G Field PDF

2016 H2 Physics Lecture Notes (Teachers) Topic 7 Gravitational Field
Topic 7 Gravitational Field

Guiding Questions
 How do two masses interact? Do they need to be in physical contact to do so?
 What do field lines represent for gravitation fields?
 How can we understand the motion of planets and satellites?
E-book
To help you learn this topic better through visualization and self-exploration, an e-book (which can be run on
android or IOS smartphones or tablets) is created and can be downloaded through LMS or using:
[Android] [IOS]
http://iwant2study.org/ospsg/index.php http://iwant2study.org/lookangej
/interactive-resources/physics/02- ss/epub3/20160526gravity.epub
newtonian-mechanics/08-gravity/153-
epub3-gravity
Learning Outcomes (LOs)
Gravitational force between point masses (vector)

a. Recall and use Newton’s law of gravitation in the form F  Gm1m2 .
r2
Gravitation field (vector)
b. Show an understanding of the concept of a gravitational field as an example of field of force and define the
gravitational field strength at a point as the gravitational force exerted per unit mass placed at that point.
c. Show an understanding that near the surface of the Earth, g is approximately constant and equal to the
acceleration of free fall.
d. Derive, from Newton’s law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field strength, the equation g  GM
r2
for the gravitational field strength of a point mass.
e. Recall and apply the equation g  GM for the gravitational field strength of a point mass to new situations or
r2
to solve related problems.
f. * Recognise the analogy between certain qualitative and quantitative aspects of gravitational and electric
fields (to be done in the topic of Electric Field)
Gravitational potential (scalar)

g. Define the gravitational potential at a point as the work done per unit mass in bringing a small test mass from
infinity to that point.
h. Solve problems using the equation    GM for the gravitational potential in the field of a point mass.
r
Circular orbits
i. Analyse circular orbits in inverse square law fields by relating the gravitational force to the centripetal
acceleration it causes.
j. Show an understanding of geostationary orbits and their application.
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7.1 Introduction
In the topics of Dynamics, Forces, etc, we have been dealing with weights of different objects. Weight is
a name given to the force acting on the object due to gravity. Do you know why the weight of an object
is different when it is placed at different locations of the Earth surface?
Applications and relevance to daily life
Gravitational force is a force that is evident in our everyday

lives and plays a crucial role in many processes on Earth.
For instance, the falling of objects when released is caused
by the gravitational pull of the Earth. The ocean tides are
caused by the gravitational attraction of both the Moon and
Sun on the earth’s oceans. In terms of planetary motion,
gravitational force is responsible for keeping the Earth in its
orbit around the Sun, which in turns gives rise to four
seasons in some countries, as shown on the right.
7.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation LO (a)
Gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which physical objects attract each other due to their masses.
This force occurs whenever masses are present and interestingly, the two objects need not to be in
contact with each other for the attraction to take place. It is also worth noting that gravitational force is
the weakest of the fundamental forces of nature.
In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton concluded that this non-contact gravitational force must be as responsible
for the falling of an apple from a tree, as it is the cause for the rotation of the moon about the earth.
Hence he published the Newton’s Law of Gravitation which states that:
The mutual force of attraction between any two point masses* is

directly proportional to the product of their masses and
“Every particle in the
inversely Universe attracts
proportional to theevery
square other particle
of the with a force
separation thattheir
between is directly proportional to
centres.
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.”
* Note that “point mass” refers to a physically small point where the mass seems to concentrate at. For a
spherical body, the point is at the centre of the sphere. The size of this small point is negligible as compared to
the separation between the bodies.
M F F m
This means that for two point masses M and m, separated by distance r, the magnitude of the
gravitational force attracting them towards each other is
GMm
F
r2
where
F is the magnitude of the gravitational force [N]
G, the constant of universal gravitation, is 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
M is one of the point mass [kg]
m is the other point mass [kg]
r is the centretocentre distance between the two point masses [m]
Important note:
1. r is measured from the centre of object to the centre of the other object. Do not confuse r with the
radius of orbit, as they may not be the same!
2. This formula is an example of the inverse square law.
Inquiry:
1) What can you conclude about the two forces in the above diagram?
The two forces in the diagram are action-reaction pair because each force is acting on the object
by the other object and they are of the same type of force.
2) In that case, when Earth pulls you down, why did you not pull Earth up?
You did! But the mass of Earth is relatively much bigger than your mass and hence its acceleration
towards you is relatively much smaller.
Example 1
(a) Calculate the gravitational force exerted between the Earth and its Moon, given mass of the
Earth, ME = 6.0  1024 kg; mass of the Moon, MM = 7.4  1022 kg; distance between the centres
of the Earth and Moon, D = 3.8  108 m.
Gravitational force: F 
GMm
=    
6.67  1011 6.0  1024 7.4  1022 = 2.05 x 1020 N
r2 
3.8  108
2

(b) Estimate the gravitational force exerted between you and your nearest neighbour in this lecture
theatre.
Assume that both masses are 50 kg each and the distance between the centres of gravity of the
two persons is 0.50 m.
The gravitational force exerted on

GMm 6.67  1011 same
each other is the
5050and
 = attractive in nature.
-7
Assume that both masses are 502kg each and the 2distance between theN centre of gravity of the two
Magnitude of the force = F = 6.67 x 10
r 0.50
persons are 0.50 m apart.
(Note: This force is smaller than 0.01% of the weight of an A4-size paper!)
Magnitude of the force = GMm/r2 = (6.67 x 10-11)(50)2/(0.50)2 = 6.67 x 10-7 N
-
Example 2 (N84/P2/Q7) Binary Stars with same radius of orbit

Two stars of equal mass M move with constant speed v in a circular orbit of radius R about their
common centre of mass O. What is the net force on each star?
v
2 2 2 2
A GM /R B GM /4R C zero
O
D 2Mv2/R E Mv2/2R
R
The net force acting on each star is the gravitational force.
GMM GM 2 ; v
F  Ans: B
(2R)2 4R 2
Example 3 (N09/I/16) Binary Stars with different radii of orbit M

Two stars of mass M and 2M, at a distance 3x apart, rotate in circles about
their common centre of mass O.
2
The gravitational force acting on the stars can be written as kGM . O x x
x2
What is the value of k?
A 0.22 B 0.50 C 0.67 D 2.0 2M
G(2M)(M) 2GM 2  k = 2/9 = 0.22

F 
(3x)2 9x 2
Ans: A
Example 4
A space capsule is travelling between the Earth and its Moon. Considering only the gravitational forces
of the Earth and the Moon, determine the position (in terms of the distance from the centre of the Earth)
where the capsule experiences zero net gravitational force. (Given: Mass of the Earth, ME =
6.0  1024 kg; mass of the Moon, MM = 7.4  1022 kg; distance between the centres of the Earth and
Moon, D = 3.8  108 m)
Earth
3.8  108 m Moon
i.e. d2 Let
– (7.695 x 108 + distance
the required 1.462 x 10 17
from=Earth
0 be x.
 d = 3.4 x 10 m or 4.3 x 10 m
gravitational
8 force
8 exerted on = gravitational force exerted on
capsule by Earth (F CE )
Since the position where zero gravitational capsule
force existsby
is Moon (FCM) the Earth and the Moon, d = 3.4 x
in between
108 m.  GM E m = GM M m
x2 8 2
3.8  10 x 
3.8  10 8
x 
2

MM
2
x ME
3.8  10 8
x  MM
x ME
x  3.4  10 8 m
7.3 Gravitational Field LO (b)
Think about it: How can two objects exert attractive force on each other when they are not in contact
with each other?
Every object sets up a gravitational field around itself due to its mass. When two objects enter each
other’s gravitational fields, they will be attracted towards each other. Hence, a gravitational field (which
is an example of force fields) is a region of space in which any object lies in it experiences a
gravitational force towards the object that creates the field, due to its mass. (For your information,
magnetic fields and electric fields are also examples of force fields.)
LO (c)
Inquiry:
Gravitational field is invisible and is represented by imaginary field lines. How would the Earth’s
gravitational field (both near to Earth and over large distances from Earth) looks like?
1) Draw a few small masses (using pencil) placed near the Earth’s surface below and draw the
direction of gravitational forces acting on them by Earth.
 The gravitational field near Earth’s surface is

uniform.
 The closer the field lines, the stronger the
field strength.
 The field lines should be drawn parallel to
Near Earth’s surface each other and of equal spacing.
2) Draw a few small masses (using pencil) placed over large distances from the Earth below and
draw the direction of gravitational forces acting on them by Earth.
 The gravitational field around Earth is non-

uniform.
Earth  The field lines should be drawn radially pointing
towards the centre of Earth.
 The field lines get further apart (field strength
decreases) as it gets further from Earth.
7.4 Gravitational Field Strength (symbol: g and units: N kg-1 or m s-2)
As seen in section 7.3, the gravitational field strength acting on an object decreases (illustrated by an
increase in the field line spacing) as the object moves further away from Earth. This means that field
strength varies with distance from the source mass (which is the Earth, in this case).
Definition: The gravitational field strength, g at a particular point in the gravitational field is defined as
the
gravitational force per unit mass acting on a small test mass placed at that point.
Inquiry:
Why must the test mass be small?
The test mass must be physically small so that it does not distort or change the gravitational field
generated by the source mass.
LO (d)
GMm
Based on (i) Newton’s law of gravitation, where F  (gravitational force acting on a point
r2
mass, m by the source mass, M); and (ii) gravitational field strength, g is the gravitational force, F per
unit mass acting on the small test mass, m, we may derive that the gravitational field strength,
F
g
m
GMm

r2
m
GM

r2
M g
X
Consider a point X in the field set up by mass M located at a distance r from the centre of the mass M,
the magnitude of the gravitational field strength at point X due to mass M is
GM
g=
r2
where
g is the magnitude of the gravitational field strength at point X [N kg–1]
G, the constant of universal gravitation, is 6.67 x 10–11 N m2 kg–2
M is the point mass that generates the gravitational field [kg]
r is the distance from the centre of the point mass M to point X [m]
Note:
1) Gravitational field strength, g is a vector quantity, and it is in the same direction as the
gravitational force.
2) The gravitational field strength of Earth is approximately constant at 9.81 N kg–1, near its surface. It
is also known as the acceleration of free fall or the acceleration due to gravity.
3) As shown in the derivation above, the gravitational field strength, g of the source mass, M is
independent of the mass of the test mass.
4) As distance r of the test mass from source mass increases, g decreases in an inverse square law
manner. Hence gravitational field is also known as an inverse square law field.
5) Graphical representation of gravitational field strength g vs distance r:
 Take the direction to the right

as positive.
 On the left side of the 500-kg
mass, the gravitational field
strength points to the right
(positive g values).
r  On the right side of the 500-kg
mass, the gravitational field
strength points to the left
(negative g values).
 As r increases, magnitude of g
decreases.
6) Complete section (A) & (B) in ICT inquiry worksheet to strengthen your conceptual
understanding on gravitational field strength by the next lecture.
LO (e)
Example 5 (Application of gravitational field strength of one body)
Considering the gravitational field strength on the surface of Earth as 9.81 N kg-1, calculate the average
density of the Earth. State any assumptions made in your calculation.
(Given: radius of the Earth = 6.37 x 106 m; G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2)
Since g =
GM
, 9.81 =
6.67 x 10 M-11
r
r2 6.37  10  6 2
 M = 5.968 x 1024 kg g
4 M
Since V = r 3 = 1.083 x 1021 m3, density = = 5.51 x 103 kg m-3
3 V
Assumption made: The Earth is spherical.
Example 6 (Application of gravitational field strength of multiple bodies)

A space capsule is travelling between the Earth and the moon.
(a) Find the net gravitational field strength at the mid-point between the Earth and the moon.
(b) Hence find the net gravitational force acting on the space capsule at that point.
(Given: Mass of Earth, Moon and space capsule are 6.0 x 1024 kg, 7.4 x 1022 kg and 100 kg
respectively; distance between the centres of the Earth and Moon = 3.8  108 m)
3.8  108 m
Earth
gM Moon
gE
(a) Net field strength, gnet = gE – gM

(a) Net field strength, gnet E – EgM =GM
= gGM GMME/r2 – GMM/r2
= – -11 24 22 8 2
r 2 x 10 r 2)(6.0 x 10 – 7.4 x 10 )/(1.9 x 10 )
= (6.67
(6.67xx10
= 1.09 10-4-11N) kg -1
(6.0 x 1024 – 7.4
(towards
22
x 10of
centre )/(1.9 8 2
Earth)x 10 )
-2 -1
= 1.09 x 10 N kg (towards the centre of Earth)
(b) Gravitational force = mg
(b) Net gravitational force = m gnet
net -4 -2
=
= 100(1.09
100 (1.09xx10
10-2))= 1.09 x 10 N (towards centre of Earth)
= 1.09 N (towards the centre of Earth)
7.5 Gravitational Potential Energy (symbol: U and units: J)
In the previous topic 5 on Work, Energy & Power, we have dealt with the calculation of gravitational
potential energy (GPE) using the formula, mgh. This formula was applicable in that topic because we
were dealing with situations where the height (measured from a certain reference level decided by you)
was relatively small (as compared to the radius of Earth) and hence the g value of Earth was assumed
to be constant (9.81 m s-2) over this height. However if the object is moved through a large height, the
assumption that g is constant at 9.81 m s-2 cannot be valid.
In fact, if you think about it, using mgh will determine the ‘GPE’ of the object from the reference level
(decided by you). Hence if the reference level is changed, the ‘GPE’ value also changes even though
the object stays at the same level. The truth is: using mgh gives you the change in GPE over the height
(h), not the actual gravitational potential energy possessed by the object! Hence, to find the
gravitational potential energy, U of an object with mass m placed at a distance r away from a source
mass M that sets up the gravitational field, physicists arrived at the following equation.
M m
If there are two point masses M and m and they are separated by distance r, the gravitational potential
energy U of this system of masses is
GMm
U= 
r
where (
U is the gravitational potential energy of the system [J] t
G, the constant of universal gravitation, is 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2 o
M is one of the point mass [kg] w
m is the other point mass [kg] a
r
r is the centretocentre distance between the two point masses [m]
d
s
GMm c
U= 
r e
To understand the formula for calculating GPE, U: n
 Gravitational potential energy is a scalar quantity (i.e. it has no direction and a negative U value t
simply means it is less than zero). r
e
 This expression implies that U is always negative (less than zero) and the larger the r, the smaller
o
GMm GMm
the value of and hence the larger the value of U =  . (For eg. – 2 is larger than – 4) f
r r
E
 When the object is moved to an infinitely far place where r = ∞, U becomes zero (which implies a
maximum gravitational potential energy, since zero is larger than any negative values). r
t
 By standard convention, infinity is taken as the reference level, which has zero gravitational h
potential energy. But please note that this zero GPE is the maximum U, not the minimum U! )
Definition: The gravitational potential energy, U of a point mass placed at a point in the gravitational
field is defined as
Work done in bringing the point mass from infinity to that point
To appreciate this definition:

 Note that the work done to bring the point mass m from infinity (somewhere infinitely far) to a
particular point in the field is carried out by an external force (not gravitational force by M).
 Since the point mass m will be attracted towards the source mass M by its gravitational force, the
external force acting on mass m will be pointing away from M, so that mass m can be
placed/stopped at that particular point.
 Draw the external force F and displacement s in the diagram below.
That point Infinity
M r s
m F
 Negative
Is the work done positive or negative? Your answer: _________________
GMm
 Now link your answer to the sign in the expression U =  and its definition above.
r
 Explain why is there a negative sign in the expression U =  GMm .

r
The negative sign of the expression indicates that the work done by the external force is negative
as it acts against the attractive nature of the gravitational force.
 Suggest and explain whether the magnitude of the external force F is constant as the mass m is
moved from infinity to that point.
No, because the gravitational force increases as m gets closer to M.
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Example 7
The diagram shows two points X and Y at distances L and 2L, respectively, from the centre of the Earth
(of mass M). Find an expression for the change in the gravitational potential energy of a mass m as it
is brought from X to Y.
L
2L
Change in GPE, U = Final GPE – Initial GPE
GMm  GMm  X Y
=  –  
2L  L 
GMm M
=
2L
Note: The GPE increases as the object is
brought away from the source mass (in this case,
the Earth).
Escape Velocity - Is it true that “what goes up must come down”?
It is only accurate to say that “what goes up may come down”. There is a critical velocity at which an
object can be launched such that it can escape from Earth permanently. Such a critical velocity is
termed as the escape velocity of Earth.
Example 8
Determine an expression for the escape velocity, v, of a rocket of mass m launched from the surface of
Earth of mass M and radius R.
To escape from Earth, it implies that the rocket must be brought from the surface of the Earth to
infinity where GPE is zero. Thus, the initial KE of rocket must be larger than or at least equal to the
change in GPE from Earth surface to infinity.
i.e. ½mv2  [0 – (– GM m )]
R
 ½mv2  GM m
R
2 GM
 v2 
R
2 GM
Hence, v
R
2 GM
i.e. the escape velocity to reach infinity from Earth is .
R
7.6 Gravitational Potential (symbol:  and units: J kg-1) LO (g)
M
X
Consider a point X in the field set up by mass M located at a distance r from the centre of the mass M,
the gravitational potential, , at point X due to mass M is
GM
= 
r
where
 is the gravitational potential at point X [J kg–1]
G, the constant of universal gravitation, is 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
M is the point mass that generates the gravitational field [kg]
r is the distance from the centre of the point mass M to point X [m]
Definition: The gravitational potential, , at a point in the gravitational field is defined as
Work done per unit mass in bringing a small test mass from infinity to that point
Note:
1) This expression is similar to the expression for gravitational potential energy, U. The only
difference from U is that  is work done per unit mass.
2) Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity. (i.e. it has no direction and a negative  value simply
means it is less than zero).
3) This expression implies that  is also always negative (less than zero) and by convention, the
gravitational potential at infinity is also taken to be zero (maximum  value).
4) Similar to gravitational field strength, gravitational potential is also independent of the mass of the
test mass.
5) As distance r of the point mass from source mass increases,  increases.
6) Graphical representation of gravitational potential  vs distance r:
 Gravitational potential value

is always negative.
r  As r increases,  becomes
less negative (increases).
7) Complete section (C) & (D) in ICT inquiry worksheet to strengthen your conceptual
understanding on gravitational potential by the next lecture.
Equipotential lines are lines that trace positions of equal potential. Examples of 3 equipotential lines
around a source mass are shown below in dotted lines.

1 = – 300 J kg–1
2 = – 200 J kg–1
3 = – 100 J kg–1
Note:
 Unlike gravitational field lines that have directions (since g is a vector), equipotential lines have no
direction (since  is a scalar).
 Equipotential lines that have equal intervals of potential will not have even spacing, as can be seen
GM
from the formula  =  . The spacing increases with increasing distance r from the mass.
r
LO (e) & (h)
Example 9 (Application of gravitational field strength and potential)
Three identical point masses A, B and C, each of mass 2.0 x 105 kg form the vertices of an equilateral
triangle with a side length of 1000 m. What is the net gravitational field strength and gravitational
potential at point X which is located at the midpoint of AC?
10002  500  866 m

2
AX = CX = 1000 / 2 = 500 m BX = B
Since gA will cancel out gC, net g at X = gB

=
6.67 x 10-11 2.0  105 
8662 gB
gA gC
= 1.78 x 10-11 N kg-1 (towards B) A C
X
Net gravitational potential at X, X = XA + XB + XC

 GM  GM  GM
=  
AX  BX  CX 
 1 1 
 
=  6.67  10 11 2.0  105   1
 
 500 866 500
= - 6.9 x 10-8 J kg-1
Compare & contrast the four main quantities in Gravitation:
Vector quantities Scalar quantities

GMm Potential GMm
Force, F = Unit: N U=  Unit: J
r2 energy, r
Pointing in F U
the positive All values
direction are less
than zero
r r
Pointing in
the negative
direction
Vector quantities Scalar quantities
Field strength: Potential:

GM Unit: N kg
-1
GM
(Force per unit g = -2 (Potential energy =  Unit: J kg
-1
r 2 (or m s ) r
mass) per unit mass)
Pointing in g 
the positive All values
direction are less
than zero
r r
Pointing in
the negative
direction
7.7 (a) To understand how F is related to U:

1) Observe and compare the F vs r graph and U vs r graph on page 14.
GMm
2) If we differentiate U =  with respect to r, we will get the gradient of the U vs r graph,
r
dU GMm
 . This is the same expression as F.
dr r2
3) However if we observe the two graphs carefully, on the side where the gradient of U vs r graph is
positive, the value of F is negative. And on the side where the gradient of U vs r graph is negative,
the value of F is positive.
dU
4) Hence it can be concluded mathematically that F 
dr
7.7 (b) To understand how g is related to :

5) Similarly, observe and compare the g vs r graph and  vs r graph on page 14.
GM
6) If we differentiate  =  with respect to r, we will get the gradient of the  vs r graph,
r
d  GM
 2 , which has the same expression as g.
dr r
7) Again, if we observe the two graphs carefully, on the side where the gradient of  vs r graph is
positive, the value of g is negative. And on the side where the gradient of  vs r graph is negative,
the value of g is positive.
8) Hence, mathematically, d
g
dr
9) Complete section (E) in ICT inquiry worksheet to strengthen your conceptual understanding
on the relationship between gravitational field strength and potential by next lecture.
Example 10 (J89/II/2)
Values for the gravitational potential due to the Earth are given in the table below.
Distance from Earth’s surface / m Gravitational potential / MJ kg-1

0 -62.72
390 000 -59.12
400 000 -59.03
410 000 -58.94
Infinity 0
(i) If a satellite of mass 700 kg falls from a height of 400 000 m to the Earth’s surface, how
much potential energy does it lose?
(ii) Estimate the magnitude of the Earth’s gravitational field strength at a height of 400 000 m.
(i) ΔGPE = (m) (f - i) = (700) [(-62.72) - (-59.03)] 1066) = - 2.58 x 10 9
J
(i) Loss of GPE = m x   = 700[(-59.03)-(-62.72)](10
Hence the loss in GPE = 2.58 x 10 J 9 ) = 2.58 x 10 9
J
d
(ii) Since g   ,,
dr
dr
Δ
Consider gg   for
Consider for390 000mmrr410
390000 410000
000mm
Δr
r
( 58.94 106 )  ( 59.12 106 )
i.e. g (58.94  10 )  (59.12  10 ) = 9.0
6 6
= 9.0 N-1kg-1
i.e. g (410 000)  (390 000) N kg
(410000)  (390000)
7.8 Satellite in Circular Orbits LO (i)
An object projected horizontally near the Earth’s surface follows a

parabolic trajectory as shown on the right. As the speed of Earth
projection increases, the object will reach a speed where the
trajectory follows the curvature of the Earth’s surface. If air
resistance is negligible, the object will orbit round the Earth
continuously and will never hit the Earth’s surface.
Many man-made satellites move in circular orbits around the Earth. The first man-made satellite, the
“Sputnik 1”, was launched by Soviet Union in 1957. Since then, hundreds of satellites have been
launched into orbit around the Earth. The only force acting on the satellite in a circular orbit is the
Earth’s gravitational force, which is directed towards the centre of Earth (also the centre of its circular
orbit). Since the satellite moves perpendicular to the gravitational force, its magnitude of velocity
remains constant while its direction changes. This means that the satellite is travelling in a uniform
circular motion (recap Topic 6) with constant distance from the satellite to the centre of Earth.
For a satellite (or any object) in circular orbit around a planet (like Earth), the gravitational force acting
on the satellite by the planet is the only force that keeps it in circular motion (i.e. the gravitational force
is its centripetal force).
m v
mv 2
Hence, ΣF =
r r
2
GMm mv

r2 r
GM
i.e. v M
r Satellite’s
Orbit
Earth
where v denotes the orbiting speed of satellite.
The above formula can be used to calculate the speed required for any object to orbit around a planet
of mass M at a constant distance r.
Inquiry:
What will happen to the orbiting satellite if it starts to slow down?
The gravitational force will be higher than the required centripetal force to keep it in the uniform
circular motion. Hence the satellite will be pulled closer towards Earth and move in a smaller circular
orbit.
Example 11 (Object in orbit)

How fast must the satellite be moving in its circular orbit about the Earth, if it stays at a constant height
of three times of Earth’s radius, above the Earth’s surface?
(Given: mass of Earth = 6.0 x 1024 kg; radius of Earth = 6.4 x 106 m) m v
r = 4 x radius of Earth = 2.56 x 107 m h r

2
mv GMm mv 2
ΣF = → 
r r2 r
M
thus orbiting speed of satellite, Earth
GM (6.67x10 11 )(6.0x10 24 )

v 
r (2.56x107 )
i.e. v = 3954 = 4.0 km s-1
7.9 Energy of a Satellite in orbit
A satellite in orbit possesses both kinetic energy, EK, (by virtue of its motion) and gravitational potential
energy, EP, (by virtue of its position within the Earth’s gravitational field).
Hence, total energy of an orbiting satellite, ET = EP + EK

GMm 1
= + mv2 --- Equation (1)
r 2
Recall that for a satellite in orbit, its gravitational force acts as the centripetal force:
2
GMm mv 2
ΣF = mv → 
r r2 r
1 1 GMm
i.e. EK = mv2  --- Equation (2)
2 2 r
Substituting equation (2) into (1),
Hence total energy of an orbiting satellite, ET = EP + EK

GMm 1
ET =  + mv2
r 2
GMm GMm
ET =  +
r 2r
GMm
ET =  [Note: ET = − EK or ½ EP]
2r
A typical graph showing the relationship between ET, EP and EK with respect to the distance, r, from
centre of Earth, is shown below. Label the graphs accordingly.
ET/J, EP /J, EK /J
EK
Earth
Distance, r
ET
EP
Example 12
An Earth satellite of mass 200 kg lost energy slowly through atmospheric resistance and fell from an
orbit of radius 8.0 x 106 m to 7.8 x 106 m. Calculate the changes in the potential, kinetic and total
energies of the satellite as a result of this transition. (Given mass of Earth = 6.0 x 1024 kg)
2
Consider ΣF = mv ,
r
2
FG = mv
r
GMm mv 2
i.e. 
r2 r
1 GMm 1
 mv2
2 r 2
Thus, change in kinetic energy, EK

GMm GMm
= 
2 rf 2 ri
(6.67x10 11 )(6.0x10 24 )(200)  1 1 
=   6 
 7.8x10 8.0x10 
6
2
= 1.28 x 108 J (increase)
Since EP = -2 EK ,
 EP = -2 EK
Thus, change in potential energy, EP = – 2 (1.28 x 108)
= – 2.57 x 108 J (decrease)
1
Since E = EP
2
1
 E =  EP
2
= – 1.28 x 108 J (decrease)
7.10 Kepler’s Third Law
Earlier, it was stated that the gravitational force acting on a satellite in orbit is the centripetal force to
keep it in circular motion.
i.e. ΣF = mrω2
GMm
 2
 mrω 2
r
2
GMm  2π 
 mr  
 T 
2
r
4π 2 3
Hence, T2  r
GM
or T2  r3
This relationship between T and r is known as the Kepler’s Third Law, which states that the square of
the period of an object in circular orbit is directly proportional to the cube of the radius of its orbit.
Note:
 The Kepler’s Third Law is only applicable to masses in circular orbit, whereby the gravitational force
is the only force acting on it to act as its centripetal force.
7.11 Geostationary Satellites LO (j)
A geostationary (Earth) satellite is a satellite that rotates around the Earth such that it is always
positioned above the same point on the Earth’s surface. Hence from the point of view of an observer
standing at that point on Earth’s surface, the geostationary satellite appears to be always ‘stationary’
above him/her (when actually, both observer and satellite are rotating at the same angular speed). In
order for a satellite to be moving in a geostationary orbit, it needs to meet the following conditions:
(1) Geostationary satellites must be placed vertically above the equator (so that its axis of
rotation is the same as the Earth’s);
(2) They must move from west to east (so that it moves in the same direction as the rotation of the
Earth about its own axis);
(3) The satellite’s orbital period must be equal to 24 hrs (so that it is the same as the Earth’s
rotational period about its own axis).
Inquiry:
Sketch in the diagram below to illustrate how a geostationary satellite orbits around the Earth.
Equator
Axis of rotation
All geostationary satellites must be placed in an orbit at a fixed distance (around 35 700 km) from the
Earth’s surface, in order to rotate with the same period as Earth. Do you know why? (Hint: recall Keper’s
Third Law)
Advantages of geostationary satellites:
1. A geostationary satellite is ideal for telecommunication

purposes since it remains ‘stationary’ above the same
spot on the Earth’s surface at all times. The distance
between the satellite and the transmitting station on Earth
is kept relatively constant and a clear line of ‘vision’
between the transmitter and the receiver allows
continuous and uninterrupted signal transmission.
2. Since it is always at the same position relative to the

Earth’s surface, there is no need to keep adjusting the
direction of the satellite dish to transmit or receive signals
to or from the geostationary satellite.
3. As geostationary satellites are positioned at a high

altitude (a distance of 35 700 km away from the
surface of the Earth), it can view and scan a large
section of the Earth surface continuously. Hence, they
are ideal for meteorological applications and remote
imaging.
Disadvantages of geostationary satellites:
1. As geostationary satellites are positioned at such a high altitude, the resolution of the images may
not be as good as those captured by the lower orbiting satellites.
2. Because of its high altitude, there may be a delay in the reception of the signals resulting in a lag
time for live international broadcast or video conferencing.
3. The transmitting stations in countries positioned at latitudes higher than 60 degrees may not be able
to receive strong signals from geostationary satellites, as the signals would have to pass through a
larger amount of atmosphere. This is true for countries beyond the 60 degrees latitude ‘belt’, both on
the northern and southern sides.
Besides geostationary satellites which are placed at a large distance from Earth, there are other types
of satellite which orbit at lower altitudes from Earth, like the polar orbit satellites as shown below.
Geostationary orbit
(about 35,700 km above Earth’s surface) Asynchronous
Mainly for telecommunication orbit
Northern
Hemisphere
Equator
Southern
Hemisphere
Polar Orbit or Low Earth Orbit
(about 850 km above Earth’s Surface)
Polar orbit Mainly for navigation (GPS), weather forecast
and closer up aerial view of the Earth. A string
of 12 satellites lie in a polar orbit.
Satellites in polar orbits rotate around the Earth over the poles, in a constant plane perpendicular to the
equator. Polar satellites have much lower altitudes (about 850 km) and they serve to provide detailed
information about the weather and cloud formation. However satellites in this type of orbit can view only
a narrow strip of Earth's surface on each orbit. Strips of images must be "stitched together," to produce
a larger view.
Advantages of low altitude orbit satellites (eg. polar orbit):
1. Due to their lower altitudes, these satellites can capture images of the Earth’s surface with higher
resolution. Polar satellites have the advantage of photographing close-up images of Earth.
2. There is reduced lag time or delay between the transmission and reception of the signal.
Disadvantages of low altitude orbit satellites (eg. polar orbit):
1. It is not possible to view the same spot on the Earth's surface continuously by a single satellite in a
polar orbit because of its high speed. A typical low orbit satellite takes only 2 hours to make one
revolution round the Earth. In order to have a continuous relay of data, there must be a series or
chain of satellites in the same orbit so that one ‘takes over’ the predecessor’s function.
2. Because the satellite changes its location constantly with respect to the Earth’s surface, the direction
of the satellite dish would need to be adjusted constantly as well.
Example 13
Determine the typical orbital radius of a geostationary satellite
around Earth. (Given: mass of Earth = 6.0 x 1024 kg)
The orbital period for geostationary satellite = period of rotation of

The orbital
Earth period for geostationary satellite = period of rotation of Earth = 1 day
= 24 hours
Thus, TT == 24
Thus, 1 day
hr xx60
24min
hr xx60
60min
secx=60 4
s x 104 s
secx =108.64
8.64
 22  4 2 3
2
GMm
Using
Using ΣF 
= m
mr 
r ω  , T 2
 r
r2 T 2 GM
GMm  2π 
GMT 2 mr  (6.67
 x10 11)(6.0 x10 24 )(8.64 x10 4 ) 2
 r  3 r 2  3 T 
2
42 4 π 2 3 4 2
T  7 r
i.e. r = 4.2 x 10GMm (about 6.6 times of Earth’s radius)
GMT 2 3 (6.67x10 11)(6.0x10 24 )(8.64x10 4 )2
 r 3 
4π 2 4π 2
i.e. r = 4.2 x 107 m (about 6.6 times of Earth’s radius)
Inquiry:
Would a geostationary satellite that orbit around planet Mars be at the same distance r (= 4.2 x 107 m),
as Example 13? Why?
No, because the period of rotation and mass of planet Mars are not the same as Earth’s.
Example 14 (J2000/1/8)
Which quantity is not necessarily the same for satellites that are in geostationary orbits around the
Earth?
A angular velocity C kinetic energy

B centripetal acceleration D orbital period
Kinetic energy is dependent on the satellite's mass and velocity. Hence different
satellites of different masses may have different kinetic energies. Ans: C
Example 15
A spacecraft was launched from Earth into a circular orbit around Earth that was maintained at an
almost constant height of 189 km from the Earth's surface. Assuming the gravitational field strength in
this orbit is 9.4 N kg-1, and the radius of the Earth is 6 370 km,
a) Calculate the speed of the spacecraft in this orbit.
b) Find the time to complete one orbit.
c) Comment whether this spacecraft is in a geostationary orbit.
mv2 mv2
(a)
(a) Since ΣF
Since FG =
= FC , FG =
r r
GMm mv 2 GMm mv2
 
r2 r r2 r
GM v 2
GM 
i.e. v  r2 r
r 2
v
As g = GM/r2 g
r
 v  gr  v  gr + 189)(10 )]
= [(9.4)(6370 3 0.5
= 7852 == [(9.4) 103 m+ s189)

7.85 x(6370 -1
(103)]0.5
= 7852
= 7.85 x 103 m s-1
(b) T = 2r/v = 2(6559 x 103)/7852 = 5249 s = 87.5 mins
(b) T = 2r/v = 2(6559 x 103) / 7852
= 5249 s
= 87.5 min
(c) Spacecraft is not in geostationary orbit as the period of rotation is less than period of Earth’s
rotation about its own axis (24 hr).
-- End of note --
Appendix – Example of Application of total  individual
Revision: The total  at a point in a field due to two or more source masses is the scalar addition of
the individual  due to each mass at that point, i.e. total  individual . The same principle applies
when determining Utotal. The diagram below shows how the gravitational potential varies between the
surface of the Moon and the surface of the Earth along the line joining the centres.
+
Earth M
o
o
n
o
o
n
-
Gravitational potential due to Earth
Gravitational potential due to Moon
Net gravitational potential along the line of centres is equal
to the scalar addition of the gravitational potentials due to
the Earth and Moon.
More food for thought:
Do you know why the moon has no atmosphere?

It is because the speeds of the air particles are higher than their escape speeds and hence they can
escape from the moon surface.
If the Sun collapses inwards so that its density increases tremendously, the escape speed will be
so large that even light (speed of light = 3.00 x 108 m s-1) cannot escape from it. The Sun would be
invisible. It would become a black hole!
After sitting through the series of lecture on gravitation, can you suggest why most planets are
almost spherical? Try looking for the answer in the internet yourself!

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What is Newton's Law of Gravitation?

What is Newton's Law of Gravitation?

What is the difference between gravitational force and gravitational field?

What is the difference between gravitational force and gravitational field?

2016 H2 Physics Lecture Notes (Teachers) Topic 7 Gravitational Field

Topic 7 Gravitational Field

Learning Outcomes (LOs)

Gravitational force between point masses (vector)

Gravitational potential (scalar)

Applications and relevance to daily life

Gravitational force is a force that is evident in our everyday

7.2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation LO (a)

The mutual force of attraction between any two point masses* is

Example 2 (N84/P2/Q7) Binary Stars with same radius of orbit

Example 3 (N09/I/16) Binary Stars with different radii of orbit M

G(2M)(M) 2GM 2  k = 2/9 = 0.22

7.3 Gravitational Field LO (b)

 The gravitational field near Earth’s surface is

 The gravitational field around Earth is non-

7.4 Gravitational Field Strength (symbol: g and units: N kg-1 or m s-2)

 Take the direction to the right

Example 6 (Application of gravitational field strength of multiple bodies)

(a) Net field strength, gnet = gE – gM

7.5 Gravitational Potential Energy (symbol: U and units: J)

To appreciate this definition:

 Draw the external force F and displacement s in the diagram below.

That point Infinity

 Explain why is there a negative sign in the expression U =  GMm .

No, because the gravitational force increases as m gets closer to M.

Escape Velocity - Is it true that “what goes up must come down”?

7.6 Gravitational Potential (symbol:  and units: J kg-1) LO (g)

Definition: The gravitational potential, , at a point in the gravitational field is defined as

 Gravitational potential value

10002  500  866 m

Since gA will cancel out gC, net g at X = gB

Net gravitational potential at X, X = XA + XB + XC

Compare & contrast the four main quantities in Gravitation:

Vector quantities Scalar quantities

Vector quantities Scalar quantities

Field strength: Potential:

7.7 (a) To understand how F is related to U:

7.7 (b) To understand how g is related to :

Distance from Earth’s surface / m Gravitational potential / MJ kg-1

7.8 Satellite in Circular Orbits LO (i)

An object projected horizontally near the Earth’s surface follows a

Example 11 (Object in orbit)

r = 4 x radius of Earth = 2.56 x 107 m h r

GM (6.67x10 11 )(6.0x10 24 )

i.e. v = 3954 = 4.0 km s-1

7.9 Energy of a Satellite in orbit

Hence, total energy of an orbiting satellite, ET = EP + EK

Substituting equation (2) into (1),

Hence total energy of an orbiting satellite, ET = EP + EK

Thus, change in kinetic energy, EK

7.10 Kepler’s Third Law

7.11 Geostationary Satellites LO (j)

Advantages of geostationary satellites:

1. A geostationary satellite is ideal for telecommunication

2. Since it is always at the same position relative to the