SPD5132 Indoor Environmental and HVAC Systems

http://ibse.hk/SPD5132/

Moist, warm air out

Hot water Cold water

Heat rejection device
(cooling tower)

Dry air in

Heat rejection systems

Ir. Dr. Sam C. M. Hui
Faculty of Science and Technology
E-mail: cmhui@vtc.edu.hk

Dec 2016
Contents

• Heat rejection methods

• Cooling towers
• Assessment of cooling towers
• Selecting a cooling tower
• Cooling tower operation
Heat rejection methods

• Heat rejection
• Discharge of heat to waste or atmosphere or to a
system permitting reclaim or recovery
• Air conditioning systems use refrigeration
processes to move heat from the indoor to the
outdoor environment
• The refrigeration cycle absorbs heat by the evaporation
of liquid refrigerant in the evaporator (indoor coil), and
rejects heat by the condensation of vapour refrigerant in
the condenser (outdoor coil)
Heat rejection from cooling system to the environment

The condenser may use either water

(produced by a cooling tower) or ambient air
as the heat rejection medium.

Heat rejection = cooling effect + power input

Heat rejection methods

• Three methods for heat rejection:

• Air Cooled: A process by which air passes over a
coil or channel containing fluid. Heat is transferred
from the coil directly to the air.
• Water Cooled: This process utilizes a spray system
to pass water over coils or fill media to reject heat
to the atmosphere through evaporation. The spray
water itself or the fluid contained in the coil can
then be used by a cooling system.
Heat rejection methods

• Three methods for heat rejection: (cont’d)

• Adiabatic: A two stage process that uses a
combination of air and water to reject heat.
• Below a set temperature, the process will run dry. This is
similar to an air cooled method where process fluid is run
through a coil or micro channel with air flowing over it.
• When a peak temperature is reached, the air is pre-cooled by
pulling it through a pad moistened with a small amount of
water. This brings the air close to the ambient wet-bulb
temperature, allowing for greater heat rejection when it is
blown over the coil. Unlike a water cooled method, the water
does not flow directly over the coil.
Heat rejection methods

• Air-cooled system
• Air-cooled condensers use air to cool and
condense refrigerant gas to the liquid state
• These systems normally require 17-25 m3/min of air per
ton of refrigeration
• Condensing temperatures range from 46 to 60°C,
depending on climatic conditions
• In general, higher condensing temperature will increase
the power requirement (fan power) and decrease the
cooling system’s performance
 Examples of air-cooled condensers

Fans
Condenser

Advantages of air-cooled over water-cooled system:

• No problem of water freezing
• No water treatment required
• No condensing water pump required
• Lower initial cost
 Heat rejection methods

• Water-cooled system
• Sources of condensing water include spray ponds,
domestic supply water, wells, surface water, sea
water, and cooling towers
• Water from these sources is lower in temperature than
air is during the summer. Lower condensing
temperatures allow higher refrigeration efficiency, and
water is generally preferred to air on this basis
• Water-cooled air-conditioning systems (WACS) have a
higher COP (Coefficient of Performance) than air-
cooled air-conditioning systems (AACS)*
(See also: Water-cooled Air-Conditioning System http://www.energyland.emsd.gov.hk/en/building/water_cooled_sys/)
Heat rejection methods

• Types of heat rejection system:

• 1. Air cooled condenser
• 2. Dry air cooler
• 3. Cooling tower
• 4. Evaporative condenser
 Types of heat rejection system
(a) Fans induce air flow over Convenient and common for chillers up to
Air cooled finned tubing in which a few 100 k W. Free of hygiene risks and
condenser refrigerant condenses. do not require water piping. Can be
adapted to provide free cooling with
thermosiphon systems.
(b) Similar to (a) but aqueous Less efficient than (a) because an
Dry air glycol solution of water is additional heat transfer process, and
cooler passed through the tubes pumps, are required to reject heat from a
instead of refrigerant. refrigeration plant. May cool
water sufficiently in winter to
avoid need to operate a refrigeration
plant – ‘free cooling’.
(c) Water is sprayed over a More efficient than (a) or (b) because less
Cooling packing material. Airflow air is required because less air is required
tower over the packing and water is cooled to a few degrees
evaporates some of the above the wet bulb temperature. May cool
water causing the water to water sufficiently to avoid need to operate
be cooled. a refrigeration plant – ‘free cooling’. High
maintenance requirement.
(d) Water is sprayed over Most efficient method of rejecting heat
Evaporative tubing in which from a refrigeration plant. Similar
condenser refrigerant condenses. maintenance requirements as (c). Can be
Airflow across the tubing adapted to provide free cooling with
evaporates some of the thermosiphon systems.
water causing the water
and the tubes to be
cooled.
(Source: CIBSE, 2003. Refrigeration and Heat Rejection, CIBSE Guide B4, Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, London.)
Heat rejection methods

• Evaporative condensers
• Uses both air and water
• Air flows over the refrigerant coil
• Water flows over the coil when needed
• Water remains in the condenser
• Indirect contact evaporative cooling
 Cooling towers

• A cooling tower is a specialized heat

exchanger in which air and water are brought
into direct contact with each other in order to
reduce the water’s temperature
• A small volume of water is evaporated, creating a
cooling action (latent heat exchange)
• The cooled water is then pumped back to the
condenser or process equipment where it absorbs
heat
(See also: What Is A Cooling Tower? http://spxcooling.com/coolingtowers)
 Main features of cooling towers

(Source: Pacific Northwest National Library, 2001)

Cooling towers

• Make-up – the amount of water required to

replace normal losses caused by bleed, drift
and evaporation
• Drift – the water entrained in the exit air flow
and discharged to the atmosphere – not
including evaporation
• Bleed – water that is discharged to waste to
help keep the dissolved solids concentration
below a certain limit
Cooling towers

• Classification of cooling towers

• By direction of air flow
• Cross flow (airflow is horizontal)
• Counter flow (airflow is vertical)
• By how the air flow is produced
• Naturally (hyperbolic or chimney towers)
• Warm air naturally rises due to the density differential
• Mechanically (forced draft or induced draft)
• A fan induces airflow through a tower
• By construction: field-erected, factory assembled
 Cross flow and counter flow cooling towers

Heat and mass transfer

relationships between
water, interfacial film, and air
 Temperature relationship between water and air
in counterflow cooling tower

(Source: ASHRAE 2016 Handbook – HVAC Systems and Equipment, Chapter 40)
Cooling towers

• Mechanical draft cooling towers

• Large fans to force air through circulated water
• Water falls over fill surfaces: enhance heat transfer
• Large range of capacities
• Can be grouped, e.g. 8-cell tower
• 3 types of mechanical draft cooling towers
• Forced draft
• Induced draft cross flow
• Induced draft counter flow
Cooling towers

• Forced draft cooling towers

• Air blown through tower by
centrifugal fan at air inlet
• Advantages: suited for high
air resistance & fans are
relatively quiet
• Disadvantages: recirculation
due to high air-entry and low
air-exit velocities
 Induced draft cooling towers
Advantage: less recirculation than forced draft towers
Disadvantage: fans and motor drive mechanism require weather-proofing
Structure of an induced draft, counterflow cooling tower
 A typical cooling tower configuration

(Source: EMSD)
 Cooling towers

• Basic components of cooling tower

• Frame and casing: support exterior enclosures
• Water distribution system: include header which
sprays water from top of the tower over splash bars
• Fan: induced/forced draft towers use fans to
push/pull air
• Air intake louvers: louvers on side of towers which
direct air into tower

(See also: Water Distribution http://spxcooling.com/parts/list/cooling/water-distribution,

Mechanical Equipment http://spxcooling.com/parts/list/cooling/fans-and-drives )
 Cooling towers

• Basic components of cooling tower (cont’d)

• Fill: material inside a tower which redirects air
flow and water
• Water basin: collects water at bottom of tower
• Column: wooden/metal post which supports tower
• Stack: hyperbolic towers and chimney towers have
huge stacks located at top
• Splash bars: used to redirect the downward flow of
water
(See also: Fill http://spxcooling.com/parts/list/cooling/fill )
 Cooling towers

• Other components of cooling tower

• Drift eliminators: designed to remove water
droplets from the discharged air and reduce loss of
process water
• They cause the air and droplets to make sudden changes
in direction. This causes the drops of water to be
separated from the air and deposited back into the tower
• Biomedia: products specially designed to work
together for waste water treatment applications

(See also: Drift Eliminator http://spxcooling.com/parts/xcelplus-eliminators, Biomedia http://spxcooling.com/parts/list/cooling/biomedia )

Assessment of cooling towers

• Operating conditions of cooling tower

• 10-20% of heat (sensible heat) removed from
contact between water and air
• 80-90% of heat removed following evaporation
• Evaporation is most critical factor affecting tower
efficiency
• Factors affecting cooling tower performance
• Relative humidity, temperature, wind velocity
• Tower design, water quality, equipment problems
Assessment of cooling towers

• Cooling rate (and temperature) depends upon

evaporation rate
• The minimum temperature to which water can be
cooled is the wet bulb temperature of the air
• Factors affecting evaporation rate
• Wet bulb temperature of incoming air
• Water surface area
• Water-air ratio (water flow rate/air flow rate)
• Contact time
 Psychrometric analysis of air passing through cooling tower

(Source: ASHRAE 2016 Handbook – HVAC Systems and Equipment, Chapter 40)
Assessment of cooling towers

• Measured parameters
• Wet bulb temperature of air
• Dry bulb temperature of air
• Cooling tower inlet water temperature
• Cooling tower outlet water temperature
• Exhaust air temperature
• Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
• Water flow rate
• Air flow rate
Assessment of cooling towers

• Performance parameters
• 1. Range
• 2. Approach
• 3. Effectiveness
• 4. Cooling capacity
• 5. Evaporation loss
• 6. Cycles of concentration
• 7. Blow down losses
• 8. Liquid / Gas ratio
Assessment of cooling towers

• 1. Range Hot Water Temperature (In)

• Difference between
cooling water (CW) inlet
and outlet temperature:

Range
(In) to the Tower
(Out) from the
• Range (°C) = CW inlet Tower
temp – CW outlet temp
• High range = good Cold Water Temperature (Out)
performance Approach

Wet Bulb Temperature (Ambient)

Assessment of cooling towers

• 2. Approach
Hot Water Temperature (In)
• Difference between
cooling tower outlet cold
water temp. and ambient

Range
(In) to the Tower
wet bulb temp.: (Out) from the
Tower
• Approach (°C) = CW
outlet temp – Wet bulb Cold Water Temperature (Out)

temp Approach

• Low approach = good Wet Bulb Temperature (Ambient)

performance
Assessment of cooling towers

• 3. Effectiveness (in %)
• = Range / (Range + Approach)
• = 100 x (CW in temp – CW out temp) / (CW in
temp – Wet bulb temp)
• High effectiveness = good performance
• 4. Cooling capacity
• Heat rejected in tons of refrigeration (TR)
• = mass flow rate of water x specific heat x ∆Temp
• High cooling capacity = good performance
Assessment of cooling towers

• 5. Evaporation loss
• Water quantity (m3/hr) evaporated for cooling duty
• = theoretically, 1.8 m3 for every 10,000,000 kCal
heat rejected
• = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
• where T1-T2 = Temp. difference between inlet and
outlet water (°C)
• 6. Cycles of concentration (C.O.C.)
• Ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the
dissolved solids in make up water
Assessment of cooling towers

• 7. Blow down losses

• Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. – 1)
• 8. Liquid gas (L/G) ratio
• Ratio between water and air mass flow rates
• Heat removed from the water must be equal to the heat
absorbed by the surrounding air
• L/G = (h2 – h1) / (T1 – T2)
• T1, T2 = hot and cold water temp (°C)
• Enthalpy of air water vapor mixture at inlet wet bulb temp (h1)
and outlet wet bulb temp (h2)
Selecting a cooling tower

• Basic considerations
• Cooling duty, economics, required services
• Environmental conditions
• Maintenance requirements
• Aesthetics
• Selection factors:
• Height, length, width, volume of airflow, fan and
pump energy consumption, materials of
construction, water quality and availability
Design of cooling tower for typical air conditioning system
Selecting a cooling tower

• Capacity
• Heat dissipation (kCal/hour)
• Circulated flow rate (m3/hr)
• Other factors (e.g. height)
• Range:
• Determined by process, not by system
• Approach:
• Closer to the wet bulb temperature
• = Bigger size cooling tower = More expensive
Selecting a cooling tower

• Heat load
• Determined by process
• Required cooling is controlled by the desired
operating temperature
• High heat load = large size & cost of cooling tower
• Materials of construction
• To meet the expected water quality and
atmospheric conditions, e.g.
• Wood, metals, plastics, graphite composites, concrete,
masonry, and tile
Selecting a cooling tower

• Wet bulb temperature – considerations:

• Water is cooled to temp higher than wet bulb temp
• Conditions at tower site
• Not to exceed 5% of design wet bulb temp
• Is wet bulb temp specified as ambient (preferred)
or inlet?
• Can tower deal with increased wet bulb temp?
• Cold water to exchange heat
Selecting a cooling tower

• Relationship: range, flow and heat load

• Range increases with increased
• Amount circulated water (flow)
• Heat load
• Causes of range increase
• Inlet water temperature increases
• Exit water temperature decreases
• Consequence = larger tower
Selecting a cooling tower

• Relationship: approach and wet bulb temp

• If approach stays the same (e.g. 4.45 °C)
• Higher wet bulb temperature (26.67 °C)
• = more heat picked up (15.5 kCal/kg air)
• = smaller tower needed
• Lower wet bulb temperature (21.11 °C)
• = less heat picked up (12.1 kCal/kg air)
• = larger tower needed
 Selecting a cooling tower

• Fill media impacts electricity use

• Efficiently designed fill media reduces pumping costs
• Fill media influences heat exchange: surface area, duration
of contact, turbulence
• Comparing 3 fill media: film fill more efficient
Splash Fill Film Fill Low Clog Film Fill
Possible L/G Ratio 1.1 – 1.5 1.5 – 2.0 1.4 – 1.8
Effective Heat Exchange Area 30 – 45 m2/m3 150 m2/m3 85 - 100 m2/m3
Fill Height Required 5 – 10 m 1.2 – 1.5 m 1.5 – 1.8 m
Pumping Head Requirement 9 – 12 m 5–8m 6–9m

Quantity of Air Required High Much Low Low

Cooling tower operation

• Operation and maintenance (O&M) work

mainly comprise routine checking and
upkeeping of conditions of components (e.g.
water basin and drift eliminator) and
associated equipment (e.g. pumps and valves),
water treatment, and cleaning, desludging and
disinfection of cooling towers
• Fresh water cooling towers could be sources of
spreading Legionnaires' disease 退伍軍人症
Examples of maintenance service for cooling tower
Cooling tower operation

• Troubleshooting of cooling towers

• Water dissolves many things (especially hot water)
• Water is cooled and results in deposits in tower
• Solid concentrate in cooling tower basin
• Problems faced by operators
• Scale formation – suspended solids from deposits
• Corrosion – electrochemical reactions with metals
• Fouling – due to sit, debris, algae
• Wood decay - fungi
Cooling tower operation

• Water composition control

• Suspended solids levels checked by operators
• Measured values compared to make-up water
• Problem controlled by “blowdown” (i.e. old water
replaced with new)
• Scale formation
• Remove scale forming solids with softening agents
• Prevent scale forming materials by addition of
chemicals
• Precipitate scale for removal
Cooling tower operation

• Water composition control (cont’d)

• Corrosion
• Add chemical inhibitors (adds thin film to metal)
• Fouling
• Use filtering devices
• Use dispersants with filtering devices
• Wood decay
• Use biocides (chlorine or bromine)
 Cooling tower operation

• Free cooling mode with cooling tower

• Under suitable conditions of weather and heat load,
the cooling tower can act as the source of chilled
water (i.e. can turn off the chiller)
• Three design factors to control:
• Design chilled water temperature
• Heat exchanger capacity (for an indirect system)
• Selected cooling tower capacity
• Two significant variables: load profile and local
weather patterns
(See also: Free Cooling http://spxcooling.com/featured/free-cooling/ )
Cooling tower operation

• Sound and noise control

• Should be considered in the early design stage
• Put them away from sound-sensitive areas
• Estimate the sound levels generated by the tower at
the critical area; if needed, apply sound barrier,
attenuators, lower fan speed
• Drift and fogging (plume abatement)
• Consider discharge position & drift eliminator
• Fog prediction and reduction measures
 Fog prediction using psychrometric chart

(Source: ASHRAE 2016 Handbook – HVAC Systems and Equipment, Chapter 40)
Further Reading

• What Is A Cooling Tower?

• http://spxcooling.com/coolingtowers
• What is a (wet, atmospheric) cooling tower?
• http://www.cti.org/whatis/coolingtower.shtml
• Videos:
• Cooling Tower Basic Operation (2:08)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXaK8_F8dn0
• How Cooling Towers Work (12:59)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzHJWNL2OtM
• Cooling Towers Training (22:11)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZpBIDjHAA-k
• Three Common Cooling Tower Problems (4:53)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wVM6_9f-mbg
References
• CIBSE, 2003. Refrigeration and Heat Rejection, CIBSE
Guide B4, Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers, London.
• Comparison of Heat Rejection Methods
• http://www.baltimoreaircoil.com/english/resource-library/file/1481
• Cooling Tower Fundamentals
• http://spxcooling.com/library/detail/cooling-tower-fundamentals
• Good operation and maintenance practice of fresh water
cooling towers for air-conditioning systems
• http://www.emsd.gov.hk/filemanager/tc/content_296/Good_OnM_Prac
tice_of_Fresh_Water_Cooling_Towers_for_Air-
conditioning_Systems.pdf