Chapter 12

Gravitation

Gravity
9 the force that holds the Moon in its orbit is the same
that makes an apple fall
9 not only does Earth attract an apple and the Moon
but every body in the Universe attract every other
body
Isaac Newton 1665

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Newton’s law of Gravitation

Isaac Newton – 1665

Every particle attracts any other particle with a
gravitational force whose magnitude is given by
m1m2
F =G
r2
m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles,
r is the distance between them,
G is the gravitational constant
G = 6.6742 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2
Two forces of attraction are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction (Newton’s third law)
3

Example
Find the force of gravity between a student (70 kg or
154 lb) and a textbook (2 kg or 4.4 lb) when they are
separated by a distance of 0.3 m (or 0.98 ft)

(70.0kg )( 2.0kg )
F = (6.67 × 10−11 Nm 2 / kg 2 ) 2
= 1.04 × 10−7 N
(0.3m)
the force to keep 1 dime (F=mg) is about

Fd = (9.81 m / s 2 ) × (0.001kg ) = 9.81 × 10−3 N

i.e. F ≅ 0.00001 Fd
Gravitational force decreases with distance as 1/r2
An increase in distance by a factor of 10 results in a decrease in the force4by a
factor of 100.

2
Questions and problems
1. Why do we care, if the force of gravity between
object around us is so small?
2. How to calculate the gravitational force between
real objects, i.e. that are not point-like ones?
3. What to do if there are more than two particles?
4. Motion and gravity
5. What would happen as r->0 ?

Gravitation and the principle of superposition

The principle of superposition: the net effect is the sum of

the individual effects
For n interacting particles the net force on particle 1 can
be written as
r r r r r
F1,net = F12 + F13 + F14 + K F1n

being practical – see chapter “Vectors”

(adding vectors using components)

3
Gravitational attraction between real
objects
1. If the sizes of the objects are small compared to the
distance between them – we may consider the objects
like particles (good approximation for Moon-Earth)

REarth = 6,370 km
RMoon = 1,061 km
r = 382,000 km

Gravitational attraction between real

objects
2. How about the apple-Earth?
Newton’s shell theorem:
A uniform spherical shell of matter attracts a particle
that is outside the shell if all the shell’s mass were
concentrated at its center

Mm
F =G
r2
r
r

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Gravitation near Earth’s surface

Let us assume that Earth is a uniform sphere of mass M.

The magnitude of the gravitational force on a particle of
mass m, at a distance r from Earth’s center
Mm
F =G
r2
Newton’s second law
F = mg
then the free-fall acceleration
r
GM r
g= 2
r
9

Gravitation near Earth’s surface

The free-fall acceleration is not a constant!

GM
g=
r2
Besides - the actual free-fall acceleration g is different
from the equation above
1. Earth is not uniform (density varies)
2. Earth is not a sphere
3. Earth is rotating

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5
 Gravitation inside Earth or …
Journey to the Center of the Earth
More from Newton’s shell theorem

A uniform spherical shell exerts no net gravitational

force on a particle located inside it

GM 4π 3
g= M = ρV = ρ r
r2 3
GM G 4π 3
g= = 2ρ r
r2 r 3

4π
g= Gρ r
3
11
for r=0 g=0, or the net gravitational force inside Earth = 0

The effect of the Earth’s rotation

Uniform circular motion: the period of the rotation – 24 hours

mv 2 mv 2 Mm mv 2
Fg − N = N = Fg − =G 2 − = mg eff
r r r r
v2 Variation of geff
then g eff = g − Canal zone 9.78243
r
Pittsburgh, PA 9.80118
Greenland 9.82534

Linear speed of a point on the Earth’s

surface due to the rotation:
r r Norfolk: 827 mph
Fg N Equator: 1030 mph
Speed around the Sun: 66,000 mph12

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 Gravitational potential energy
Potential energy is energy that can be associated with the
configuration of a system of objects that can exerts forces
on one another. If the configuration of the system changes,
the potential energy of the systems can also change.
Gravitational potential energy
GMm
U =−
r

• U(r) approaches zero as r approaches infinity

• for any finite value of r, the value of U(r) is negative
• connection between the force and the potential
dU d ⎛ GMm ⎞ GMm
F =− = − ⎜− ⎟=
dr dr ⎝ r ⎠ r2 13

Compare two definitions for the Earth

Gravitational potential energy

GMm
U =− and U = mgh
r
GMm GMm r −r
ΔU = − + = GMm f i
rf ri ri rf

if rf − ri << ri
rf − ri
ΔU = GMm ≈m
GM
2
(rf − ri ) = mgh
ri rf ri
The formula we have used in the past, U = mgh, is valid
only when rf − ri << ri . 14

7
Gravitational potential energy for many particles

Gravitational potential energy for a system with more than

two particles

⎛ Gm1m2 Gm1m3 Gm2 m3 ⎞

U = −⎜⎜ + + ⎟⎟
⎝ 12
r r13 r23 ⎠

15

Projectiles, Satellites and Planets

How to explain their motion?

16

8
 Part 1: Vertical motion
Conservation of energy Ki + U i = K f + U f
Vertical motion before (potential energy from zero at h=0)

mvi2 mv 2f
+ mghi = + mgh f
2 2
Vertical motion now (potential energy from zero at r→∞)
2
mvi2 GMm mv f GMm
− = −
2 ri 2 rf

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Part 1: Vertical motion

Conservation of energy for
vertical motion
r
vi Ki + U i = K f + U f
2
mvi2 GMm mv f GMm
− = −
2 ri 2 rf
r
ri

18

9
Vertical motion: Escape speed
Vertical projectile motion: up, up and … up
There is a certain minimum initial speed that will cause
a projectile to move upward forever, theoretically
coming to rest only at infinity (g is not a constant!).
From conservation of energy
2
mvi2 GMm mv f GMm
− = − =0
2 Ri 2 Rf

2GM
vi = escape speed
Ri
for Earth: M=5.98*1024 kg, Ri=6.37*106 m, v=11.2 km/s
19

Part 2: Orbital motion

It is a matter of initial conditions!

r
h if vx=0 then vertical motion
at some vx = vc – circular motion
GMm vc2
=m
r
r
( r + h )2 r+h

GM
vc =
r+h 20
For a shuttle: v=7.9 km/s

10
 Satellites: Orbits and Energy
As a satellite orbits Earth on its elliptical path, both its speed,
which fixes its kinetic energy K, and its distance from the
center of Earth, which fixes its gravitational potential energy U,
fluctuate with fixed periods. However, the mechanical energy
E of the satellite remains constant.
For circular orbits (second Newton’s law)

GMm v2
=m
r2 r
2
mv
K=
2
GMm U
K= =−
2r 2 21

Satellites: Orbits and Energy

How to change the orbit?
GMm
E = K +U = −
2r

Less kinetic energy = less total energy E (more negative) =

less radius r 22

11
 Example

A satellite is orbiting the Earth as shown below. At what

part of the orbit, if any, are the following quantities
largest?
# Kinetic energy
# Potential energy
# Total energy
# Orbital velocity
# Gravitational force
# Angular momentum

23

Checkpoint

An astronaut working outside of the space staion orbiting the

Earth releases a wrench. Neglecting air resistance, the
wrench will:
A) strike Earth under the satellite at the instant of release
B) strike Earth under the satellite at the instant of impact
C) strike Earth ahead of the satellite at the instant of impact
D) strike Earth behind the satellite at the instant of impact
E) never strikes Earth

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12
Planets and satellites: Kepler’s Laws

Three laws from Johannes Keppler (1571-1630)

1. The law of orbits: All planets move in

elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus

A circle is just a special case of an ellipse. 25

Planets and satellites: Kepler’s Laws

(cont.)
2. The law of areas: A line that connects a
planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
the plane of the planet’s orbit in equal times.

Kepler’s second law is totally equivalent to the

law of conservation of angular momentum 26

13
Planets and satellites: Kepler’s Laws (cont.)

3. The law of periods: The square of the

period of any planet is proportional to the
cube of the semi major axis of its orbit.

Applying Newton’s second law

GMm mv 2
2
= = m(ω 2 r )
r r
GM ⎛ 2π ⎞
2

ω = 3 =⎜ ⎟
2

r ⎝ T ⎠
⎛ 4π 2 ⎞ 3 2π 3 / 2
The period does not depend on T = ⎜⎜
2
⎟⎟ r or T = r
the mass of the orbiting object. ⎝ GM ⎠ GM
27

For a planet of radius R and density ρ

4π 3
mass of a planet M = ρ R
3
GM 4π
free fall acceleration g = 2 = ρ GR
R 3
2GM 8πGρ
escape speed ve = = R
R 3
GM v
Orbital speed just above the ground vo = = e
R 2

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14
 Black Holes

Escape from a star

2GM 8πGρ
vescape = = R
R 3
example: escape speed from the surface of the sun is
about 2.2 million km/h or 1.5 million mph

2GM 2GM
For light c = Rs =
Rs c2
Rs is the Schwarzschild radius (nothing, not even light
can escape from that body/star)

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example
Geosynchronous satellites
Many satellites are moving in a circle in the earth’s
equatorial plane. They are at such height that they
always remain above the same point.
Find the altitude of such satellites above the earth’s
surface
2π
T= r 3 / 2 = 24 * 3600 s
GM E
1/ 3
⎛ T 2GM E ⎞
r = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 4.23 ⋅ 107 m
⎝ 4π
2
⎠
h = r − RE = 3.59 ⋅ 107 m
30

15
Millennium Simulation:
http://www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/galform/press/
The biggest and most detailed supercomputer simulation
of the evolution of the Universe from a few hundred
thousand years after the Big Bang to the present day.
The Millennium Simulation used 10 billion particles to track
the evolution of 20 million galaxies over the history of the
universe.
A 3-dimensional visualization of the Millennium Simulation.
The movie shows a journey through the simulated universe.
During the two minutes of the movie, we travel a distance
for which light would need more than 2.4 billion years. 31

Physics of Gravitation

search for gravitational waves

32

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