manual (FM) is being
changed to FM 3-11.11. The old number will be reused for the new manual FM 3-11, Multiservice
Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Defense Operations.

Remove Old Pages Insert New Pages

Cover page Cover page
Pages i and ii Page i

2. A bar ( ) marks new or changed material.

3. File this transmittal sheet in front of the publication.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to US Government agencies only to protect

technical or operational information from automatic dissemination under the International Exchange
Program or by other means. This determination was made 10 November 1993. Other requests for this
document will be referred to Commandant, US Army Chemical School, ATTN: ATSN-CM-DD, 401
MANSCEN Loop, Suite 1029, Fort Leonard Wood, MO 65473-8926.

DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or
reconstruction of the document.

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

ERIC K. SHINSEKI
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:

JOEL B. HUDSON
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
0304501
DISTRIBUTION
Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with the initial
distribution number 110153, requirements for FM 3-11.11.
 *C1, FM 3-11.11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

FIELD MANUAL HEADQUARTERS

NO. 3-11.11 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
MARINE CORPS REFERENCE PUBLICATION UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
NO. 3-3.7.2 Washington, DC, 19 AUGUST 1996

FLAME, RIOT CONTROL AGENT,

AND HERBICIDE OPERATIONS
Contents
Page
PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................... ii
Part One - Flame Operations
CHAPTER 1. US Policy for Flame, Riot Control Agents, and Herbicides..............................................1-1
CHAPTER 2. Flame Operations ............................................................................................................2-1
CHAPTER 3. Flame Fuels .....................................................................................................................3-0
CHAPTER 4. Exploding Flame Devices ................................................................................................4-1
CHAPTER 5. Flame Illuminators ...........................................................................................................5-0
Part Two - Riot Control Agent Operations
CHAPTER 6. Riot Control Agents .........................................................................................................6-1
CHAPTER 7. RCA Employment ............................................................................................................7-1
Part Three - Herbicide Operations
CHAPTER 8. Herbicides for Contingency Use ......................................................................................8-1
CHAPTER 9. Herbicide Delivery Systems.............................................................................................9-0
CHAPTER 10. Tactical Employment of Herbicides ...............................................................................10-0
APPENDIX A. Demolition Skills for Constructing Flame Field Expedients ............................................ A-0
APPENDIX B. Riot Control Agent Munitions and Delivery Systems ...................................................... B-1
APPENDIX C. Safety ............................................................................................................................. C-1
APPENDIX D. Herbicide Spray Systems ............................................................................................... D-1
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................. Glossary-0
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... References-1
INDEX................................................................................................................................................. Index-1

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Distribution authorized to US Government agencies only to protect tech-

nical or operational information from automatic dissemination under the International Exchange Program or
by other means. This determination was made 10 November 1993. Other requests for this document will be
DISTRIBUTION
referred RESTRICTION:
to Commandant, US ArmyApproved for School,
Chemical public release; distribution is401
ATTN: ATSN-CM-DD, unlimited.
MANSCEN Loop, Suite
1029, Fort Leonard Wood, MO 65473-8926.
DESTRUCTION NOTICE: Destroy by any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or reconstruction
of the document
*This publication supersedes FM 3-11, 19 September 1990.
MARINE CORPS PCN: 14400001200
NOTE: This FM has been renumbered from FM 3-11 to FM 3-11.11.

i
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

ii
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

Preface
This publication describes the doctrine, tactics, and techniques for employing flame weapons, riot control agents
(RCA), and herbicides during peacetime and combat. It is intended primarily for use by chemical personnel at all
echelons in planning the employment of flame and non-lethal materials (RCAs and herbicides). Training with
RCAs is discussed in detail in TC 3-8, Chemical Training.
This manual does not implement any international standardization agreements; however, the material within the
manual is in accordance with related international agreements.
Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.
Extracts from FM 5-250, Explosives and Demolitions, are used extensively throughout this field manual for
technical and operational clarity. For further information concerning the use of military explosives and their
components, see FM 5-250.
The proponent of this publication is the US Army Chemical School. Send comments and recommendations on DA
Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to:
Commandant
US Army Chemical School
ATTN: ATZN-CMR-A
Fort McClellan, AL 36205-5020

ii
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 1

U.S. Policy for

Flame,
Riot Control Agents
and
Herbicides

Policy govering US policy for RCA and herbicides is PEACETIME USE

found in Executive Order 11850 dated 8 Apr 75, The Secretary of the Army, as Executive Agent for
Renunciation of Certain Uses in War of Chemicals, the Department of Defense for civil disturbance
Herbicides, and Riot Control Agents. operations, has issued instructions governing the use
of RCAs in civil disturbances in the US, the
WARTIME USE Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and US possessions
The US has renounced first use of herbicides in war and territories.
except under regulations applicable to domestic use or RCAs may be used on US bases, posts, embassy
for control of vegetation within US bases and grounds, and installations for protection and security
installations and around their immediate perimeters. purposes, riot control, installation security, and
The US has renounced the first use of RCAs in war. evacuation of US noncombatants and foreign
US forces will only use RCAs in war in defensive nationals. The US-controlled portions of foreign
modes to save lives as approved by the President. installations are considered US installations.
In wartime, use of RCAs outside the war zone is Chemical aerosol-irritant projectors may be used by
authorized as prescribed for peacetime. military law enforcement personnel for the
performance of law enforcement activities. They may
For RCA and herbicide use, war is any period of be used—
armed conflict no matter how it may be On-base and off-base in the United States and its
characterized, including declared and undeclared war, territories and possessions.
counterinsurgency, and any other uses of armed On-base overseas and off-base overseas in those
forces in engagements between US military forces countries where such use is specifically authorized by
and foreign military or paramilitary forces. Armed the host-country government.
conflict is conflict between states in which at least
one party has resorted to the use of armed force to RCAs may be used off-base (worldwide) for the
achieve its aims. It also may involve conflict between protection or recovery of nuclear weapons under the
a state and uniformed or non-uniformed groups
within that state, such as organized resistance groups.
CONTENTS
Commanders must recognize that, while the US does
not consider herbicides and riot control agents to be Wartime Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
chemical weapons, some other countries do not draw Peacetime Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
a distinction. Commanders must consider
international ramifications and Rules of Engagement Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
before recommending the use of herbicides or RCAs. Weapons Employing Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

1-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

same conditions as those authorized for the use of installations are considered US installations.
lethal force. (See DOD Directive 5210.56.) The movement and storage of RCAs and
herbicides, as necessary, to support requirements,
RCAs may be used in training. A review of current provided US control is maintained.
treaties and/or Status-of-Forces Agreements between The off-base use of RCAs in peacetime for the
the host country and US forces may be required in protection or recovery of nuclear weapons under the
determining whether or not training with RCAs is same situations as authorized for the use of lethal
authorized overseas. force.
Herbicides may be used within US bases, posts, and The use of herbicides in peacetime within and,
installations for control of vegetation. Use of when authorized by the host country government,
herbicides off-base overseas must be in accordance around US bases for control of vegetation.
with host country laws and agreements, US The use of chemical aerosol-irritant projectors by
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) military law enforcement personnel during peacetime
requirements, or Service regulations, whichever are for the performance of law enforcement activities in
the most stringent. the following areas:
On-base and off-base in the US and its
AUTHORITY territories and possessions.
Only the President may authorize the following: On-base and off-base overseas in those
Use of RCAs in war, including defensive military countries where such use is specifically authorized by
modes. However, advance authority to use RCAs for the host country government.
protection or recovery of nuclear weapons has been Authority for use of RCAs in peacetime situations
delegated to the Secretary of the Defense. not covered by the above (for example, to save lives
Wartime use of herbicides, including installation in counterterrorist operations) will be addressed in
vegetation control. plans and requested by the combatant commanders
The Secretary of Defense may authorize the following: for Secretary of Defense approval.
Use of RCAs or herbicides in peacetime.
Use of RCAs in wartime for the protection or WEAPONS EMPLOYING FIRE
recovery of nuclear weapons. The use of weapons that employ fire, such as tracer
CINCs and the Chiefs of Services may authorize: ammunition, flamethrowers, napalm, and other
The use of RCAs in peacetime on US installations incendiary agents, against targets requiring their use
for riot control, installation security, civil disturbance is not a violation of international law. They should
operations, and non-combatant emergency evacuation not, however, be employed to cause unnecessary
operations. The US-controlled portions of foreign suffering to individuals.

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 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 2

Flame Operations

FLAME EFFECTS Smoke. The burning fuel from flame weapons and
Flame is a valuable close combat weapon that burns, FFEs produces a dense black smoke that can reduce
depletes oxygen, and impacts psychologically. Since battlefield visibility appreciably. Smoke from ignited
man fears flame, it is used to demoralize troops and materials can prolong this condition. This black
reduce positions that have resisted other forms of smoke may attract the enemy’s attention to the flame
attack. Flame produces the following effects: attack and invite counterfire. To minimize any
hindrance to friendly operations, the presence of this
Casualties. Casualties result from— smoke must be anticipated when planning operations
Burns. Thickened fuel sticks to clothing and skin, in which flame weapons or FFEs will be used.
burns with intense heat, and is extremely difficult to
extinguish. FLAME WEAPONS
Inhalation of flame, hot gases, and carbon The flame weapons available are the M202A1 rocket
monoxide. launcher, incendiary grenades, and FFEs.
Suffocation.
Shock.
Psychological. The psychological impact is probably
M202A1
one of the greatest effects of flame. In many cases, Rocket Launcher
defending personnel will leave well-prepared The M202A1 Rocket Launcher (Figure 2-1) is a
positions and risk exposure to other weapons or lightweight, individual rocket launcher aimed and
capture. In other cases, the enemy is forced to fired on the right shoulder from the standing,
withdraw from firing positions during the effective kneeling, or prone position. The launcher is loaded
period of the flame attack. This permits friendly with a clip (M74) which contains four rockets. It can
forces to close in before the enemy reoccupies his fire one to four rockets semiautomatically at a rate of
firing positions. one rocket per second and can be reloaded with a new
clip.
Splatter. Flame reaches around corners through the
splattering and ricochet action of the thickened fuel
on adjacent surfaces. The splattering action of the CONTENTS
thickened fuel spreads the flame over an area—in
contrast to the point effects of nonfragmenting small Flame Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
arms ammunition. Flame Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Incendiary. Flame ignites combustible materials to Flame Attack Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
cause additional problems for personnel. Flame
weapons ignite clothing, tentage, wires, petroleum Weather Effects on Flame Fuels and
products, buildings of light construction, light Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
vegetation, munitions, and other combustible material. Destruction to Prevent Enemy Use............2-3
Battlefield Illumination and Signaling. Controlled, Flame Employment Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
slower burning flame field expedients (FFEs) can be
used for close-in battlefield illumination and Offensive Flame Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
signaling. These devices can be made to vary in Defensive Flame Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
illumination time from a few minutes to hours.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

trenches—can be used by tactical commanders to aid

in—
Repelling enemy penetrations.
Destroying enemy forces.
Gaining time.
Providing obstacles.
Isolating or canalizing an enemy.
Slowing enemy movement.
Surprising enemy forces.
Degrading enemy morale.
Deceiving enemy forces.
FFEs are formidable, uncomplicated weapons that
The M74 rocket (Figure 2-2) is filled with thickened lend themselves to support of both light and heavy
pyrophoric agent (TPA). This TPA is triethylalum- forces at all levels of the spectrum of conflict. When
inum (TEA), a substance similar to white applied at decisive times and places on the battlefield,
phosphorus, which bums spontaneously when flame weapons reinforce fighting positions, achieve
exposed to air (exposure occurs on impact, therefore, surprise, and produce casualties and psychological
no fuel is wasted by burning en route to target). It shock. They may also provide battlefield illumination
burns at temperatures between 1400-2200 degrees during limited visibility to help see enemy forces
Fahrenheit. The M74 is used to engage area-type trying to assault friendly forces. Exploding FFE
targets out to a range of 750 meters and point-type devices produce casualties from the immediate
targets out to a range of 200 meters. The minimum development of extremely high levels of heat at the
safe firing distance to a target is 20 meters (M74 has moment of detonation. Additionally, exploding FFEs
a bursting radius of 20 meters; therefore, engaging produce hundreds of white-hot shards of metal as the
targets closer than 20 meters may result in injury to container breaks apart. However, the most dangerous
friendly troops). part of an FFE is the burning thickened fuel that
either is spread in all directions or projected over a
large area. Thickened fuel is a syrupy liquid that
sticks to a target and continues to burn. Once ignited,
flame fuel is extremely difficult to extinguish.
Selected FFE devices are constructed to simply burn
in place and provide light during limited visibility.
Illuminating devices burn for an unspecified time.
Generally, these flare-like systems will burn from
four to eight hours depending upon the quantity of
fuel contained. They are designed to provide
battlefield illumination for the destruction of enemy
forces trying to assault friendly fighting positions.
Incendiary Grenades
The AN-M14 TH3 incendiary hand grenade is filled FLAME ATTACK
with thermite, which bums at 4,000 degrees TARGETS
Fahrenheit. The grenade bums for 40 seconds and In selecting flame attack targets, consider the type of
can bum through a 1/2-inch homogeneous steel plate. flame weapon available.
It can damage, immobilize, or destroy vehicles,
weapon systems, shelters, or munitions. The grenade
may also be used to start fires in areas containing Fortifications
combustible materials. Flame is particularly effective in the attack of
personnel in shelters such as fortifications. Its
Flame Field Expedients effectiveness depends on as the size, number, and
type of apertures and construction of the fortification.
FFEs can generate violent, effective combat power at A small fortification may be entirely reduced, but a
decisive times and places on the battlefield. These fortification with more than one internal compartment
systems—fougasses, flame mines and flame

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 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

fortification with more than one internal compartment Generally, supplies that are combustible may be
usually affords comparative safety to its occupants. destroyed or damaged by flame fuels.
The flame fuel must actually penetrate a fortification Noncombustible supplies can be damaged or
for maximum results. More fuel is required to cause destroyed by incendiary devices or by secondary fires
casualties among personnel in well-ventilated from combustible materials; for example, supplies
fortifications than in poorly ventilated ones of the stored in a wooden building would be damaged by
same size. Casualties in fortifications may result from fires that destroyed the building.
suffocation (because oxygen from the air is consumed
by the flame) or from actual burns. WEATHER EFFECTS
ON FLAME FUELS
Other Targets AND WEAPONS
Personnel in open fighting positions are vulnerable to
flame. Thickened and pyrophoric fuel tends to stick Wind has minimal effect on the M202A1’s range and
to the clothing and skin of the occupants and the area, accuracy.
forcing the occupants to abandon the position or stay Rain has little effect on flame fuel in flight. Flame
and be burned by the flaming fuel and risk becoming fuel will float and burn on water. The incendiary
casualties. effect is less on damp material than on dry material.
Occupants of built-up areas can be forced to abandon Snow has little effect on flame fuel in flight.
their positions or become casualties, either from However, snow tends to smother flame, reducing its
contact with the burning fuel or from fires caused by incendiary effects in the target area.
ignition of combustible materials (such as wooden
buildings). High temperatures tend to increase the fuel’s
incendiary action. Flame fuels in high temperatures
Personnel concealed in vegetation can be forced to may have to be thickened so that they do not burn
abandon their positions or become casualties. excessively in flight to the target. Low temperatures
If the burning fuel penetrates the occupied decrease the incendiary action and more fuel may be
compartment of the vehicles, personnel in armored required to ignite combustible materials. Additionally
vehicles may become casualties unless they abandon at low temperatures, flame fuel may have to be made
the vehicles. Armored vehicles buttoned up and less thick to ensure ignition. Specific precautions and
moving are not good targets for flame. The burning procedures must be followed in fuel selection,
fuel must penetrate the openings of the vehicles to be preparation, storage, and firing.
effective. Burning fuel will not ignite the tracks of
moving armored vehicles. Incendiary devices attached DESTRUCTION TO
to or penetrating the openings of armored vehicles PREVENT ENEMY USE
can be effective in disabling the vehicles. Materiel subject to capture or abandonment in a
Personnel in unarmored vehicles will become combat zone (except medical) is destroyed by the
casualties or be forced to abandon the vehicles if using unit only when, in the judgement of the military
flaming fuel is placed in them, since any combustible commander concerned, destruction is necessary to
material in or a part of the vehicles may be ignited or keep the materiel from falling into enemy hands.
damaged. Emergency destruction procedures for fuel,
Weapon positions may become untenable if hit with ingredients, and flame weapons are given below.
burning fuel or incendiary material. Occupants may Detailed methods of equipment destruction are
become casualties and weapons and ammunition may presented in appropriate technical manuals and
be damaged. bulletins pertaining to specific items of equipment.
Wires and cables covered with combustible material Flammable fuels or lubricants may be destroyed by
may be damaged by ignition of the coverings from burning or pouring on the ground.
burning flame fuel or fires from flame or incendiary Thickeners may be destroyed by opening the
devices. containers and either dumping the contents into water
Small arms ammunition may be destroyed by use of or tire or spreading the contents on the ground.
flame fuels and/or incendiary devices.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

M202A1 rocket launchers and M74 rocket clips searching capability through its splattering action.
should be destroyed by burning, demolition, gunfiie, When combined with infantry, tanks, and supporting
or disposal. fires, flame contributes greatly to the accomplishment
of the mission. It is particularly effective when
FLAME EMPLOYMENT combined with infantry fires during the last stages of
the assault. Flame weapons can be decisive against an
PRINCIPLES enemy lacking any tank or fire support other than
Flame weapons are employed for both anti-personnel automatic weapons.
and anti-materiel effects. This principal use in
offensive operations reduces fortifications, suppresses Plans should be as simple and direct as possible.
fire, and produces casualties or exposes enemy Apply the following basic principles of employment
personnel to the fire of other weapons. In defensive in planning for the use of flame weapons in the attack.
operations they complement other weapons in fire As with other weapons, a proper reconnaissance is a
plans. They can be used to destroy buildings and must for successful employment of flame weapons.
equipment, clear tunnels, destroy food, clear light The target and any element supporting it must be
vegetation, counter ambushes, illuminate defensive located; a route of approach that offers protection
areas, warn of enemy approach, and restrict enemy from enemy fire must be selected; and the amount of
use of trails and paths. flame required and the need for demolition and
breaching support must be determined. The M202A1
Tactics can be employed without a thorough reconnaissance if
Flame assumes great importance in ground warfare the rear danger zone and the minimum safe range
against an enemy whose tactics place emphasis on restrictions are observed.
mass in the attack and stubborn, unyielding resistance Use sufficient flame. The number of flame weapons
in the defense. Even in relatively fluid, rapidly used depends on a number of factor—the size and
changing situations, an enemy may be able to nature of the objective, the terrain, and the enemies'
establish excellent defensive fortifications, requiring morale and physical condition, for example.
increased use of flame for destruction. Piecemeal use of the M202A1 should be avoided. The
The M202A1 and incendiary grenades are used enemy should be made to feel that unless he
primarily in offensive operations while FFEs are used surrenders or withdraws immediately he will be
primarily in the defense. The M202A1 can be used in burned to death. Within control capabilities for
both offensive and defensive roles because of its light coordination of flame weapons supporting the
weight, great range, and minimal service maneuver force, the more flame that can be placed on
requirement. The decision to use M202A1, grenades, suitable targets, the greater the probability of success
or FFEs is based on their comparative effectiveness during the attack. The attack should be pressed
for the particular mission. boldly. Supporting fires must lift or shift as necessary
to allow flame weapons to close with the enemy.
In planning the attack, the commander considers the These fires should continue on enemy supporting
use of flame as a part of his fire support plan. positions.
Defensively, flame weapons may be used in the
coordinated plan for fires and in support of the Follow up with infantry. The enemy seldom fights at
counterattack. Flame can often be used to blunt and his best when he is caught in a flame attack. He
disrupt mass enemy attacks, but the disadvantages of usually does one of three things: surrenders, runs, or
flame in both defensive and offensive operations must hides under cover. If he runs before the arrival of the
be considered. Careful planning and coordination are flame, he may return to his position when the attack
needed for maximum benefit from the use of flame in is over, even though the flame fuel is still burning on
the attack or defense. the ground. Enemy positions in the flame attack area
may hold their fire until the flame attack is over. It is
essential, therefore, that infantry supported by a
OFFENSIVE FLAME flame attack follow it closely and quickly before the
USE enemy can regain his position or reorganize his
Flame has many qualifications as an offensive assault defenses. Friendly infantry must and can enter the
weapon. It demoralizes, produces casualties, and area while flame is still burning on the ground.
ignites combustible material; and it has good Troops must be given training in following a flame

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 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

attack closely and in dashing through flame on the Defense in depth. FFEs are placed in likely areas of
ground. Surprise and shock must be exploited to the penetration. The use of these expedients is
fullest extent. Success in any tactical operation coordinated with counterattacking forces.
depends largely on the timing and coordination Mutual support. FFEs should be integrated into final
between the flame teams and the unit with which they protective fires and should be emplaced to provide
are operating. mutually supporting area coverage. A technique is to
Rehearse. Time should be made available for use FFEs to fill gaps between indirect fire targets and
rehearsals for flame attack. Rehearsals should be force or canalize enemy troops into final protective
conducted on ground similar to the terrain to be fires.
traversed and against a point resembling the All-round defense. FFEs may be positioned to protect
objective. If the attack is to be made at night, the flanks and rear of the position.
rehearsals should be conducted at night.
The fire plan. FFEs can be used to supplement the
DEFENSIVE FLAME long-range and close defensive fires of mortars and
artillery. However, coordination is required to
USE prevent duplication of effort and destruction of the
The use of flame weapons can be a major factor in FFEs by friendly fires. FFEs can also be used in
the successful defense of any position. Flame internal defense operations to counter ambush, clear
weapons are particularly effective in disrupting the underbrush, illuminate defensive areas, serve as
final stages of an enemy assault. The short range of warning devices, and inflict casualties on the
flame weapons, however, restricts their employment attacking troops.
and requires that they be carefully located to obtain
the best advantage. The longer range of the rocket Reinforcement of obstacles. Natural and artificial
launcher increases that weapon’s flexibility. obstacles can be reinforced or extended by flame
weapons. For example, flame fuel floats and burns on
The following flame weapons/munitions can be used water and can be used on shallow streams to prevent
in the defense: M202A1 and FFEs. These weapons assaulting foot troops from crossing. FFEs can be
are integrated into defensive fire plans to supplement used as floating flame devices. FFEs must be used
or reinforce other fires. Defensive flame fire plans carefully to avoid damaging mines or destroying
may employ flame weapons uniformly within unit camouflage.
areas, massed at likely avenues of approach against
anticipated massed enemy assaults, or may deploy Antitank measures. Armored vehicles can often move
them in reserve blocking positions ready for use in safely through flame fuel burning on the ground if the
the counterattack. Particular attention is given to the area is traversed quickly and the flames are not high
resupply or replacement of empty flame weapons to enough to be sucked in through vents. However,
ensure sustained support for the defense. flame fired directly on a tank can neutralize it by
obscuring the driver’s vision, seeping inside through
Flame weapons are most effective when integrated vents, or setting the tank afire. The minimum effect is
into the plan for fire support and the obstacle plan. profound fear and decreased efficiency of the tank
They are used to supplement or reinforce other crew. FFEs may be located on probable tank
defensive fires or to defend a small sector not covered approaches.
by other weapons.
Brush and forest fires. Flame weapons must be used
The basic considerations of defense apply to the use carefully to avoid starting brush and forest fires that
of flame: may hinder the defense. When it is desirable to start
Proper use of terrain. Flame teams are located on key fires deliberately, consider the following factors:
terrain on the perimeter of the platoon defense areas. Probable effect on enemy operations.
FFEs may be emplaced in the gaps between platoons, Danger to friendly troops and installations.
in approaches to the position, or on key terrain Effect on friendly observations.
forward of the battle position that the defending force Effect on future friendly operations.
does not plan to hold, and in blocking positions in Effect on environment.
depth. Effect on noncombatants.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 3

Flame Fuels

The three types

. . of flame fuels are unthickened, Burning unthickend/thickened fuel is very effective
thickened, and triethylaluminum (TEA). Unthickened against personnel caught in the open.
fuel is a thin, pourable, highly flammable liquid
composed of gasoline and oil. Thickened fuel is a THICKENED FLAME FUELS
thick, jellylike substance ranging in consistency from Thickened fuel consists of a thickener and gasoline.
a pourable liquid to a rubbery, very thick gel. TEA is The Army uses two different thickeners, M4 and M1.
a thickened pyrophoric substance similar to white
phosphorus. It burns spontaneously at temperatures of M4 thickener is a fine white powder that is a
1,400 to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit when exposed to by-product of petroleum processing. Even though M4
air. thickener is hydroscopic (absorbs water from the air),
you may reseal a partially used container and store it
Use unthickened fuel in situations where range is not for one day. M4 thickener comes in 2.5-pound cans
an important factor or when fuel is needed on short or 100-pound drums.
notice. Unthickened fuel has advantages: you can
prepare it quickly and it is readily available; M1 thickener is a coarse, light tan, granular material
however, it has a short range of about 20 meters and that is extremely hydroscopic. The presence of
is quickly consumed. Another disadvantage is that moisture in it decreases its ability to form a stable
unthickened fuel offers little penetration of flame fuel. You should discard a partially used
fortifications or fighting positions. It does not container of M1 thickener.
rebound effectively from surfaces.
Thickened fuel requires equipment, time, and Thickened Fuel
personnel for mixing, aging, and transferring. Unless Flame field expedients use number 3 flame fuel. The
you store it in airtight steel containers, thickened fuel consistency of the fuel is based on a factor of 3 in
has an uncertain period of stability. However, determining the amount of thickener to add to a
thickened fuel burns longer than unthickened fuel and specific amount of gasoline. When mixing a batch of
clings to a target. It splashes across surfaces and, flame fuel, use the applicable equation for either M4
therefore, is effective when employed during military or M1 thickener.
operations on urbanized terrain (MOUT). Since you
will use thickened fuel more extensively than
unthickened fuel in flame field expedients, this CONTENTS
chapter will primarily address thickened fuel.
Thickened Flame Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-0
Both thickened and unthickened fuels are used to kill,
dislodge, and demoralize personnel, to neutralize Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
fortifications, and to destroy flammable material.

3-0
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 4

Exploding Flame Devices

Historically, exploding flame devices have been Fuel

employed with great success in combat. In the Korean Fuel is a combustible liquid that produces an
Conflict, the 8th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry immediate fire, such as thickened or unthickened
Division, inflicted casualties on the Chinese MOGAS.
Communists with strategically placed exploding flame Igniter
devices. During combined operations in the Republic An igniter is an incendiary used to set the exploding
of Vietnam, the 10lst Airborne Division and the 2d fuel alight. M49 trip flares, incendiary grenades,
Republic of Korea Marine Brigade made extensive M34 white phosphorus (WP) grenades (combat use
use of FFEs to the south of Da Nang to clear only), or even small containers of raw gasoline may
vegetation and rid several areas of booby traps. be used. An expedient method for employing raw
gasoline as an igniter is to fill a used meals,
GENERAL INFORMATION ready-to-eat (MRE), bag with gasoline and seal it
Exploding flame devices cause casualties by inflicting with tape. This will produce enough immediate fire to
injuries from burning fuel and flying debris. These ensure ignition of an FFE device.
devices also have a great psychological effect that Burster
may deter or slow an enemy attack. All exploding A burster is an explosive charge that scatters the fuel.
flame devices consist of a container, incendiary fuel, Examples of bursting charges include, but are not
and a firing system (burster and igniter) to scatter and limited to, trinitrotoluene (TNT), composition C4,
ignite the fuel. The size of the area covered depends M4 field incendiary bursters, detonating cord, and
on the size of the container and the firing system used.

Components NOTE
Field expedient flame weapons generally consist of Expedient battlefield illuminators do not
four basic components--a container, fuel, an igniter, detonate; there is no need for a burster
and a burster. Appendix B contains detailed when employing this type of FFE. Battlefield
information on the proper use of demolition illuminators are discussed in Chapter 5.
accessories.
Container
Anything that will hold the fuel, such as a standard CONTENTS
issue military canteen or even a 55-gallon drum, can
serve as a container. General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Electrically Initiated Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...4-2
Bunker Bombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 5

Flame Illuminators

The main purpose of flame illuminators is to provide Nonelectric blasting cap.

extended burning time with maximum illumination, Seven and a half feet of M700 time fuse.
although they may also produce casualties. You may M60 fuse igniter.
use flame illuminators for warning as well as Electric blasting cap.
illumination by contact detonation. This chapter
discusses some improvised flame illumination devices
used for limited battlefield illumination.
Flame illuminators vary and may be constructed of
many differing components. FFE illuminators include
5-or 55-gallon flame illuminators, hasty flame
illuminators, water illuminators, field expedient
illuminators, Husch flares, and illuminated signal
arrows.

5- OR 55-GALLON
FLAME ILLUMINATORS
You can construct a flame illuminator (Figure 5-1)
from a 5-gallon or a 55-gallon drum filled with
thickened fuel, tightly sealed, and set into a hole with
the top slightly below ground. Five turns of
detonating cord are wound around the inside edge of
the drum top and tightly tamped with mud. When
detonated, the detonating cord cuts off the drum top
and an M49 trip flare or M34 WP grenade (in combat
only) placed on top of the drum, ignites the thickened CONTENTS
fuel.
5- or 55-Gallon Flame Illuminator . . . . . . . .5-0
The fuel will burn for several hours. However, you
may control burning time somewhat by the size of Hasty Flame illuminators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
container used, the thickness of the fuel mixture, and Water Illuminators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
the addition of straw or dirt to the thickened fuel.
Field Expedient Illuminators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Each 55-gallon flame illuminator requires the
following ammunition: Husch Flares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
100 foot of detonating cord. Illuminated Signal Arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2

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 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 6

Riot Control Agents

Riot control agents disable hostile forces or rioting congestion, or heart conditions) may experience
personnel for limited periods of time by producing increased irritation and incapacitation upon exposure
temporary disabling physiological effects when they to these agents. Agent CN (popularly known as mace
come into contact with the eyes or skin or when they or tear gas) and its analog are considered obsolete for
are inhaled. Their effects are typically peripheral, military employment; most CN munitions have been
such as irritation to the eyes, mucosa, respiratory phased out of the system.
tract, or skin. The effects generally subside quickly
once the individual is removed from the atmosphere CS
of the RCA. On the other hand, incapacitating
concentrations can act systemically, have longer In 1959, the US Army adopted CS
lasting, more profound physiological effects such as (orthochlorobenzalmalononitrile) for combat training
immobilization of limbs, systemic interference of and riot control purposes. The Army has found it to
breathing, disruption of cognitive function or any of be both safe and effective, especially for training and
several other centrally controlled effects. The creating combat realism in low concentrations. Only
physiological effects may continue after personnel CS in a capsule form may be used in the CS chamber.
leave the target area. RCA levels at 5-10 milligrams In Vietnam, CS was an effective incapacitant while
3
per cubic meter (mg/m ) achieve incapacitating 3 its variable persistency made it an economical
concentrations. Training concentrations (1-3 mg/m ) contaminant. Different forms of CS have different
for CS are irritating concentrations normally found in persistence characteristics, due to their formulation,
chamber or field training exercise settings. In tactical dissemination, and rate of hydrolysis. CS is normally
concentrations, RCAs do not permanently injure used either as a pure powder in bulk form or as
personnel but should be used like incapacitating pellets in a pyrotechnic mixture for employment in
agents. In enclosed places, prolonged exposure to the
resulting high dosages of RCAs can kill or disable CONTENTS
personnel and can cause serious physiological
reactions. Detailed descriptions of RCA munitions Standard Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
systems can be found in Appendix B. Oleoresin Capsicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-3
STANDARD AGENTS Protection Against RCAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
The standard RCAs currently in the US Army Physiological and
inventory are CS, CSX, CS1, CS2, and CR. The Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
physiological effects desired and the dissemination Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
means available determine the choice of RCA to use
in a particular situation. Individuals having Operational Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-5
respiratory problems (such as colds, asthma, lung

6-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

burning grenades and bomblets. A yellowish percent silica aerogel), that is readily usable in
powdered solid in pure form, CS has a characteristic disseminating devices (for example, spray tanks) that
pungent pepper-like odor. Employed in aerosol form, require a free-flowing material. CS1 is CS blended
CS irritates the eyes, nose, throat, and (if used in with silicone-treated silica aerogel which not only
sufficiently high concentration) will cause militarily prevents coagulation and increases fluidity, but also
significant incapacitation. By weight, the markedly increases its resistance to water. This form
effectiveness of CS is about 10 times that of CN. The of CS prolongs the effectiveness for both immediate
symptoms of exposure to training concentrations of and surface contamination effects for direct and
CS are— residual use. As CS1 settles out of the air, it readily
Extreme burning of the eyes, with much tearing, contaminates terrain, vegetation, personnel, and
coughing, and difficulty in breathing with tightness in equipment. When disturbed, CS1 re-aerosolizes to
the chest and pain in breathing. cause respiratory and eye effects.
Involuntary closing of the eyes. CS1 exhibits typical CS activity for several days on
Heavy mucous formation in the nose with sinus and dry ground at initial incapacitating concentrations
nasal drip. 3
(5-10 mg/m ). Persistency tests have shown that CS1
Stinging or burning on moist skin areas. can remain effective for about 14 days when used
Exposure to field concentrations may cause nausea inside a dry tunnel or bunker and about 7 days on
and vomiting and prolonged exposure to CS on skin open terrain under ideal environmental conditions.
may cause severe irritation and blistering. CS2
Incapacitation is caused by the individual’s inability CS2 is far more resistant to water degradation,
to see or preoccupation with the agent’s effects. maintaining an effectiveness for a period
Effects of the agent appear almost immediately and approximately double that of an equivalent initial
will continue as long as the individual is exposed. concentration of CS1. It is so resistant to wetting that
Affected individuals usually recover within 10 when spread upon the surface of a body of water,
minutes in fresh air. CS has been specially formulated agitation of the surface by wind or wading may
for varied dissemination characteristics and/or effects regenerate an effective aerosol. CS2 will remain
as CSX, CS1, and CS2. CSX is a form of CS effective on open terrain under suitable conditions for
developed for dissemination as a liquid rather than a about 30 days. Although rain does not effectively
powder. One gram of powdered CS is dissolved in 99 dissolve the agent, it may physically wash away from
grams of solvent trioctyl phosphate (TOF) and is the site of deposit. High winds will dissipate it.
dispersed as a liquid aerosol from the M32 hand-held
disperser (see Appendix B). As with CS, CSX causes
stinging and irritation of the eyes, skin, nose, throat, CR
and lungs of exposed personnel. It is only available in In 1974, the US Army approved the use of CR
M32 hand-held dispersers. (dibenz (b,f-1, 4-oxazepine) in riot control situations.
Variations in the formulation of CS result in different CR has a stronger harassing action than CS. In
persistencies for CS, CS1, and CS2. CS originating addition, the toxicity of CR is lower than that of CS.
from burning munitions is disseminated only as an CR is not used in its pure form (a yellow powder) but
airborne cloud and its persistence depends mainly on is dissolved in a solution of 80 percent propylene
air movement. The aerosol particles, once contacting glycol and 20 percent water to forma 0.1 percent CR
the ground or other surfaces, adhere and do not solution. As a solution, the operational flexibility of
re-aerosolize. Due to the relatively low volatility and CR increases since it can be dispersed on the target
rapid rate of hydrolysis, the CS aerosol usually areas as a liquid rather than as an aerosol cloud. CR
presents a negligible residual hazard. However, a is a highly potent irritant that affects the eyes,
certain amount of caution must be exercised, since respiratory tract, and exposed skin. Eye pain,
pockets of the airborne agent may linger in closed discomfort, and excessive tearing occur with
structures or other places where movement of air is sometimes painful sensitivity to strong light. Nasal
slight. irritation, coughing, sneezing, and nasal drip also
occur. Exposure of the skin to CR results in a
CS1 stinging or burning sensation with increased irritation
CS1 has been specially formulated to prolong on moist skin. Sometimes these symptoms are
persistency and increase effectiveness. Unlike CS, accompanied by nausea and vomiting, and can persist
CS1 is free-flowing agent powder (95 percent CS to 5 from 15 to 30 minutes. Severity of symptoms

6-2
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

increases with the CR solution concentration in an Effective range of OC is 4 to 6 feet (maximum

environment of high temperature and humidity. range is approximately 25 feet).
Personnel should not spray an individual closer than
CR is quite persistent in the environment. The CR 2 feet from themselves to prevent being affected.
solution provides effective wetting and spreading of Rain and wind decrease effectiveness.
this agent on all surfaces. It does not degrade in water Eyeglasses/sunglasses may deflect agent (shift aim
and can be considered as persistent or more persistent to nose/mouth).
than CS2. Under suitable conditions, CR can persist Perspiration may cause longer agent effects.
on certain surfaces (especially porous material) for up OC may have detrimental effects on people with
to 60 days. pre-existing respiratory problems.
OLEORESIN CAPSICUM As with any RCA, personnel must be properly
A possible nonstandard riot control agent is oleoresin trained on OC’s capabilities/employment, limitations,
capsicum (OC or pepper spray). This agent is most and applicable rules of engagement/ARs prior to use.
often used by the military police for incapacitating
violent or threatening subjects, but also has PROTECTION
applications for special forces and stability and AGAINST RCAs
support operations. OC is a naturally occurring Use the following measures to protect against RCAs.
substance found in the oily resin of cayenne and other Protect the eyes and respiratory passages from CS by
varieties of peppers (can also be produced immediate masking. A dry field uniform will usually
synthetically). provide adequate protection for a short time in most
Contact with OC particles in a sprayed mist tactical situations. Those personnel handling and
incapacitates subjects by inducing an almost loading bulk CS should wear protective clothing,
immediate burning sensation of the skin and burning, masks, and gloves. Personnel exposed to CS1, CS2,
tearing, and swelling of the eyes. When inhaled, the and CR should wear protective clothing, masks,
respiratory tract becomes inflamed causing the hoods, and gloves. Protective clothing should be
mucous membranes to swell. This restricts breathing secured at the neck, wrists, and ankles.
to short, shallow breaths.
As stated earlier, standard RCAs also cause tearing PHYSIOLOGICAL AND
and respiratory discomfort (irritant effects), but do SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
not induce the inflammation and swelling effects of RCAs produce effects that must be considered for
OC. When sprayed (OC is dispersed in hand-held both tactical and training uses. The RCAs in training
canister similar to M32/36) most people cannot keep concentrations will produce temporary, irritating
their eyes open unless they physically hold their effects to normal, healthy individuals. These
eyelids apart due to the swelling. Fear and personnel will recover from the exposure quite
disorientation often result from this temporary rapidly. However, individuals with a common cold,
blindness. Affected personnel may also lose strength asthma, lung congestion, high blood pressure, or
and coordination due to the shortness of breath. cardiovascular problems will experience increased
Treatment and decontamination procedures: effects and may suffer longer recovery times.
Move to uncontamimted air. Therefore, they should not be exposed to these agents
Flush face with cool water; if burning persists, use during training exercises. Pregnant soldiers with an
icepack. exempt letter from a doctor should also be exempt
Do not rub area. from training with RCAs.
Remove contacts, if applicable. Particles of CS remaining on exposed skin for long
Decon required areas with soap and water. periods can cause severe burns. CS should be
OC effects usually last approximately 15 to 45 immediately flushed from the skin with cold water.
minutes. If symptoms have not abated within 45 Prolonged, continuous, or even intermittent exposure
minutes, seek medical attention. to field concentrations of CS combined with a high
Limits of OC include: temperature and humidity may result in a cumulative
Alcohol-based sprays must not be used around effect (more intense stinging, tearing, watering of the
flames/sparks. eyes).

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

Food and drink contaminated with CS can be detected Decontaminate CS, CS1, and CS2 on surfaces and
easily since it is quite repulsive to the taste. When equipment using soap and water, especially for large
food items are suspected to have been contaminated area or surface decontamination. The higher the
by CS in training, check them using the following basicity of the decontaminant, the better. A more
procedures: (Do not use these procedures in combat effective decontaminant for these RCAs on soil and
when chemical or biological agents may also be clothing consists of 18 percent sodium hydroxide and
present.) 82 percent isopropyl alcohol (20 minute contact
If packaged, clean the package and check for leaks time). An alternate solution of cold water containing
or damage. If no odor is present, the food is probably 10 percent monoethanolamine (MEA) and 0.3 percent
not contaminated. If the package is damaged or non-ionic detergent (such as triton X-100 or Igepal
leaking, unpack the contents and inspect them. CO-630) requires 30 minutes contact to be effective.
If unpacked, sniff to detect RCA odor. If none the Do not use chlorine bleach, oxygen bleach, standard
food may be safe to eat. However, when in doubt, decontaminants, or detergents containing bleach to
discard the package. If the food is contaminated, you clean up CS. These materials can react with CS to
may be able to trim the food and remove the form chemicals that are more toxic than CS ( for
contaminated portions. The same procedures apply to example, expoxides which cause vesicant (blistering)
food immersed in water or in covered containers. CR injuries).
should be stored in nonporous containers on Personnel exposed to CR should administer self
nonporous surfaces. It will leach into porous material aid/first aid and decontaminate as follows—
and can be extremely persistent. Upon exposure to CR, personnel should mask (if
available) and remove themselves from the
TREATMENT contaminated area into fresh air. If CR has entered
Personnel exposed to RCAs should administer self the eyes, flush them with large amounts of cold water
aid/first aid and decontaminate as soon as possible. or water containing 2 percent sodium carbonate while
When exposed to CS, CS1, or CS2, personnel should holding the eyelids opened.
administer self aid/first aid and decontaminate as If the skin is exposed to CR, wash the exposed area
follows: Upon exposure to these agents, don the gently with soap and cold water or use a deluge
protective mask, clear it, and try to keep the eyes shower if available. Individuals who have ingested
open as much as possible. With or without the CR should be given lots of water or milk. Do not
availability of a protective mask, move out of the induce vomiting. Do not use bleach, bleach
contaminated area into fresh air and face the wind. containing decontaminants, detergents, or peroxides
When in a safe area, remove the mask and blot away for decontamination; this combination releases toxic
tears; do not rub the eyes. If CS has entered the eyes, fumes.
force them open and flush with water. Contact lenses
are not approved for wear during training with CS. Physical removal of the CR solution is the only
Minute particles can be trapped in the fluid between approved method of decontamination. To
lens and eye, causing intense prolonged effects. decontaminate CR on equipment or on surfaces,
remove CR by using towels, rags, absorbent paper,
Chest discomfort can usually be relieved merely by or any other method such as scraping, shoveling, or
talking. If exposure has been heavy, significant skin sweeping. If available, wipe the area with rags
reactions may develop. Immediately flush the skin or soaked in propylene glycol or an automotive
exposed areas with large amounts of cold water. A antifreeze solution, then wipe with rubbing alcohol,
5-or 10-percent sodium bicarbonate solution in water and then scrub with non-bleach detergent and hot
or a specially prepared wash solution (6.7 percent water before rinsing with large amounts of cold
sodium bicarbonate, 3.3 percent sodium carbonate, water. Even though physical removal eliminates most
and 0.1 percent benzalkonium chloride in cold water) of the hazard, enough CR will remain to irritate the
is superior to water and should be used only in small eyes. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and cold
amounts. Do not use these solutions in the eyes. water before touching the face, eyes, or groin. Place
Oil-based lotions and skin decontamination kits all contaminated materials used to decontaminate in
containing bleach should not be used. CS reacts with an approved storage container where they cannot
bleach to form a combination more toxic to the skin affect personnel.
than CS alone.
Soldiers who become highly contaminated with CS
spray should remove their clothing as soon as feasible

6-4
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

and take a shower or bath using plenty of soap and defense posture and training of target population.
water. If contaminated, flush the eyes with large Understanding weather effects on RCA agent
amounts of water. If exposure has been heavy, behavior is essential to ensure maximum effectiveness
significant percutaneous (through the skin) reactions in planning and conducting operations.
may develop. The individual may prevent this by Conditions that are most favorable for RCA
immediately rinsing the skin with large amounts of dispersion and placement on a target would be stable
water. However, 5 percent sodium bicarbonate or (inversion) atmospheric conditions where the wind
sodium carbonate in water or a specially prepared speed is less than 5 to 8 knots. Under neutral
cutaneous wash solution is superior to water and is atmospheric conditions with low windspeed and
needed only in small amounts. Do not use such smooth terrain, large areas may be covered with
solutions in the eyes. RCAs. Neutral conditions may be the best for
To prepare the cutaneous wash solution, add 100 military planning purposes since these conditions
grams of sodium bicarbonate, 50 grams of sodium usually occur more often than stable or unstable
carbonate, and 15 milliliters of 10 percent conditions. The least favorable conditions for RCA
benzalkonium chloride to 1,500 milliliters of distilled employment are heavy rains and unstable (lapse)
water. This solution is stable and is prepared in atmospheric conditions where windspeeds are greater
advance, if needed. The pharmacy may issue without than 10 knots. Although light rains will not seriously
prescription. CS agents affect the eyes, the degrade the effectiveness of most RCAs, heavy rains
respiratory tract, and moist skin areas of the body. A will wash RCAs out of the air and off surfaces.
field protective mask and field clothing with collar Temperature also has an effect on RCAs. Although
and cuffs buttoned and trouser legs tucked into boots the rate of evaporation of liquid RCAs increases with
will protect against field concentrations of the agents. increasing temperatures, humans perspire more freely
Personnel handling or dispensing bulk CS wear at higher temperatures, increasing skin effects from
rubber gloves, hood, rubber boots, rubber apron, RCA exposure. In contrast, at lower temperatures,
protective mask, and field clothing secured at the personnel will be wearing multi-layered clothing that
neck, wrists, and ankles. provides a more effective barrier to skin exposure. In
Those affected by CS should move to fresh air and this case, RCAs may still be employed effectively for
face into the wind for 5 to 10 minutes, avoid rubbing delayed harassing effects against troops who must
eyes, and keep well apart from other affected eventually remove their contaminated clothing.
personnel. If gross accidental contamination with CS Terrain, contour, and surface areas also influence the
agent occurs, promptly rinse the body with cool effectiveness of RCAs. Under stable weather
water. Remove the remainder of the agent, except in conditions, the agent cloud tends to flow over rolling
and around the eyes, with a 5 percent sodium terrain and down valleys. Higher concentrations tend
bisulphite solution, then rinse the body with water. If to flow around obstacles such as hills and persist in
sodium bisulphite is not available, use a 1 percent hollows, low ground, depressions, and foxholes. In
solution of sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, or urban areas, the dominating terrain (buildings,
yellow general issue soap and water. When streets, and trees) tends to channel wind and create
showering after any exposure to a CS agent, first eddies and currents that can be very unpredictable
rinse the body with cool water for 3 to 5 minutes and cause the agent cloud to dissipate more rapidly.
before proceeding with normal showering. If agent Turbulence on the downwind sides of buildings will
residue is on the clothing, remove the clothing to tend to pool RCA concentration close to the
prevent unmasked personnel from being affected. buildings, and may penetrate closed structures
Showering and laundering of clothing after exercises through doors and windows.
will minimize the risk of skin irritation following
exposure to CS. Soldiers who may be exposed to CS Rough ground and ground covered with tall grass or
can reduce skin exposure by rolling down sleeves. brush tends to deflect and retard cloud movement,
while flat terrain and open water (under stable or
OPERATIONAL neutral conditions) allows an even, steady cloud
movement and flow.
CONSIDERATIONS
The behavior and tactical effectiveness of RCAs in When RCAs are employed into wooded areas, the
support of military operations are affected by the thickness and height of foliage determines agent
weather, by the terrain in the target area, and by the effectiveness. A dense canopy tends to create a

6-5
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

physical barrier that resists penetration of aerosol and results have shown that a very high level of
particulate clouds from the outside while preventing adaptation or tolerance to CS may develop under
escape of RCAs already under the canopy. The agent conditions of extreme motivation or where escape to
clouds released from munitions within woods and clean air is not possible. However, RCAs in surprise
jungles are generally smaller and higher in dosages can still incapacitate significant numbers of
concentration (by as much as three times) than those well-trained and equipped soldiers. Performance
released in the open. Wooded and jungle degradation will be achieved when enemy soldiers are
environments also require larger munition forced to don protective clothing and masks. Enemy
expenditures because some rounds will detonate on use of terrain may also be restricted. RCAs can also
treetops with less agent penetrating to ground level. be used to complement or enhance other munitions
Soil type and condition also affect the efficiency of beyond the effectiveness or either used alone.
RCA munitions. For instance, point detonating In many tactical situations, the employment of RCAs
devices tend to bury into the porous surfaces and cannot wait for optimum environmental conditions.
evaporate more slowly than from nonporous surfaces. Their effectiveness often depends on immediate use
As a result, a decrease in the cloud size and area when and where the situation demands. When
coverage could occur. When this soil is disturbed by employed under adverse conditions, additional
traffic, the RCAs may become airborne with renewed munition expenditures and off-target attacks may
effectiveness. increase on-target RCA effects. However, RCA
The overall utility of RCAs is greatly influenced by employment depends primarily on the tactical
the discipline, motivation, and degree of readiness of situation, regardless of the conditions that exist at the
the soldier. RCAs have been shown to be least useful time.
against well-trained and well-equipped soldiers. Test

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 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 7

RCA
Employment

Specific techniques for employing RCAs in different comrades are going. To do this you can:
situations are addressed in this section. This is only Lob RCA agents into the center of the crowd.
after the appropriate authority has given release for Attack the crowd with RCAs from different sides in
use of RCAs or a rules of engagement has been coordinated staggered time intervals (as opposed to
established. simultaneously).

AMBUSH RELIEF Grouping

Friendly forces may not be able to react with lethal The purpose of causing a rioting crowd to group is to
fires because of the danger of collateral injuries. contain the area they will be able to affect, thus
Mounted forces can react to ambushes with RCAs. lessening the impact of their rioting and allowing you
E8 launchers can be placed on vehicles and properly to focus your resources onto a smaller area.
oriented for immediate firing to the flanks. These
E8-equipped vehicles are then spaced at intervals In order to do this you must use RCAs to cut off
throughout the convoy, and can be command different avenues of escape until you have contained
detonated if the convoy is ambushed. CS can also be the crowd.
used in support of withdrawal operations.
CONTENTS
RIOT CONTROL Ambush Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
In conducting riot control operations the main Riot Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
objective is to "control" the rioting crowd into doing
what we want, be that dispersing, grouping, moving, Rescue Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
or channelizing. For further riot control guidance, see Convoy Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
FM 19-15, Civil Disturbances, Nov 85.
Nuclear Weapons
Dispersing Security Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
The purpose of dispersing a rioting crowd is to have Military Operations
it break up and move off into different unorganized in Urban Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
directions. The psychology behind a crowd is such Base/Perimeter Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
that an individual is less emboldened to react with
hostile intentions when alone than with a group of Terrain Restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
supporters. Employing Small Area Munitions . . . . . . . . .7-4
In order to produce this dispersion, you must create a Employing Dispersers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
chaotic effect in the mind of the rioter so that he does
not know which way to go or which way his

7-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

Moving Supporting the

Moving the rioting crowd is akin to grouping, but Delaying Action
instead of cutting off all avenues of escape for the Once the rescue force has successfully extracted the
rioting crowd, you leave obvious avenues open for encircled force in order to further cripple the enemy’s
the crowd to take. These obvious open avenues lead pursuit, RCAs may be used to delay and hinder their
to where you want the crowd to go. This moving organization and movement. This is done by having
technique is used when you need to occupy the area the rear guard attack any pursuing forces with RCAs.
the crowd is currently in or want them to move to a
different location but do not have the assets to totally
control them. CONVOY
You can do this by first attacking the crowd from the PROTECTION
opposite side you want the crowd to go as well as any The key to protecting a convoy is immediate action
avenues you do not want them to go. when confronted with a situation which may endanger
your mission or the lives of your soldiers.
Channelizing In a situation where the road is being blocked and the
This technique is used when you want a rioting crowd convoy is being physically attacked (rocks, vehicles
to move to a location you have chosen. Do this by being shaken...) the use of RCAs can provide the
cutting off avenues of escape with RCAs, blockades, necessary force to break contact with the attacking
and forces, as well as pushing the crowd from behind crowd. In breaking contact you should have your
by using advancing forces and RCAs. soldiers mask, deploy RCAs in your immediate area
and in the direction you plan to move. Then move out
This technique can be resource intensive and cannot in that direction, continuing to use RCAs along your
normally be accomplished without an adequate path until it is clear.
amount of available manpower and logistics.
NUCLEAR WEAPONS
RESCUE MISSIONS SECURITY OPERATIONS
For this manual’s purposes, rescue missions are the Of all the instances where you may be allowed to use
tactical rescue of an encircled military force by
another force which has freedom of movement. RCAs, this is probably the most serious. In protecting
and recovering nuclear weapons, the use of deadly
An example would be a convoy that becomes force will most likely already be authorized.
surrounded and pinned down during movement.
Unable to escape on its own, a rescue mission is In protecting nuclear weapons, there must be clearly
required. defined levels of force you will use—each level
building on the last. The use of RCAs will be the last
RCAs can be used in two ways to support a rescue step in the escalation to the use of deadly force.
mission:
Supporting the concentration of combat power at The rules of engagement given to you in the
the breakout point, used by the rupture force and safeguarding and recovery of nuclear weapons will
support force. give you the guidelines for RCA use. You must
Supporting the delaying action of the rear guard. understand that if you eventually must use lethal
force, the phase of using RCAs must end and lethal
The best time to conduct your rescue operation is as force begin. There must be a clear distinction
soon as possible to the actual encirclement. This between the two operations (using RCAs and using
limits the amount of time an enemy has to organize. lethal force), not only for legal purposes but for the
psychological purpose of showing to the aggressor
Supporting the that the odds have changed. This in itself may cause
an aggressor, not truly committed to this venue, to
Breakout Point discontinue his actions.
In supporting the breakout point or breach, RCAs
may be used to cause confusion in the area where the
rescuing force can concentrate his combat power. The
RCAs are used by the rescuing force to break a hole
in the enemy’s lines, widen, and secure it.

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 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

MILITARY OPERATIONS BASE/PERIMETER

IN URBANIZED TERRAIN DEFENSE
Combat in cities imposes unique demands because of RCAs can provide valuable defensive fires when
urban setting. There are greater restrictions on the integrated into the perimeter defense of various types
commander in the application of force for political of fixed installations, including communications
and military reasons. centers, airfield complexes, firebases, and support
facilities. RCAs provide a rapid response to enemy
RCA use in cities can cause reduced effectiveness activity when the exact locations of enemy or friendly
among enemy soldiers if they remain in the affected personnel outside the defensive perimeter is not
areas. Unprotected personnel, particularly those who known. When used in this role, the munitions should
do not have protective masks readily available, will be integrated into a deliberate defense plan.
probably move from cover or concealment—either to
find their masks or to escape from the effects of the
RCAs. The probable confusion and shock reaction TERRAIN
among the enemy should also be detrimental to the RESTRICTION
enemy’s effectiveness in holding an urban area. The greatest amount of agent CS used in Vietnam
RCAs may be preferable over conventional high was bulk CS1 and CS2, primarily for terrain and
explosives during MOUT. They can provide excellent fortification restriction. Missions involving bulk CS
capabilities for forcing hostile forces out of were not directly exploited by maneuver units,
basements, sewers, and other subterranean systems. largely because these missions supplemented
From historical accounts during Operation Hue City, economy of force activities.
missions were characterized by close, intense The assessment of area restriction through use of CS
house-to-house fighting with engagements usually was determined by observation of enemy movement
ranging from 20 to 150 meters. The closeness of the in the target area. Intelligence reports, including
enemy and bad weather limited air and artillery airborne personnel detector readings and aerial
support. photographs from Vietnam, indicated the enemy
CS delivered by E8 launchers and grenades was ceased to use lines of communication and other
employed extensively. When soldiers discovered the contaminated terrain after bulk CS bombing missions.
effectiveness of the CS delivered by launchers, CS The enemy was sometimes observed using new trails
was in high demand and had to be rationed. Assaults to bypass interdicted routes. He was observed on
were usually preceded by direct and indirect fire, other deeper targets scraping trails with bulldozers
followed by CS, then a short pause followed by an and washing down others in an attempt to regain
infantry assault. unrestricted trafficability. These efforts were largely
Smoke and RCAs may be employed together to successful, but time consuming and costly,
obscure the vision of enemy direct tire gunners and particularly when roads were covered by recon
forward observers. Smoke can also be used to screen looking for targets of opportunity.
RCA delivery. When the artillery displaces to Occasionally, aerial reconnaissance of an
positions behind the built-up area, RCAs and smoke CS-contaminated area revealed footprints and vehicle
can be used to screen their withdrawal. From battle tracks in the agent, indicating that the enemy had
reports, CS in 105mm projectiles was used in a traversed the contamination with no apparent attempt
counter-rocket and counter-mortar role during the to remove the CS. This indicates that while
defense of Saigon in March 1969. contamination can restrict the use of terrain, only
The enemy placed his firing positions as close as physical occupation by ground forces can deny its
possible to congested areas. Because conventional use. A determined enemy with masks would not be
munitions would have caused significant property deterred from penetrating an area covered by CS.
damage and could have inflicted casualties among However, enemy troops would probably not stay long
civilians, CS was used successfully to suppress the in an area heavily covered by CS.
enemy rocket and mortar fire. CS2 can also be used to create contamination on the
surface of stagnant or slowly moving water (for
example, swamps, marshes, ponds). CS2 is highly
resistant to degradation in water and will float on

7-3
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

these surfaces for days. If the surface of the water is to attack targets of opportunity.
disturbed by foot or vehicle traffic, the CS2 powder The agent cloud’s similarity to white smoke should
will become airborne, renewing the inhalation be exploited in helping to reduce target acquisition.
hazard. CS2 will eventually absorb water, lump up, The downwind incapacitation of enemy forces not
and drift to the water’s edge, but it can restrict use of in the target area should be considered in planning
water for short operations. RCA employment against separate targets within a
larger enemy formation or position.
EMPLOYING Timely exploitation of munitions effects by fire or
maneuver. (About 10 to 15 minutes after the agent is
SMALL AREA employed, the physiological effects of CS no longer
MUNITIONS preclude military tasks from being performed.)
The following employment techniques are imperative
for proper tactical use of small area RCA munitions EMPLOYING
such as grenades, launchers, and backpack dispersers: DISPERSERS
Sufficient munitions should be employed to
completely cover the target area periphery, ensuring Currently available dispersers are capable of
denial of escape routes and thorough coverage of the delivering a high volume of CS or CR on crowds or
target’s outer edges. terrain. They are designed to disperse agents from a
Sufficient munitions should be employed against position close to the target. Security should always be
moving targets to blanket the entire area of possible provided to the dispersing team.
movement.
Use of reserve (additional) munitions should be
planned to allow for wind drift of the agent cloud and

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 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 8

Herbicides for
Contingency Use

Herbicides are chemical compounds used to Controls vegetation for 2 to 4 weeks.

kill/damage plants. They can be used to dry foliage, Rainfall within 6 hours of application may wash it
stimulate/inhibit plant growth, or sterilize soil. away.
Mechanical agitators may cause excessive foaming.
Herbicides are grouped on the basis of required Corrosive to iron and galvanized steel and should
selectivity and modes of action. Required selectivity not be stored for long periods in unlined containers.
is broken into selective and nonselective. Selective Flush sprayer parts with water after use.
herbicides target specific plant types, while Leaching is very low and has strong soil
nonselective herbicides affect all plant types. Modes absorption, but is subject to microbiological
of action are contact, translocated, soil sterilant, and decomposition.
pre-emergence. Contact herbicides require physical Half life normally is 60 days or less.
contact with the plant to be effective. A translocated
herbicide is absorbed through the plant walls (stalk or Toxicity:
leaves) and spread throughout the plant. Soil sterilant Very low oral toxicity with no cases of poisoning
herbicides mail soil incapable of supporting plant life, being reported/observed. There is no specific
while pre-emergence herbicides affect plants that antidote for oral ingestion.
have not germinated. Avoid contact with skin, eyes, or clothing. In case
of eye contact, flush with water for at least 15
The Armed Forces Pest Management Board has minutes.
approved three herbicides for contingency use: No noticeable impact on wildlife/fish.
glyphosate, bromacil, and paraquat.

GLYPHOSATE
Glyphosate is the primary tactical herbicide that is CONTENTS
used when feasible. Characteristics (see also Table Glyphosate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8-l):
Relatively nonselective, translocated herbicide with Bromacil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
little or no pre-emergence impact (crops can be Paraquat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
planted/seeded directly onto treated areas following
application) Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Applied as spray; visible effects usually occur Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
within 7 to 10 days; however, effects are delayed by
cool or cloudy weather. Available as a 41% solution Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
that is further diluted with water before use. Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Applied through boom equipment in area spray
missions on a spray-to-wet method.

8-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

BROMACIL Nonselective, contact herbicide with some

This herbicide is the second choice of use. pre-emergence and translocated effects.
Characteristics (see also Table 8-l): Only effective when applied to the aerial plant parts
Nonselective soil sterilant. and action is light-dependent; in bright sunlight, first
Inhabits photosynthesis with effects appearing in effects can be seen within an hour of treatment.
21-30 days; carried to root zone by moisture. However, plant death does occur slowly in the dark
Controls wide range of annuals, perennials, and (most effective when applied in late after/early
certain woody plant species for about 12 months. evening).
Most readily absorbed through root system, but is Tenaciously bound by soil components by means of
also absorbed through leaves and stems; adding base exchange; considered to be biologically inactive
surfactant to spray will enhance foliar activity. in most soils, therefore, leaves no residue which
Applied as spray on soil surface, preferably just would affect new seedlings or established crops.
before/during periods of active plant growth; On broad leaf plants, 25 to 50% breakdown occurs
available as 41% liquid solution that is further diluted in about 3 weeks.
with water before use. Readily absorbed by foliage and very resistant to
May be applied using spray tanks, boom sprayers, rain removal; therefore, is ideal when rapid effects
hand-held or high-volume equipment. are needed or weather conditions are unfavorable for
Requires agitation only until mixed. other herbicides.
Prolonged exposure to air can cause loss of water Applied on leaves during ground/aerial large-spray
volubility. system, hand-held, or high-volume equipment.
May corrode aluminum spray equipment. Available as a 20.1% solution which is further diluted
Flush spray equipment with several changes of with water before use.
water after use; clean glass with detergent followed Non-ionic/cationic surfactant is recommended.
by acetone rinse. Concentrated aqueous solutions are corrosive to
Less subject to soil absorption than many other many metals, including mild steel, tinplate,
herbicides; is subject to microbiological galvanized iron, and aluminum. Best kept in original
decomposition, but usually persists for more than one container if undiluted.
growing season. If diluted, is virtually noncorrosive to spray
Six months half-life. equipment.
Slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Store in
Toxicity: shady areas.
Liquid form is harmful/fatal is swallowed.
Eye, nose, throat, and skin irritant; wash Toxicity:
thoroughly after handling. Highly toxic. One swallow can kill (symptoms
In case of contact, flush skin with water, flush eyes include burning sensation in mouth followed by
for 15 minutes, and get medical attention. vomiting, diarrhea, and retching). However,
Avoid breathing mist and avoid contact with inhalation or contact should cause no serious injury
clothing. except when grossly exposed (inhalation effects are
Do not reuse containers. headache, nose bleeding, sore throat, and coughing.
Do not apply, drain, or flush spray equipment Systemic toxicity is not likely to occur from
around desirable vegetation; do not contaminate water inhalation).
supplies or bury empty containers near water. Eye contact causes irritation/inflammation in 12 to
Open dumping is prohibited. 24 hours, but slow recovery usually follows while
Combustible; extinguish with chemical foam, dry repeated/prolonged skin contact cause
chemicals, or carbon dioxide; firefighters must use edema/erythema, cracking of fingernails/toenails.
self-contained breathing apparatuses. Immediately flush skin/eyes with water for 15
Slightly toxic to fish; no noticeable effects on minutes and get medical attention.
wildlife. If swallowed, drink multiple glasses of water and
induce vomiting. Repeat until vomitus is clear. Get
medical attention. Reduce internal absorption by
PARAQUAT administering bentonite or activated charcoal.
A restricted-use herbicide used only in emergencies Serious poisoning may cause 2 to 3 weeks of
when benefits outweigh safety hazards. transient kidney failure/liver complications with
Characteristics (See also Table 8-l): progressive pulmonary changes. Death is usually due

8-2
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

to pulmonary fibrosis. STORAGE

Sprayers/handlers should wear full protective Store liquid formulations on pallets or duckboards to
equipment (civilian or military). keep metal containers from rusting. Ensure
Concentrated paraquat is toxic to fish/wildlife; containers are tightly closed (plug any air vents
relatively safe when grossly diluted. punched/opened to facilitate pouring) to prevent
Do not reuse containers. Untreated spill material leaks.
can dry to form irritating dust. Mix spills with
clay/clay soil and dispose as waste. Even small amounts of water contamination in
concentrates/oil solutions can make them jell, causing
AVAILABILITY container deterioration. Chemicals may crystallize
Herbicides are available through Defense General out of solution below 32 degrees Fahrenheit. If this
Supply Center (contingency stocks are not happens, warm concentrate and roll/shake containers.
maintained). Crystals should return to solution. At high
Procured in small containers of concentrate for temperatures, chemicals may expand causing drum
shipment ease (heavily diluted before use). heads to bulge or leak, or at any temperatures above
Normal mixtures are 5 gallon concentrate to 100 95 degrees Fahrenheit, the chemicals may deteriorate.
gallons water, but varies according to selected High temperatures may reduce any emulsifier’s
herbicide/application rate. effectiveness and hasten container corrosion.

MIXING DISPOSAL
When mixing water-soluble formulations, fill tank Herbicide waste, including contaminated soil/clothing
half full of water, add chemical slowly, and stir to and runoff, are mixed with absorbents (Fuller’s earth,
dissolve. If detergent is recommended, add 1/4 to clay, and so forth) and buried in appropriate,
1/2 pound of household detergent per 100 gallons approved landfills (IAW Federal, state, and/or local
spray. For aquatic weed control, herbicide laws). Ensure containers are crushed/destroyed to
concentration is often referred to as parts per million prevent future use.
ppm), which is the number of parts (by volume
weight) of chemical in one million parts dilute
(mg/L). Use mixed solution as soon as possible due
to strength loss/decomposition.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 9

Herbicide
Delivery Systems

Systems available for the herbicide application can be expensive, simple to operate, and have less nozzle
broken into two general categories — ground-based trouble than boom sprayers. They can pass between
and aerial spray systems. trees, maneuver close to obstacles, and are practical
for rough terrain. They spray a broad swath of 20 to
GROUND-BASED 30 feet with large volumes that provide moderately
good coverage. The conventional equipment consists
SPRAY SYSTEMS of a piston-type hydraulic sprayer equipped with
Ground-based systems allow exact placement of 3/4-inch high-pressure hose and a 15
herbicides and minimize downwind drift. Ground gallon-per-minute (gpm) pump for a 3/16-inch nozzle
sprayers are employed in areas occupied and opening. Thirty-five to 60 gpm pumps are used for
controlled by friendly soldiers on terrain traversable 1/4 inch, 5/16 inch, and 15/16 inch nozzle openings.
by the spray apparatus. A 500-meter buffer distance The equipment is mounted on wheeled vehicles and
is recommended between the treated area and the spray stream is greatly affected by the wind.
desirable vegetation. Applications are not made near
desirable vegetation, in winds over 10 knots, or if it Truck-mounted boom sprayers are adapted for large
is about to rain. See Appendix D for a listing of areas where complete coverage is necessary, such as
ground sprayers. airfields, railyards, and depots. Arm booms are
available for roadside and ditch spraying. Mounting
Several hand-operated pump and pressure sprayers the nozzles off-center enables the operator to spray 15
are available to deliver limited amounts of herbicides. to 20 feet to one side. Use a larger boom mounted
Hand sprayers are suitable for spot spraying and for vertically to treat taller vegetation. Handguns at about
applying spray close to desirable vegetation. Sprayers 100 psi can vary delivery from a broad mist to a
could include sprinkling cans, compressed air narrow coarse stream from a stationary truck to reach
sprayers of 1 to 5 gallon capacity, and knapsack into tight spaces. Higher pressures will increase drift
sprayers with hand-operated pumps. Compressed air and reduce delivery effectiveness.
and knapsack sprayers are well adapted for herbicide
use along highways, runways, or railroad tracks. A Mist blowers are power-driven systems that disperse
cone-type nozzle on a hand sprayer delivers 2.5 to 6 highly concentrate sprays. The herbicide is carried
gallons per hour at 20 to 30 pounds per square inch principally in an air stream instead of a liquid. These
(psi). If devices are issued for insect control sprayer are free from boom and nozzle troubles and
purposes, clean them thorougtly after each use so are very useful against weeds and woody plants in
that crops and vegetative camouflage are not damaged
when they are used to spray insecticides. CONTENTS
Boomless sprayers with nozzle clusters are well Ground-Based Spray Systems.......................9-0
adapted for spraying roadsides and ditch banks, under
utility lines, and along fence rows. They are less Aerial Spray Systems.............................................9-1

9-0
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

swamps and rocky areas along roadsides and under aircraft, area coverage is less than 5,000 acres per
power lines. Mist blowers use very little water and sortie. To achieve predictable herbicide deposit,
cover vegetation rapidly. They are used to treat areas aircraft should fly into the wind under conditions as
inaccessible to hydraulic power equipment and cost calm and stable as possible. See Appendix D for a
less. Mist blowers in sizes of 5 to 12 horse power partial listing of spray systems.
(hp) are useful for brush treatment when drift is not a The only large fixed-wing aerial spray capability in
problem. A 2-hp knapsack mist blower is effective DOD is maintained by the USAF in the Air Force
against brush up to 30 feet tall for spot spraying and Reserve. Specially modified C-130H Aircraft are
for retreating. equipped to use the Modular Aerial Spray System
Any combination of pumps and spray nozzles may be (MASS). The MASS can carry 2,000 gallons of
mounted on any vehicle that has the capacity to spray liquid and can be configured to use wing and/or
transport them and the herbicide to the site of fuselage booms. The MASS has the capability of
application and may be used as ground field applying liquid from one-quarter ounce to 30
expedients. Expedient systems are also used to spray gallons/acre. Droplet sizes sprayed can vary from as
fuels to bum treated or untreated vegetation. A little as 20 microns for ultra-low volume missions to
standard highway watering truck can be adapted for as much as 3,000 microns for ultra-high volume
herbicides by equipping it with a loading pump to missions. For aerial spraying, the C-130H is
circulate the spray material and standard asphalt normally flown 200 knots constant ground speed
nozzles that deliver a fan spray. Power-driven 100-150 feet above the ground.
decontamination apparatuses (PDDA) are The US Army Pesticide Dispersal Unit (PDU) is a
self-contained spray systems used to apply multi-capability unit that can be slung from the cargo
decontaminants. The M12A1 and the M17 hook of any helicopter using a six-foot nylon strap. It
lightweight decontamination system (LDS) are both can be used to deliver liquids or solids and is
adaptable for vegetation control. Tank capacities configured in the high-volume mode using a 33.75-
range from 200 to 1,250 gallons. The M12A1 also foot boom with up to 34 nozzles. The PDU operates
has a 35 gpm pump that can be remoted out from the in the ultra low-volume mode using a six-foot boom
prime mover to pump herbicides to pressures up to with two rotary atomizers and in the solid mode using
800 psi. Delivery is made through two hoses with a rotary disc slinger. The unit is self-powered by a 10
adjustable nozzles. The PDDA can be used to control hp engine and is remote controlled by helicopter
vegetated minefield, defensive perimeters, airfields, crew. The PDU has a liquid payload of 150 gallons
and roadsides. Applications are made at volumes of and flow rates range from 0.48 gpm to 52.4 gpm.
50 to 100 gallons per acre (as required) to completely Since the PDU is an external load, contamination,
wet the foliage. After using PDDAs for herbicide jettison, and refilling problems are solved. The unit
operations, clean them thoroughly to prevent damage attaches in 15 seconds to all UH-1, UH-60, OH-58,
to seals, hoses, and pumps. Once PDDAs have been and CH-47 helicopters. It is issued to preventive
used to deliver herbicides, they are no longer safe for medicine units for pest control and can be used for
transporting drinking or shower water. The PDDA is herbicide operations along lines of communication,
tagged with a warning and the warning is entered in restrictive terrain, and in heavy vegetated areas to
the logbook. enhance intelligence collection and security.
AERIAL SPRAY A number of field expedient devices have been used
in helicopters to spray small areas such as fields of
SYSTEMS fire around defensive perimeters, helicopter landing
Aerial spray offers rapid treatment of large areas for zones, and small crop destruction missions. These
quick results at a lower cost. It also allows treatment devices range from a 55-gallon drum equipped with a
of inaccessible areas and areas under enemy control. spray bar for temporary mounting across the skids of
The obvious advantages of aerial spray systems are a UH-1 helicopter to a 400-gallon metal tank or
offset to some degree by the hazards to the pilot and 500-gallon collapsible fuel bladder with power-driven
the damage from the drift. A helicopter needs no fuel transfer pumps and improvised booms for use on
runway and can fly better at low altitudes and in low CH-47s.
visibility than fixed-wing aircraft, but at greater risk
to the crew. For helicopter and small fixed-wing

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

CHAPTER 10

Tactical Employment
of Herbicides

Upon proper approval authority, possible herbicide Destroying enemy food supplies and cash crops
employment techniques may accomplish the following: when such objectives constitute proper military
Kill the vegetation bordering roads, paths, trails, objectives is another option for use of herbicides.
railroads and waterways, thereby reducing possible Herbicides reduce the enemy’s ability to maintain an
army in the field when food crops fail to mature and
sites from which friendly forces may be ambushed. cash crops, such as drugs, cannot be sold to purchase
Kill the vegetation surrounding vulnerable base arms and munitions.
camps, communications complexes, pipelines, supply
points, assault strips, landing zones, and air defense Presidential approval is always required to employ
sites. Use of herbicides would enhance security of herbicides in war, but host nation agreements may
these sites. also require allied approval. Local civilian officials
Control vegetation in fields of fire and avenues of should be kept abreast of the effects of herbicide
approach to create kill lanes which channelize enemy operations. Civil affairs provisions are made to
approaches and withdrawals. Properly integrated provide food or money to families whose crops are
with terrain, obstacles, and fire support barrier plans, accidentally damaged by herbicides operations.
herbicides can enhance the lethality of direct and Defoliation of heavily vegetated areas by use of
indirect fire weapons. herbicides is the primary means of obtaining visual
Destroy large areas of dense vegetation for major observation of enemy forces, facilities, roads,
construction projects or for health and sanitation ambush sites, infiltration routes, and other enemy
programs. Herbicides may be used to mark areas locations from the air, ground, or water. The use of
through which roads are to be built. Herbicides may herbicides for defoliation—
be used on enemy held terrain to support retaliatory Enhances security. Defoliation of vegetation
operations by defoliating large area targets to improve bordering and overhanging roads, path, trails,
intelligence gathering. Increased visibility, vertical waterways, and railroads enhances security around
and horizontal, in densely vegetated areas should friendly base camps, airfields, ammunition dumps,
make observation of enemy movements easier. ports, along railroads, waterways and other locations
Herbicide operation could also potentially restrict by providing defense fields of fire and reducing
enemy use of ambush sites and infiltration routes. possible ambush sites.
Defoliation operations also support killing vegetation Improve military intelligence. Defoliation of
on friendly objectives and suspected enemy positions. large-area targets improves military intelligence for
Restricting the concealment opportunities often plan and operations by increasing vertical and
increased the chances of locating targets. Exposure of horizontal visibility in heavily forested or dense
enemy supply depots, base camps, and other jungle areas. Defoliation also provides data for
operations will make him more vulnerable to air correcting existing maps for preparing new ones.
attack. Reduces enemy resistance. In defoliated areas,

10-0
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

soldiers will meet less enemy resistance than in areas Defoliation along highways, railroads, and main
that have not been defoliated, and fewer soldiers will shipping channels will facilitate movement of supplies
be required for operations. Exposure of the enemy’s and decrease the number of convoy guards required.
supply depots, base camps, and other locations will Herbicides can also be used to reduce the enemy’s
make him more vulnerable to air strikes and resultant food and industrial crops. This could cause him to
damage, harassment, and threat of attack may cause divert combat manpower to production of food,
him to move out of an area. depend on local food resources, become more
Facilitates movement of military supplies. stationary because of the necessity to cultivate hidden
crops, and reduce production of war munitions.

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

APPENDIX A

Demolition Skills
for Constructing
Flame Field Expedients

This appendix provides the basic demolition skills Time fuse M700 is packed in 50-foot coils, two coils
required to construct flame field expedients. For per package, five packages per sealed container, and
further information on explosives and demolitions, eight containers (4,000 feet) per wooden box.
See FM 5-250, Explosives and Demolitions, Jun 92.

DEMOLITION
ACCESSORIES
Available demolition accessories include time blasting
fuses, detonating cord, blasting caps, a cap crimper, a
blasting cap test set, two blasting machines, a
detonating cord clip, a weatherproof fuse lighter, a
l-gallon mine, a field incendiary burster, thickening
compound, and demolition materials. This appendix
describes these items, their packaging, and any
precautions.

M700 Time
Blasting Fuse CAUTION
A time blasting fuse sends a flame from a match or You must always test the burning rate in the
igniter to a nonelectric blasting cap or other explosive same manner as for a safety fuse. If burn
charge and provides a time delay. The delay allows rate is faster than 30 seconds per foot, do
soldiers to move to a safe distance before the not use.
explosion.
The M700 time fuse (Figure A-1) is a dark green
cord, 0.2 inches in diameter, with a plastic cover. CONTENTS
Depending on the time of manufacture, the cover may
be smooth with single bands around the outside at Demolition Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-0
l-foot or 18-inch intervals and double bands at 5-foot Misfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-6
or 90-inch intervals. The bands provide easy
measuring. The burning rate is approximately 40 Firing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-8
seconds per foot. Testing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-11
Priming Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-12

A-O
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

APPENDIX B

Riot Control Agent

Munitions
and Delivery Systems

RCA MUNITIONS SYSTEMS M7A3

RCA munitions come in various forms such as The M7A3 (Figure B-1), NSN 1330-00-965-0802, is
bombs, spray tanks, artillery shells, mortar shells, a burning type grenade filled with approximately 270
rockets, grenades, and cartridges. The following grams (9.5 ounces) of pyrotechnic CS mix. In that
systems are issuable RCA munitions currently mix there is about 116g (4.1 oz.) of pelletized CS.
available in the US Army, Navy, or Air Force Housed in a metal cylindrical container, the M7A3
inventory. Area coverages cited in munitions has a l-to-2 second delay fuse and a 15-to-35-second
descriptions3 are areas where concentrations of at least bum time. The throwing range of this grenade is
5-10 mg/m occur (ICT50). about 35 meters. Area coverage: At a windspeed of
4 knots, the M7A3 grenade will2 produce an effective
HAND GRENADES concentration over about 60m in an elliptical pattern
RCA grenades are classified either as burning type or approximately 18 by 4 meters maximum crosswind
bursting types. They are used against enemy width. At higher windspeeds, the pattern will be
personnel or material at relatively short ranges. longer and narrower.
Burning type grenades are usually fitted with igniting
fuses which function with a 1-to-5 second delay. M47
These grenades are usually thrown by hand or The M47 grenade (Figure B-2), NSN
projected by a grenade launcher to the upwind side of 1330-00-477-6704, is a special purpose, burning-type
the target. Upon ignition, the filler is ignited and munitions used for control of rioters and
sufficient pressure is created to uncover the gas ports counter-insurgents. It is filled with a CS pyrotechnic
and allow the RCA to escape. Burning type grenades mix weighing about 410 grams (14. 4 ounces) that
will cause fires if employed around flammable contains approximately 120 grams of CS. The M47
material. Bursting type grenades are fused with delay
fuses (1 to 2 seconds) which contain a low explosive CONTENTS
detonator. The detonator ruptures the grenade body
and dispenses the filler. These grenade are thrown RCA Munitions Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
into the air so that the burst occurs several feet over Hand Grenades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
the target. Generally in a wind of 5 knots, the
burning type grenade covers an area of about 10 Cartridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
meters wide to a downwind distance of 25 meters. Morter and Artillery CS Cartridges . . . . . . . .. B-3
Under the same conditions, the bursting-type grenade
can cover an area about 5 meters in width to a Launchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4
downwind distance up to 15 meters. Dispersers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5
Field Expedients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8

B-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

low performance aircraft at altitudes up to 1,500 feet,

providing additional safety to aircrews. When
dropped from this altitude, it begins to emit a cloud
of CS at 50 to 100 feet. Like the M7A3, the M54
weighs about 1 pound and is filled with 115 g (4.1
ounces) of pelletized CS in a pyrotechnic mix. It
burns for about 15 to 35 seconds. Area coverage:
Same as the M7A3.

CARTRIDGES
The cartridges described below are projectiles filled
with RCA that can be launched from rifle-equipped
grenade launchers, and allows deposition of RCAs on
targets with increased accuracy and at ranges beyond
consists of a rubber body assembly with a fuse delay grenade throwing distances. Due to the projectile’s
of about 2 to 3 seconds before ignition. Discharge of high velocity, it will penetrate barriers of wood and
the CS results in a random "skittering" of the glass. Exercise caution when using these projectiles
grenade. The speed of the discharge through the ports in training and riot control situations. They can cause
prevents target personnel from picking up the grenade serious injury or death at close range. These
and throwing it back. The manner in which this cartridges are especially effective when fired into
grenade explodes also eliminates fragmentation side enclosed areas such as buildings, houses, bunkers,
effects and minimizes fire hazards. The grenade caves.
bums from 8 to 20 seconds. Hand-throwing range of
the grenade is about 35 to 45 meters. Area coverage:
approximately 150 square meters. (Coverage may M651
vary with field conditions and burn time.) The M651 (Figure B-4), NSN 1310-00-849-2083, is a
40mm, 11.3-cm-long aluminum cartridge filled with
M54 about 53 grams (2 ounces) of CS pyrotechnic mix
containing approximately 21 grams of CS. It is
The M54 (Figure B-3) consists of an M7A3 grenade equipped with a point detonating fuse (M581) and can
modified to accept an 8-to-12-second delay fuse. This be fired from the M79 and M203 grenade launchers.
modification permits hand-drop of the grenades from Maximum accuracy is obtained at ranges up to 200

B-2
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

meters. Area targets may be engaged up to 400 M651. Area coverage: approximately 120 square
meters. This projectile can penetrate window glass or meters.
up to 3/4 inch-thick pine at 200 meters and still
release CS. Following impact, a cloud of CS is MORTAR AND ARTILLERY
emitted for approximately 25 seconds. Area
coverage: approximately 120 square meters. Two CS CARTRIDGES
cartridges effectively placed will incapacitate 95
percent of unmasked personnel in an enclosure of 15
by 30 by 20 feet within 60 seconds after functioning. M630
The M630 (Figure B-6) is fired from an M30
4.2-inch mortar and ejects four l-pound CS-filled
pyrotechnic mix canisters either on impact or at a
preset altitude of 120 meters above ground level. A
total of 1.6 pounds of CS can be dispersed with this
cartridge. The M630 cartridge consists of the M633
projectile, M2A2 ignition cartridge with an M36A1
propelling charge, and the M548 variable time fuse.
The fuse functions at either a preset time or upon
impact to ignite the mix which will burn for about 60
seconds. It has a maximum range of 5,650 meters.
The M630 is used for direct support of maneuver
elements on known or suspected targets to harass or
confuse the enemy so that his ability to fire and
maneuver is degraded and his vulnerability to friendly
fires is increased. The M630 will penetrate a triple
M674 canopy jungle and is effective against enemy night
The M674 (Figure B-5), NSN 1310-00-935-9229, attacks. It is also used for counter-battery and
also known as the Handy Andy is an aluminum tube counter-mortar fire. It can be used in both an
that contains a rubber projectile filled with about 90 offensive and defensive role.
grams of CS pyrotechnic mix (about 36-45 grams
CS). It can be fired from the M79 grenade launcher,
from the AN-M8 pyrotechnic pistol, or thrown by
hand. It has a 2-to-7 second delay before the CS
pyrotechnic mix ignites, and a range of about 70
meters. Unreliable ranges and lack of precision make
the M674 a much less effective munition than the
M651. If the M651 is not available, the M674 can be
used on targets similar to those attacked with the

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FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

M629 attached. The launcher module has 16 tubes, each

The M629 (Figure B-7) is a semi-fixed, base ejecting containing four E23, 35mm CS cartridges, for a total
round designed for use in all 105mm howitzers. The of 64 cartridges. Each cartridge is filled with 38
main components of the round are the M632 grams of a CS pyrotechnic mix of which 15 grams
projectile containing four M8 pyrotechnic filled are pure CS. The total fill (CS pyrotechnic mix) is
canisters (each containing about 375 grams of mix), a .97 kg (2.1 pounds). The expelling charge propels the
cartridge case, and an M548 variable time fuse. A cartridge from the launcher and ignites a
total of 1.3 pounds of CS is contained in the 5-to-6-second delay fuse in the cartridge. The CS
cartridge. The fuse functions either at a set time or pyrotechnic mix burns from 10 to 15 seconds. The
upon impact to ignite the expelling charge. The cartridges contain different amounts of propellant
pyrotechnic mix burns for about 60 seconds. charge to give a wider dispersion in the target area.
The elliptical pattern created from the cartridges fired
The 105mm cartridge can be used to route the enemy from the E8 launcher is relatively independent of
from cover, for close support, and is especially meteorological conditions. However, the period of
effective in search and clear operations. It is also used effective agent concentration on a target area is
for harassing and interdiction and counter-battery and dependent upon existing meteorological conditions.
counter-mortar fire. The range of this launcher is from point blank to 250
meters based on adjustable firing notch position (six
positions available).
Area coverage:At 40° elevation, 40m wide by
125-175m deep. Use: Its use has been quite effective
in perimeter and convoy security, counter-ambush,
combat assault. The E8 has also been used in
ambushes and to break contact.

LAUNCHERS

E8 Launcher and
35mm Cartridge: M234
Tactical CS The M234, NSN 1010431-014-6506, system consists
The E8 launcher (Figure B-8) is a man-portable (34 of the M234 64mm projectile launcher, the M743
pounds), ground employed, expendable munition that 64mm kinetic energy projectile, the M742 64mm
can be fired either electrically or manually. The E8 kinetic energy projectile filled with CS1, and the
launcher is a short-range weapon that can be used to M755 blank cartridge.
place quantities of CS on point and small area targets
in conjunction with assault by ground forces. The The M234 64mm projectile launcher is a launcher
launcher may be emplaced, sighted, and fired by one from which 64mm projectiles can be fired from an
man. The E8 consists of a launcher module and a M16A1 rifle. It is aluminum-tasted, cylindrical, and
firing platform with a carrying harness and backpack weights approximately 2.5 pounds. A nut and latch
mechanism holds the launcher onto the barrel of the

B-4
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

M16A1 from which the M742 or M743 projectiles The M755 blank cartridge provides the propelling
are fired. force for the projectile and is specifically designed to
The M743 64mm kinetic energy projectile, (Figure launch it from the M16A1 rifle. Ball ammunition
B-9) also called the Sting Rag (ring airfoil grenade), must not be issued to soldiers using the M234.
was designed to inflict a painful blow upon impacting
on a target individual. It consists of a rubber-like DISPERSERS
plastic material, 64mm in diameter, molded in the Dispersers provide another means for disseminating
form of a ring airfoil. The airfoil shape of the RCAs in sufficient quantities to provide effective
spinning projectile provides life during the flight, coverage in a variety of situations and conditions.
enabling it to overcome gravity and result in a The dispersers vary from small hand-held units to
relatively straight trajectory. Upon target impact, the aircraft-mounted spray tanks. Generally, dispersers
circumferential breakband fractures, allowing the are employed when a larger amount of agent or a
projectile to deflect and spread the impact load, greater area coverage is required. Care must be taken
inflicting pain but minimizing the possibility of by the operators that intolerable concentrations of
causing serious injury. It can be aimed accurately at RCAs are not released since the larger dispersers can
individuals up to 40 meters away and up to 60 meters release large amounts in a very short time. The
for groups of personnel. It has a maximum range of dispersers are designed to disseminate RCAs by
100 meters. This projectile is called a kinetic energy aerosolizing them. However, dispersion of liquid
projectile since it has nearly the same energy impact RCAs increases operational flexibility since solutions
at effective ranges as it has at launch, due to its airfoil can be disseminated with more control to a target area
shape that results in a low draft profile. than powdered aerosol clouds. Aerosol clouds are
more affected by wind conditions than liquids.
The M742 64mm kinetic energy projectile filled with
CS1, also called the Soft Rag, is designed to deliver
small quantities of CS1 to target personnel at ranges M32
identical to that of the M743. The projectile is filled The M32 disperser (Figure B-10) is a hand-held
with approximately 2 grams of powdered CS1 which pressurized can capable of dispensing CSX solution.
is equally distributed in 18 pockets or compartments The M32 was designed to apprehend, control, or
around the circumference. The breakband is designed subdue unruly persons, trespassers, and rioters by
to rupture on impact and release the CS1 in a 3 to 5 spraying them with CSX. The M32 disperser consists
feet diameter cloud. This item was designed for use of an aluminum cylindrical container (6.4-inch length
in controlling individuals and crowds during civil by 1.5-inch diameter) filled with approximately 60
disturbances. It has some applications for special grams (2 ounces) of CSX pressurized with nitrogen
operating forces and point-type targets when gas. The CSX solution is discharged as a jet stream
casualties are not desired. through the nozzle by the trigger on top of the
disperser. When the pressure on the trigger is
released, the valve closes and the jet stream is shut

B-5
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

off. The range of the jet stream is 10 to 12 feet. It upright, aims at the target person’s face, and presses
will operate continuously for 14 to 20 seconds or the actuator or trigger in 1 second bursts. The bursts
approximately 20 to 25 times in short, one-second are more effective than the continuous spray since the
bursts. operator can adjust aim with a minimum of RCA
waste.
M36
The M36 disperser (Figure B-11), NSN M33/M33A1
1365-00-283-9046, is quite similar to the M32 in that The M33 and M33A1 (Figure B-12), NSN (M33A1)
it also is a hand-held, pressurized container 1040-00-148-9824, are lightweight, RCA dispersers
dispensing the RCA solution, CR (0.1 percent that disseminate pressurized riot control agents. The
solution in propylene glycol and water). It was M33A1 looks and functions like the M33. The
designed to apprehend, control, or subdue unruly difference is in the units' capabilities. The M33A1
persons, trespassers, and rioters. The M36 disperser disperser’s modular design allows quick replacement
is an aluminum cylinder (6.0-inch length by 1.5-inch of empty agent and pressure containers. The M33A1
diameter) containing approximately 68 grams of CR can disperse CS1 or CR solution; however, the M33
solution. The cylinder is pressurized with nitrogen cannot disperse solutions. The M33A1 is replacing
gas which causes the CR to discharge through the the M33 on a one-for-one basis as the M33s wear out.
nozzle in a jet stream upon pressing the actuator. It
has a range of 10 to 12 feet. Maintaining finger The dispersers consists of a frame and harness
pressure on the acutator, the operator can dispense assembly, an agent container assembly, and a gun and
the CR solution in a continuous stream lasting 14 to hose assembly. The disperser weights 22 pounds
24 seconds. The operator can also apply 15 to 25 empty. A long check valve assembly and multijet
bursts lasting about 1 second each. The M32 and spray unit are issued with the M33A1 disperser for
M36 have limited tactical uses, primarily in enemy spraying solutions. The M33 does not have these
prisoners of war (EPW) control, specialized defensive items. A short check valve assembly, an agent
roles and special operating forces when casualties are agitator, and a single jet spray are used to disperse
not desired. powders. An extra agent container and compressed
gas cylinder are provided to disperse two agent fills
Both the M32 and M36 are small enough to be per mission. The compressed gas cylinder of the air
carried and operated with one hand. To use these pressure assembly is pressurized with compressed air.
dispersers effectively, the soldier holds the can The operator opens a valve on the air pressure

B-6
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

assembly and pulls the trigger on the gun assembly. manner as the M33 and M33A1 with the agent being
Pressurized air from the air pressure assembly forces forced out of the agent tank through the gun group
the RCA from the agent container, through the hose from the pressurized air tank. The disperser is
and gun assembly and out the spray unit. The agent capable of disseminating approximately 8 pounds of
container on the M33A1 unit can hold 48 pounds of CS1 or CS2 in one continuous burst of 19 seconds, or
CR solution, and can fire to a maximum range of 40 in intermittent bursts for 30 seconds. The agent is
feet for a duration of 60 seconds. Both the M33A1 projected about 10 meters (40 feet) before it billows
and the M33 agent containers can hold 30 pounds of out into a cloud. The M3 weighs 47 pounds empty
CS1 and can fire to a maximum range of 40 feet in and 55 pounds when filled with agent.
still air for a duration of 40 seconds. For training The M3 can be used effectively against small area
purposes, talc can be used in place of CS1. The targets and poorly defined point targets. With an
dissemination characteristics of talc with the M33A1 optimum wind speed of 3 to 5 knots, the M3 can
and M33 are very similar to that of CS1. cover an area of 2,300 to 3,800 square meters.
The M33 and M33A1 are best used in small unit
operations against small area and point targets. They M5
can be very effective in reducing resistance from
fortifications, tunnels, and urban complexes. The The M5 helicopter-or vehicle-mounted RCA disperser
optimum distance for firing the disperser to produce (Figure B-14), NSN 1040-00-805-3019, is used to
the greatest effect depends on the wind speed and the disperse CS1 or CS2 into the atmosphere from either
operator’s freedom of movement across the front of a low-flying cargo helicopter or a moving ground
the target area. As wind speed increases, dilution of vehicle. The disperser consists of an agent container
the powder becomes more rapid. To minimize this tank, a pressure group with two air cylinders, a
effect, the distance between the target area and the tubular aluminum frame, an M9 gun with a 12-foot
operator must be reduced so that an effective hose for vehicle mounting, a 12-foot discharge hose
concentration can be placed on the target. Close for helicopter mounting, and various controls and
observation must be made of the agent’s dispersal instruments. The RCA is dispersed by forcing the
pattern and effect on the target. powdered agent from the agent container into the
atmosphere through the discharge hose with
pressurized air from the air tanks. The agent tank
M3 holds approximately 50 pounds of CS1 or CS2 and
The M3 disperser (Figure B-13), NSN weights 223 pounds when filled with agent. The M5
1040-00-711-8296, is used to spray CS1 or CS2 from disperser has a range of about 12 meters in still air
a backpacked container toward or upon targets. The (with gun unit) and 15 to 46 meters from a helicopter
disperser consists of an M2A1 and contains two at an elevation of 75 to 100 feet. The duration of fire
aluminum agent tanks, a pressure tank and valve per fill is two minutes with the M9 gun and 20
assembly, and a carrier section with a frame and seconds with the helicopter delivery hose. The M5 is
harness. The dispersal of agent works in the same used against area targets and large urban complexes

B-7
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

for immediate effects. It can also be used to enhance completion of two modules, a sandwich is made by
security by contaminating perimeters. placing (in this order): one board, one CS module,
one board, one CS module, and one board. A ripcord
When a helicopter is used, the agent can be released is fastened to the two reefing line cutters on the side
from either a hovering position above or on the of the BRIA and connected to a D-ring on the floor of
windward side of the target area or along a line above a helicopter. To activate the BRIA, pull the three
or on the windward side of the target. When mounted safety pins, activate the cutter on top of the BRIA,
on a vehicle and employed against open-area targets, wait two to four seconds, and then push the munition
the disperser is operated from positions slightly in out of the helicopter. Optimum release height for the
front of target areas or formations. Operating BRIA is about 1,900 feet AGL.
dispersers from a helicopter while it is hovering or
flying at low speeds may contaminate the helicopter, A "Box Full of Grenades" (BFOG) was developed by
the crew, and the occupants due to circulation of the the 4th Infantry Division along similar lines with 25
agent in the rotor wash. Therefore, the pilot and the M7A3 grenades in a plywood box that was also
copilot should wear a protective mask. dropped by helicopter. It was also developed to
Large concentrations can build up very quickly when supplement the short supply of canister cluster
the wind is calm and when the target area is partially munitions.
enclosed by buildings or fortifications. The operator In other efforts, can bombs were made by cutting
must remember that 1 pound of CS is the equivalent bulk CS cans in half and taping them back together.
of pound burning-type (M7A3) CS grenades and that The cans were dropped from helicopters and the tape
50 pounds of CS can be released in two minutes or would split on impact, resulting a crude but effective
less with the M5. dissemination of CS.
The bunker use restriction bomb (BURB) was a field
FIELD EXPEDIENTS expedient device developed in Vietnam to meet a
The field expedient devices included in this section requirement for a small munition which could be
were developed in Vietnam to compensate for carried by foot soldiers and used to contaminate a
shortages of standard munitions. Any device which bunker complex with CS2. The original BURB
provides a container for the RCA and a means of consisted of a shipping container from a 2.75-inch
releasing the RCA at the desired time and place will rocket warhead filled with approximately 1 pound of
work. CS2 and fitted with a timed-delay nonelectric blasting
The 1st Infantry Division built the "Big Red 1 Alpha" cap detonator. This BURB was deemed too bulky for
(BRIA) device consisting of 38 combined grenades as the troops. Another BURB was made using the layers
a substitute for canister clusters which were in short of the free-fall water bag (an 8-layer plastic bag used
supply. Area coverage approximates that of the M 158 to drop water from helicopters). Half of a one-layer
cluster cannister. Nineteen M7A3 CS grenades are bag was filled with 1 pound of CS2. This method
placed on a precut plywood base. Nylon line (500 proved unsatisfactory because of difficulties in filling
pound test) is wrapped twice around the 19 CS and knotting the bags. A request made for a
grenades. Both wraps of nylon are threaded through CS2-filled munition resulted in the development of an
an M22 cutter power-activated (10-second delay). aluminum foil cloth-type bag sealed in the middle,
After a square knot has been tied and the two loose Some users in the field cut the BURB in half along
ends tied into three half-hitch knots, a piece of wood the heat sealed portion and used the half BURB.
is placed between the two wraps of nylon line and About 2,300 ready-made BURBs were shipped to
twisted to tighten the line around the CS grenades. Vietnam.
The grenade safety pins are then pulled. After

B-8
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

APPENDIX C

Safety

FIRE AND the use of water, sand, dirt, and other nonflammable
dry substances.
BURN SAFETY
Unlike raw gasoline, thickened flame fuel is not EXPLOSIVES
extremely volatile. However, the residual burning
time of thickened fuel is greatly increased when the SAFETY
fuel gels. Thickened fuel will stick to an object and The safe handling, transport, and storage of explosive
continue to burn. Soldiers must understand the items must conform to AR 385-63, Policies and
existing dangers of FFE fuel and react quickly to Procedures for Firing Ammunition for Training,
extinguish fires on clothing, skin, or equipment. You Target Practice, and Combat, and those local
cannot stamp out globs or puddles of burning fuel regulations governing individual installations.
with a boot. You must extinguish these fires by Personnel handling or employing explosives, blasting
covering them with dirt or sand, or by discharging a caps, or demolitions must strictly follow safety rules.
CO2 fire extinguisher at the base of the flame. They also must follow post regulations and local unit
SOPs.
Personnel
If burning fuel splashes on a person, he or she must Blast Effects
immediately fall to the ground and attempt to smother Generally, the greatest danger to personnel is from
the flame. Prevent oxygen from feeding the flame by missiles thrown by the explosion. Personnel with
smothering it. When fuel is burning both on the front minimum protection generally will not be in danger
and back sides of a person, alternately smother the from blast effects. For further information refer to
flames on both sides. Done quickly, only minimal AR 385-63.
injury may occur. Panicking and running can only
result in extensive and severe burns. Soldiers not
affected by the flame must react quickly to help their Missile Hazards
buddies in this life-threatening situation. During Explosives can propel lethal missiles great distances.
training, keep canvas, containers of sand, and C02 The distance an explosion-propelled missile travels in
fire extinguishers readily available. Under combat the air depends primarily on the relationship between
conditions, use battledress uniform or shelter halves its weight, shape, density, initial angle of projection,
to smother the flame. and initial speed. Under normal conditions the missile

Equipment CONTENTS
Use standard Army C02 fire extinguishers to put out Fire and Burn Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1
FFE fires on equipment. Expedient methods include
Explosives Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1

C-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

hazard from steel cutting charges extends a greater

distance than the hazard from cratering, quarrying, or
surface charges of bare explosives.

Safe Distances
Table C-1 gives distances at which personnel in the
open are relatively safe from missiles created by bare
charges placed in or on the ground, regardless of type
or condition of the soil (see AR 385-63 and FM
5-250).

C-2
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

APPENDIX D

Herbicide
Spray Systems

D-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

GLOSSARY

A binding post — spring-loaded receptacle on a

absorption — the process of taking up or soaking up, blasting machine designed to secure firing wires
for example, a sponge taking up water; taking or BRIA — "Big Red 1 Alpha"
receiving through molecular or chemical action or
change brisance — the shattering power of high explosives
actuator handle — the handle of a blasting machine branch line — a length of detonating cord that is
that must be turned or depressed to activate the joined to another length of detonating cord
blasting machine bubbling — the mechanical mixing of flame fuel
AFPMB — Armed Forces Pest Management Board using a source of compressed air to agitate the fuel
AGL — above ground level c
aging period — the time required for newly mixed CINC — Commander-in-Chief
flame fuel to change from an applesauce appearance
to a smooth syrupy gel canalizing — to drive an enemy force into a
preplanned kill zone
agitate — to rapidly stir or briskly move flame fuel
to and fro during the mixing process circuit — the complete path of an electrical current,
shared equally by two or more electrical blasting caps
ammunition lot — a supply of one specific type of
ammunition manufactured under the same contact device — an exploding device that can be
specifications initiated through the use of trip wire
AR — Army regulation continuity check — the test of an electrical firing
circuit
ASP — ammunition supply point
crimp — to join a nonelectric blasting cap with time
ampere — a measure of electrical current fuse by crushing the base of the cap around the fuse
with an M2 cap crimper
B
BFOG — "box full of grenades" D
blast site — a particular location designated for the DA — Department of the Army
detonation of an explosive charge debris — solid objects blown into the air as a result
blasting cap — a small tubular device containing of an explosion
explosive mixtures used to detonate an explosive decanting — method of separating water from
charge MOGAS before mixing flame fuel

Glossary-0
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

DODAC — Department of Defense Ammunition I

Code illuminator — an expedient flame device used to
DODIC — Department of Defense Identification provide light on the battlefield
Code impulse — a sudden involuntarily action
dual priming — method of preparing an explosive induce current — to produce an electrical charge in
charge for detonation using more than one blasting cap a neighboring charge without having physical contact
with that charge
E ingenuity — cleverness or skillfulness
EO — Executive Order
insoluble — cannot be dissolved
EPA — Environmental Protection Agency
IPSS — Improved Pesticide Spray System
EPW — enemy prisoners of war
L
F lead wire — wire from an electrical blasting cap
F — Fahrenheit
leap frog — method of connecting blasting caps to
FFE — flame field expedient detonate several explosive charges
firing system — electrical or nonelectrical method of LIC — low-intensity conflict
priming an explosive charge with blasting caps
LDS — lightweight decontamination system
PLOT — forward line of own troops
FM — field manual M
fougasse — a land mine in which the charge is main-line — a single line of detonating cord to which
overlaid by stones or other missiles so placed as to be other branch lines of detonating cord are connected
hurled in the desired direction An exploding MEA — monoethanolamine
directional FFE
misfire — a primed explosive charge that fails to
fragmentation — the shattering of a metal FFE detonate
container upon detonation
MOGAS — motor gasoline
G MOUT — military operations on urban terrain
gage — a measurement of the thickness of the steel MRE — meals, ready-to-eat
used in the manufacture of 55-gallon drums
MSD — minimum safe distance
girth-hitch — a double half-hitch with an additional
turn mylar film — a durable wrapping material that
covers composition C4 explosives
gpm — gallons per minute
N
H napalm — a highly flammable jellylike substance
hasty emplacement — a flame device (exploding or used as flame fuel
illuminating), constructed quickly with available
items, and designed to hinder enemy offensive NBC — nuclear, biological, and/or chemical
operations NEO — Noncombatants Evacuation Operations
hasty whip — as shown in FM 5-250, an alternate NSN — national stock number
method for priming a block of explosive with
detonating cord
P
hp — horsepower PDDA — power-driven decontaminating apparatus
PDU — pesticide dispersal unit

Glossary-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

PETN — explosive component contained in shunt — the twisting together of electrical firing
detonating cord wires to close a circuit
ppm — parts per million siphoning — the removal of water from MOGAS
prime — to prepare an explosive charge for before mixing flame fuel
detonation site — to locate or place an FFE device to support a
priming adapter — a small plastic device used to combat operation
combine blasting caps and explosives SOP — standing operating procedure
propellant charge container — an artillery powder split cone — the small cone shaped holder in an M60
charge container fuze igniter that grips and holds time fuze
psi — pounds per square inch spoon handle — the handle of an M49 trip flare
pusher plate — a wooden object used to propel FFE static electricity — the electricity contained or
fuel from a directional FFE produced by charged bodies such as that found in
atmospheric disturbances
psychological impact (of FFE) — the human fear of
tire
T
R tamping — packing mud around a charge to keep the
RCA — riot control agents explosive force confined
TEA — triethylaluminum, a thickened pyrophoric
RDX — commonly called cyclonite, a highly agent used in the M74 rocket A substance similar to
sensitive explosive and one of the most powerful white phosphorus (WP) because it burns
military explosives It is used alone as the base charge spontaneously when exposed to air
in military blasting caps Its principal use is in
composite explosives such as composition A, B, and thickened fuel — a syrupy, sticky liquid composed
C explosives of MOGAS and M4 thickening compound used in
residual — fires that remain after the detonation of FFE devices
an exploding FFE TM — technical manual
resistance — the opposition offered by a substance to TNT — trinitrotoluene
the passage through it of a steady electric current TOF — trioctyl phosphate
RF — radio frequency
ring main — a ring of detonating cord to which U
branch lines are connected to ensure a positive unthickened fuel — a 60:40 mixture of MOGAS and
detonation oil used in FFE devices
rule-of-thumb — field formula used in the mixing of
flame fuel V
RVN — Republic of Vietnam V-trench — a shallow trench in the ground the size
of a 55-gallon drum dug at an angle with the back
deeper than the front
S
screw picket — a metal stake used to secure volatility — rapid evaporation of a flammable liquid,
concertina wire changing into vapor, as in FFE fuel
shard — a sharp, twisted piece of metal resulting W
from the detonation of an FFE device having a metal
container WP — white phosphorus
shipping plug — a small plastic plug that protects the
time fuze receptacle in an M60 fuze igniter

Glossary-2
 FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

REFERENCES

Sources Used
These are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.
Army Publications
FM 5-250, Explosives and Demolitions, Jun 1992
AR 55-355, Defense Traffic Management Regulation, Jul 1986
AR 75-1, Malfuction Involving Ammunition and Explosives, Aug 1993
AR 310-50, Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes, Nov 1985.
AR 350-41, Training in Units, Mar 1993.
AR 385-63, Policies and Procedures for Firing Ammunition for Training, Target Practice, and Combat, Oct 1983
FM 3-4, NBC Protection w/C2, May 1992.
FM 3-5, NBC Decontamination, Nov 1993.
FM 3-100, Chemical Operation, Principles, and Fundamental, 8 May 1996.
FM 3-101, Chemical Staffs and Units, Nov 1993.
FM 5-20, Camouflage, May 1968
FM 5-250, Explosives and Demolitions, 15 June 1992.
FM 19-15, Civil Disturbances, Nov 1985.
FM 21-11, First Aid for Soldiers with Changes 1 and 2, Oct 1988.
FM 101-5-1, Operational Terms and Symbols, Oct 1985.

TC 23-2, 66mm Rocket Launcher M202A1 w/C2, 25 Apr 1980

TM 3-1055-456-12, Operator’s & Organizational Maintenance Manual (Launcher, Rocket: 60mm), Mar 1975
TM 5-629, Weed Control and Plant Growth Regulation, 24 May 1989.
TM 9-1010-22410, Operator’s Manual for Launcher, Projectile, 64mm: Riot Control, M234, Oct 1980.
TM 9-1300-200, Ammunition, General, Oct 1969
TM 9-1300-206, Ammunition and Explosives Standard, Aug 1973

References-1
FM 3-11/MCRP 3-3.7.2

TM 9-1300-214, Military Explosives, Sep 1984

TM 9-1375-200, Demolition Materials, Jan 1964
TM 43-0001-29, Army Ammunition Data Sheets for Grenades, Apr 1994.
TM 43-0001-26-2, Army Equipment Data Sheets for Chemical Weapons and Munitions, Apr 1982.

TB 3-1310-255-10, Launcher and 35mm Cartridges: Tactical CS, 16-tube, E8, Aug 1966.

STP 21-1-SMCT, Soldier’s Manual of Common Tasks, SLl, Oct 1994.

STP 21-24-SMCT, Soldier's Manual of Common Tasks, SL2-4, Oct 1992.
STP 21-II-MQS, Military Qualification Standards II, Manual of Common Tasks, Jan 1991.
Other
ERDEC-SP-030, Chemical Agents, Weapons and Defense material Type Classified, Adopted, or Obsoleted, April
1995.
Technical Report 118, Defoliation Studies: III. Screening of Defoliants, Herbicides, and Desiccants, US Army
Biological Defense Research center, Fort Detrick, MD, May 1971.
Deseret Test Center, Study of Riot Control Agents - Phase III, Aug 1971.

Documents Needed
These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.
DA Form 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms, Feb 1974.

Readings Recommended
These readings contain relevant supplemental information.
FM 3-100, NBC Defense, Chemical Warfare, Smoke and Flame Operations, May 1991.
FM 100-5, Operations, Jun 1993.

References-2
FM 3-11

Index-1
FM 3-11

Index-2
 FM 3-11
MCWP 3-3.7.2
19 AUGUST 1996

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

DENNIS J. REIMER
General, United States Army
Official: Chief of Staff

Administrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army
02190

Paul K. Van Riper

Lieutenant General, US Marine Corps
Commanding General
Marine Corps Combat envelopment Command
Quantico, Virginia

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form

12-11E, requirements for FM 3-11, Flame, Riot Control Agents and Herbicide Operations
(Qty rqr block no. 0153) *U.S. Government Printing Official 1996- 728-027/40124