1.

0 Course General AIMS

1.1To provide an understanding of the operation of the hardware of a
computer system and the roles played by the unit of the system.
1.2To provide an understanding of the software of a computing system and
its interaction with hardware.
1.3To introduce the students t of basic computer care and maintenance.

2.0 Objectives
2.1Identify and describe the operation of major hardware units of a computer
system.
2.2Describe the operation, characteristics and application of typical bulk
storage devices.
2.3Identify and describe the duties and responsibilities of computer
personnel.
2.4Describe the arithmetic and logic operations performed by the computer.
2.5Describe the architecture of different types of computers.
2.6State the requirements of a computer room environment and describe the
security measures required for the computer room information.

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3.0 Contents
3.1 Computer department and functions in a company Pages 7 - 18

3.1.1 Explain the duties and responsibilities of computer personnel

3.1.2 Explain methods of data processing (manual, mechanical and

electronic)

3.1.3 Describe the different types of computers (Micro, Mini,

Mainframe/Super,

Digital, Analog, hybrid etc)

3.1.4 Describe the difference

3.2 Hardware Pages 19 – 23

3.2.1 Main components of a computer system

3.2.2 Data flows between components of a computer.

3.2.3 Execution of a program and the involvement of the main components

in this.

3.3 Peripherals, input, output and data storage Pages 24 - 36

3.3.1 Principles of Operation

3.3.2 Performance characteristics

3.3.3 Types of situations in which they are useful, e.g. graphic devices.

3.4 Software components of computer systems. Pages 37 - 61

3.4.1 The operating system and its functions. Describe the main features
of an operating system.

3.4.2 Windows 95, 98, 2000----create directory, move around the move

directories, and describe booting system, copy files from directory

to another, files, back up files, rename files, undelete files e.t.c.

3.4.3 Application software and programming languages

3.4.4 The need of utility programs

3.4.5 Memory, devices and the Computer Processing Unit (C.P.U)

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 3.4.6 File management systems

3.5 Main memory Pages 62 - 65

3.5.1 Its use including its place in the memory hierarchy

3.5.2 Concepts of random and sequential access

3.5.3 access/cycle times

3.6 Arithmetic logic Unit (ALU) Pages 66 – 67

3.6.1 Nature of ALU and flow of data between the functional units in it.

3.6.2 Relationship of ALU and other parts of the C.P.U.

3.7 Computer room environment and security Pages 68 - 73

3.7.1 Requirements of the computer room

3.7.2 Security of hardware, software and information

3.8 Data processing Pages 74 - 79

3.8.1 Data processing cycle

3.8.2 Data origination

3.8.3 Data verification

3.8.4 Data validation

3.9 Software delivery Pages 80 - 87

3.9.1 Choosing software

3.9.2 Types of software

3.9.3 Advantages/disadvantages of

 integrated software
 off the shelf
 in-house
 contracted
 tailor made
3.10 Communication system basics Pages 88 - 97

3.10.1 LAN networks

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 3.10.2 WAN networks

3.11 Ethical challenges of computing Pages 98 - 104

 information circulation
 software controls
 processing controls
 computer crime
 health issues
3.12 Applications (word processing) Pages 105 - 124

 load a program from hard disk

 create a new document
 enter text
 insert text
 delete text/move/replace text
 mail merge/ change line spacing
 underline/change margins/centre
 obtain different fonts
 embolden/justify margins

3.13 Spreadsheet Pages 125 - 168

 install program/load program

 creating a spreadsheet/cursor manipulation
 using the half facility
 entering labels, values, formulas
 apply/replicate formulae
 insert columns and rows, delete columns and rows
 save the spreadsheet(file)
 manipulate function key
 print spreadsheet or specified window
 retrieve spreadsheet

3.14 Database - Ms Access Pages 169 - 217

 load program
 set up files containing alphabetic and numeric fields within the record
 enter data/add records/delete records/edit records
 sort records by a key field
 print selected fields
 search on more than one criteria, produce printouts

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4.0 General AIM
4.1To provide an understanding of the operation of the hardware of a
computer system and the roles played by the unit of the system.
4.2To provide an understanding of the software of a computing system and
its interaction with hardware.
4.3To introduce the students t of basic computer care and maintenance.

5.0 Objectives
5.1Identify and describe the operation of major hardware units of a computer
system.
5.2Describe the operation, characteristics and application of typical bulk
storage devices.
5.3Identify and describe the duties and responsibilities of computer
personnel.
5.4Describe the arithmetic and logic operations performed by the computer.
5.5Describe the architecture of different types of computers.
5.6State the requirements of a computer room environment and describe the
security measures required for the computer room information.

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3.1 Functions of Computer Department in a company

This IT department function depends on the scale and business purposes of the
company. The department is responsible for installations and maintenance of
hardware and software requirements for the company. It’s also tasked with training
of users to ensure effective use of IT resources. This department should also
develop the IT policy for the company to guide users.

3.1.1 Duties and responsibility of computer personnel

1. Computer Operator: Computer operators oversee the operation of computer

hardware systems, ensuring that these machines are used as efficiently as possible.
They may work with mainframes, minicomputers, or networks of personal
computers. Computer operators must anticipate problems and take preventive
action, as well as solve problems that occur during operations. The duties of
computer operators vary with the size of the installation, the type of equipment
used, and the policies of the employer. Generally, operators control the console of
either a mainframe digital computer or a group of minicomputers. Working from
operating instructions prepared by programmers, users, or operations managers,
computer operators set controls on the computer and on peripheral devices
required to run a particular job. Computer operators load equipment with tapes,
disks, and paper, as needed. While the computer is running—which may be 24
hours a day for large computers—computer operators monitor the control console
and respond to operating and computer messages. Messages indicate the individual
specifications of each job being run. If an error message occurs, operators must
locate and solve the problem or terminate the program. Operators also maintain
logbooks or operating records, listing each job that is run and events, such as
machine malfunctions, that occur during their shift. In addition, computer operators
may help programmers and systems analysts test and debug new programs. As the
trend toward networking computers accelerates, a growing number of computer
operators are working on personal computers (PCs) and minicomputers. In many
offices, factories, and other work settings, PCs and minicomputers are connected in
networks, often referred to as local area networks (LANs) or multi-user systems.
Whereas users in the area operate some of these computers, many require the
services of full-time operators. The tasks performed on PCs and minicomputers are
very similar to those performed on large computers. As organizations continue to
look for opportunities to increase productivity, automation is expanding into
additional areas of computer operations. Sophisticated software, coupled with
robotics, enables a computer to perform many routine tasks formerly done by
computer operators. Scheduling, loading and downloading programs, mounting
tapes, rerouting messages, and running periodic reports can be done without the

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intervention of an operator. Consequently, these improvements will change what
computer operators do in the future. As technology advances, the responsibilities of
many computer operators are shifting to areas such as network operations, user
support, and database maintenance.

2. Hardware/Software Technician: Provide technical support to end-users

within the organization. Create, initiate and develop desktop computing
environment in an organization. Install software programs and applications.
Determine, identify and troubleshoot technical problems relating to software and
hardware. Install and configure software programs and applications. Execute tests
and debug programs. Maintain and manage workstations, servers, printers and
scanners and other related equipment. Ensure quality hardware and software
support for end-users.
Interconnect workstations, terminals and existing data networks.

3. Computer Programmers: Computer programmers write, test, and maintain the

detailed instructions, called programs that computers must follow to perform their
functions. They also conceive, design, and test logical structures for solving
problems by computer. Many technical innovations in programming—advanced
computing technologies and sophisticated new languages and programming tools—
have redefined the role of a programmer and elevated much of the programming
work done today. Job titles and descriptions may vary, depending on the
organization. In this occupational statement, computer programmer refers to
individuals whose main job function is programming; this group has a wide range of
responsibilities and educational backgrounds.

4. Database Administrator: A Database Administrator, Database Analyst or

Database Developer is the person responsible for managing the information within
an organization. As most companies continue to experience inevitable growth of
their databases, these positions are probably the most solid within the IT industry.
In most cases, it is not an area that is targeted for layoffs or downsizing. On the
downside, however, most database departments are often understaffed, requiring
administrators to perform a multitude of tasks.

Depending on the company and the department, this role can either be highly
specialized or incredibly diverse. The primary role of the Database Administrator to
administer, develop, maintain and implement the policies and procedures necessary
to ensure the security and integrity of the corporate database. Sub roles within the
Database Administrator classification may include security, architecture,
warehousing and/or business analysis. Other primary roles will include:

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  Implementation of data models
 Database design
 Database accessibility
 Performance issues
 Capacity issues
 Data replication
 Table Maintenance

Database Administrators are often on-call and required to work as needed. This
position carries an enormous amount of responsibility

5. Systems Administrator: A system administrator's responsibilities might

include:

 Analyzing system logs and identifying potential issues with computer

systems.
 Introducing and integrating new technologies into existing data center
environments.
 Performing routine audits of systems and software.
 Performing backups.
 Applying operating system updates, patches, and configuration changes.
 Installing and configuring new hardware and software.
 Adding, removing, or updating user account information, resetting
passwords, etc.
 Answering technical queries.
 Responsibility for security.
 Responsibility for documenting the configuration of the system.
 Troubleshooting any reported problems.
 System performance tuning.
 Ensuring that the network infrastructure is up and running.

6. Software Engineer: If you are considering a job as Software Engineer here is a

list of the most standard responsibilities and duties for the Software Engineer
position.

Design, develop and manage software projects for clients.

Analyze and evaluate user needs and develop software solutions.

Write supporting documents for projects developed and tested.

Develop Microsoft .net based web applications.

Develop MS SQL server applications like views, triggers and stored procedures.

Design and develop web user interfaces with back-end databases and other tools.

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Recommend technical feasibilities and solutions.

Evaluate new technologies in the light of emerging trends and technologies.

Modify and update existing technologies improvise performances.

Troubleshoot and resolve difficult problems relating to software applications and

programs.

7. Systems Analyst: Works out what tasks can be done by computer systems,
designs the software and decides what hardware is required. When the system has
been created, the systems analyst checks to see if the system can be improved.
The responsibilities of a systems analyst are many and varied. More importantly a
systems analyst is a key work at a company and thus what they do is critical for the
overall welfare of a company. The systems analyst is charged with looking after the
operating system and associated subsystems. In today's ever-increasing reliant
computer age, this description makes them more critical than ever. The systems
analyst must order provide support to the operating systems and hardware tools
and generally has to make sure that things run and work as they should. If they
can find out how to make things run more cheaply that is also good. The systems
analyst needs to be on top of the industry. They have to be aware of all the
available technology and the pros and cons of each. Keeping tabs of new
technology is also critical as new technology is arriving all the time. They must
know what technology provides the best cost effective performance. The systems
analyst must provide and maintain a working environment which functions like it
should. The systems analyst is doing his job if there are no fires to be put out. If no
one wants him to solve a problem or troubleshoot something then everything is
working as it should.

8. Computer Scientist: A computer scientist typically designs and develops

complex hardware and software systems, along with software solutions. IT
professionals incorporate technological advances into existing systems and
networks.
3.1.2 Methods of Data Processing

Def Data processing: operations (e.g., handling, merging, sorting, and

computing) performed upon data in accordance with strictly defined procedures,
such as recording and summarizing the financial transactions of a business. In
automatic or electronic data processing the operations are performed by a
computer. In distributed data processing some or all of the operations are
performed in different locations at computer facilities connected by
telecommunications links.

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Manual Data Processing: "Manual data processing is the physical entering of
data. This means a person is keying in the information. An example would be a
doctor's office making you a chart, or a utility company establishing your new
service. Once the data is manually entered, it does not have to be done again. Most
of the time, your information can be retrieved by a phone number or social security
number. You are now permanently entered in the system until it is deleted"

Mechanical Processing: data processing operations are done using manual

methods with the aid of mechanical tools such as the abacus.

Electronic Data Processing: Computer data processing is any process that

uses a computer program to enter data and summarise, analyse or otherwise
convert data into usable information. The process may be automated and run on a
computer. It involves recording, analysing, sorting, summarising, calculating,
disseminating and storing data. Because data is most useful when well-presented
and actually informative, data-processing systems are often referred to as
information systems. Nevertheless, the terms are roughly synonymous, performing
similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into
information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to
produce information as output.

Data processing may or may not be distinguished from data conversion, when the
process is merely to convert data to another format, and does not involve any data
manipulation.

3.1.3 Types of Computers

Five Generations of Modern Computers

First Generation (1945-1956)

With the onset of the Second World War, governments sought to develop
computers to exploit their potential strategic importance. This increased funding for
computer development projects hastened technical progress. By 1941 German
engineer Konrad Zuse had developed a computer, the Z3, to design airplanes and
missiles. The Allied forces, however, made greater strides in developing powerful
computers. In 1943, the British completed a secret code-breaking computer called
Colossus to decode German messages. The Colossus's impact on the development
of the computer industry was rather limited for two important reasons. First,
Colossus was not a general-purpose computer; it was only designed to decode
secret messages. Second, the existence of the machine was kept secret until
decades after the war.

American efforts produced a broader achievement. Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973), a

Harvard engineer working with IBM, succeeded in producing an all-electronic
calculator by 1944. The purpose of the computer was to create ballistic charts for
the U.S. Navy. It was about half as long as a football field and contained about 500
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miles of wiring. The Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or
Mark I for short, was a electronic relay computer. It used electromagnetic signals to
move mechanical parts. The machine was slow (taking 3-5 seconds per calculation)
and inflexible (in that sequences of calculations could not change); but it could
perform basic arithmetic as well as more complex equations.

Another computer development spurred by the war was the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), produced by a partnership between the U.S.
government and the University of Pennsylvania. Consisting of 18,000 vacuum
tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints, the computer was such a
massive piece of machinery that it consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power,
enough energy to dim the lights in an entire section of Philadelphia. Developed by
John Presper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980), ENIAC, unlike
the Colossus and Mark I, was a general-purpose computer that computed at speeds
1,000 times faster than Mark I.

In the mid-1940's John von Neumann (1903-1957) joined the University of

Pennsylvania team, initiating concepts in computer design that remained central to
computer engineering for the next 40 years. Von Neumann designed the Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) in 1945 with a memory to hold both
a stored program as well as data. This "stored memory" technique as well as the
"conditional control transfer," that allowed the computer to be stopped at any point
and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer programming. The
key element to the von Neumann architecture was the central processing unit,
which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated through a single source. In
1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand,
became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of
these advances. Both the U.S. Census Bureau and General Electric owned UNIVACs.
One of UNIVAC's impressive early achievements was predicting the winner of the
1952 presidential election, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating

instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to
be used. Each computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine
language that told it how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program
and limited its versatility and speed. Other distinctive features of first generation
computers were the use of vacuum tubes (responsible for their breathtaking size)
and magnetic drums for data storage.

Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)

By 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly changed the computer's

development. The transistor replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum tube in
televisions, radios and computers. As a result, the size of electronic machinery has
been shrinking ever since. The transistor was at work in the computer by 1956.
Coupled with early advances in magnetic-core memory, transistors led to second

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generation computers that were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy-
efficient than their predecessors. The first large-scale machines to take advantage
of this transistor technology were early supercomputers, Stretch by IBM and LARC
by Sperry-Rand. These computers, both developed for atomic energy laboratories,
could handle an enormous amount of data, a capability much in demand by atomic
scientists. The machines were costly, however, and tended to be too powerful for
the business sector's computing needs, thereby limiting their attractiveness. Only
two LARCs were ever installed: one in the Lawrence Radiation Labs in Livermore,
California, for which the computer was named (Livermore Atomic Research
Computer) and the other at the U.S. Navy Research and Development Center in
Washington, D.C. Second generation computers replaced machine language with
assembly language, allowing abbreviated programming codes to replace long,
difficult binary codes.

Throughout the early 1960's, there were a number of commercially successful

second generation computers used in business, universities, and government from
companies such as Burroughs, Control Data, Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand, and
others. These second generation computers were also of solid state design, and
contained transistors in place of vacuum tubes. They also contained all the
components we associate with the modern day computer: printers, tape storage,
disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs. One important
example was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted throughout industry,
and is considered by many to be the Model T of the computer industry. By 1965,
most large business routinely processed financial information using second
generation computers.

It was the stored program and programming language that gave computers the
flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored
program concept meant that instructions to run a computer for a specific function
(known as a program) were held inside the computer's memory, and could quickly
be replaced by a different set of instructions for a different function. A computer
could print customer invoices and minutes later design products or calculate
paychecks. More sophisticated high-level languages such as COBOL (Common
Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came into
common use during this time, and have expanded to the current day. These
languages replaced cryptic binary machine code with words, sentences, and
mathematical formulas, making it much easier to program a computer. New types
of careers (programmer, analyst, and computer systems expert) and the entire
software industry began with second generation computers.

Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still
generated a great deal of heat, which damaged the computer's sensitive internal
parts. The quartz rock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas
Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined three

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electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz.
Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a
semiconductor. As a result, computers became ever smaller as more components
were squeezed onto the chip. Another third-generation development included the
use of an operating system that allowed machines to run many different programs
at once with a central program that monitored and coordinated the computer's
memory.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present)

After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down - in size, that is. Large
scale integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. By the
1980's, very large scale integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of
components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number
into the millions. The ability to fit so much onto an area about half the size of a U.S.
dime helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also increased their power,
efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the
integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer
(central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule
chip. Whereas previously the integrated circuit had had to be manufactured to fit a
special purpose, now one microprocessor could be manufactured and then
programmed to meet any number of demands. Soon everyday household items
such as microwave ovens, television sets and automobiles with electronic fuel
injection incorporated microprocessors.

Such condensed power allowed everyday people to harness a computer's power.

They were no longer developed exclusively for large business or government
contracts. By the mid-1970's, computer manufacturers sought to bring computers
to general consumers. These minicomputers came complete with user-friendly
software packages that offered even non-technical users an array of applications,
most popularly word processing and spreadsheet programs. Pioneers in this field
were Commodore, Radio Shack and Apple Computers. In the early 1980's, arcade
video games such as Pac Man and home video game systems such as the Atari
2600 ignited consumer interest for more sophisticated, programmable home
computers.

In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and
schools. The 1980's saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas as clones
of the IBM PC made the personal computer even more affordable. The number of
personal computers in use more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million
in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used. Computers continued
their trend toward a smaller size, working their way down from desktop to laptop
computers (which could fit inside a briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit inside a breast
pocket). In direct competition with IBM's PC was Apple's Macintosh line, introduced
in 1984. Notable for its user-friendly design, the Macintosh offered an operating
system that allowed users to move screen icons instead of typing instructions.

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Users controlled the screen cursor using a mouse, a device that mimicked the
movement of one's hand on the computer screen.

As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness

their potential developed. As smaller computers became more powerful, they could
be linked together, or networked, to share memory space, software, information
and communicate with each other. As opposed to a mainframe computer, which
was one powerful computer that shared time with many terminals for many
applications, networked computers allowed individual computers to form electronic
co-ops. Using either direct wiring, called a Local Area Network (LAN), or telephone
lines, these networks could reach enormous proportions. A global web of computer
circuitry, the Internet, for example, links computers worldwide into a single network
of information. During the 1992 U.S. presidential election, vice-presidential
candidate Al Gore promised to make the development of this so-called "information
superhighway" an administrative priority. Though the possibilities envisioned by
Gore and others for such a large network are often years (if not decades) away
from realization, the most popular use today for computer networks such as the
Internet is electronic mail, or E-mail, which allows users to type in a computer
address and send messages through networked terminals across the office or
across the world.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)

Defining the fifth generation of computers is somewhat difficult because the field is
in its infancy. The most famous example of a fifth generation computer is the
fictional HAL9000 from Arthur C. Clarke's novel, 2001: A Space Odyssey. HAL
performed all of the functions currently envisioned for real-life fifth generation
computers. With artificial intelligence, HAL could reason well enough to hold
conversations with its human operators, use visual input, and learn from its own
experiences. (Unfortunately, HAL was a little too human and had a psychotic
breakdown, commandeering a spaceship and killing most humans on board.)

Though the wayward HAL9000 may be far from the reach of real-life computer
designers, many of its functions are not. Using recent engineering advances,
computers may be able to accept spoken word instructions and imitate human
reasoning. The ability to translate a foreign language is also a major goal of fifth
generation computers. This feat seemed a simple objective at first, but appeared
much more difficult when programmers realized that human understanding relies as
much on context and meaning as it does on the simple translation of words.

Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming
together to enable the creation of fifth-generation computers. Two such engineering
advances are parallel processing, which replaces von Neumann's single central
processing unit design with a system harnessing the power of many CPUs to work
as one. Another advance is superconductor technology, which allows the flow of
electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information

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flow. Computers today have some attributes of fifth generation computers. For
example, expert systems assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the
problem-solving steps a doctor might use in assessing a patient's needs. It will take
several more years of development before expert systems are in widespread use.

Difference between computer generations

 Clock speed - newer processors generally run at higher speeds; this is a

measure of how quickly the processor can operate, expressed in hertz. This
is not the only relevant figure when comparing different processors.
 Number of cores - in the last couple of years, chip makers have touted the
number of cores on their processors; think of each one as a separate mini-
computer of sorts, able to complete its own tasks; a limitation with multi-
core processors is the software, which often cannot take full advantage of
multiple cores.

Types of Computers

Classification by Basic type

a) Digital computers: these are computers used to process data

b) Analog computers: these are designed to process data in a continuous wave

like form. They process data from machines or instruments such as volt
meter, thermometers and speedometers.

c) Hybrid computers: are computers with a combination of digital and analog

computer features.

Classification by Purpose

a) General purpose: these are computers designed to carry out a variety of

tasks.

b) Special purpose: refers to a computer designed to carry out a single task

such as weapon guiding and weather forecast.

Classification by Use

a) Personal Computer: these are designed for use by an individual are

sometimes portable. They can be connected to a network environment and
are also called stand alone.

b) Desktop: is generally a way of classifying whereby all computers used on a

desk in an office environment are included.

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 c) Workstation: is a computer with more advanced features than an ordinary PC
such as interconnection parts and graphical display units (e.g. used in
banks).

d) Lap top: this a very small computer which can be used comfortably on the
lap. It is like a brief case in shape and has a flat screen.

Classification by capabilities (Processing and Storage)

a) Main frame computer: is a general purpose computer with extensive storage

capacity and processing capability. It can accommodate several users and is
very expensive. It is used usually as a Host Computer on a Wide Area
Network (WAN). It is usually situated at the headquarters of most
organisations (banking system).

b) Mini computer: refers to medium sized computers used for general purposes
at a smaller scale but usually designed for special purposes. It can
accommodate two to two hundred users and is usually off hand tasks of the
main frame as front end processor. They can also control Local Area
Networks (LANS) in branches of an organisation.

c) Micro computer: these are the smallest computers used for small scale
commercial applications. They are very cheap with limited storage capacity
and processing capability in these computers several integrated circuits are
replaced by a single circuit.

NB: these boundary lines dividing the categories are not static due
technological changes. Present computers are able to process faster than
older main frames, this applies also to micro and mini computers.

Exercise Questions
1. Define the following terms
i) Data
ii) Information
iii) Computer
iv) Electronic Data processing
v) Manual Data Processing [2marks each]
2. Identify duties of the following Data Processing personnel.
i) Data processing Manager
ii) Systems analyst
iii) Computer Operator
iv) Database administrator [5marks each]

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 3. List the main functions of a data processing department in an
organisation. [10marks]
4. Explain any three (3) types of computers [12marks]
5. Explain any five factors that are likely to influence the data processing
methods to be adopted by an organisation. [10marks]

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3.2 HARDWARE

3.2.1 Main Components of a computer system

A computer system is an electronic device that is used for data processing and
made up of hardware and software components that work together to achieve this
goal.
Computer Hardware is the tangible or physical components of a computer system.

Basic Components of a Computer system

Arithmetic Logic
Central Processing Unit CPU
Unit (ALU)

Control Unit
(CU)

Input Output
Cache Memory
Input Devices Output Devices

Main/Primary
Memory

Secondary Memory

The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building

smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with
the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no
longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like
vacuum tubes and electrical relays. With this improvement more complex and
reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing
discrete (individual) components.

During this period, a method of manufacturing many transistors in a compact space

gained popularity. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors
to be manufactured on a single semiconductor-based die, or "chip." At first only
very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into

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ICs. CPUs based upon these "building block" ICs are generally referred to as "small-
scale integration" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo
guidance computer, usually contained transistor counts numbering in multiples of
ten. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips,
but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor
designs. As microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of
transistors were placed on ICs, thus decreasing the quantity of individual ICs
needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI (medium- and large-scale integration)
ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands.

In 1964 IBM introduced its System/360 computer architecture which was used in a
series of computers that could run the same programs with different speed and
performance. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were
incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To
facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often
called "microcode"), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs.[3] The
System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer
market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern
computers like the IBM zSeries. In the same year (1964), Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific
and research markets, the PDP-8. DEC would later introduce the extremely popular
PDP-11 line that originally was built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented
with LSI components once these became practical. In stark contrast with its SSI
and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU
composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.[4]

Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their

predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power
consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds
because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay.
Thanks to both the increased reliability as well as the dramatically increased speed
of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time),
CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were obtained during this period.
Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-
performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors
began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of
specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc.

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Microprocessors

Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor in a ceramic PGA package.

The introduction of the microprocessor in the 1970s significantly affected the design
and implementation of CPUs. Since the introduction of the first commercially
available microprocessor (the Intel 4004) in 1970 and the first widely used
microprocessor (the Intel 8080) in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely
overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and
minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development
programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced
instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with
their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual vast
success of the now ubiquitous personal computer, the term CPU is now applied
almost exclusively to microprocessors. Several CPUs can be combined in a single
processing chip.

Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and

numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards.
Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small
number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size as a result of being
implemented on a single die means faster switching time because of physical
factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed synchronous
microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several
gigahertz. Additionally, as the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on
an IC has increased, the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU has
increased dramatically. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law,
which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other
IC) complexity to date.

While the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed
drastically over the past sixty years, it is notable that the basic design and function
has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately
described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As the aforementioned
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Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of
integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates
is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage
to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many
factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the
quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other
methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.

3.2.2 Data flows between components of a computer

The informations flows within a computer from the hard disk to the Southbridge
chip(drive controller) on the motherboard then it goes to the Northbridge Chip
(system memory controller) then it goes to the DRAM Chips (on the memory stick)
then it goes to the CPU Chip Level 2 Cache Buffer SRAM then it goes to the CPU
Chip Level 1 Primary Execution Cache Buffer SRAM Memory then it goes to the CPU
Chip Execution Units for Processing and gets sent back to the Northbridge which
either sends it back to the RAM to be stored for later use or through the AGP Slot
(Accelerated Graphics Port) into the VRAM, then on to the GPU (graphics
controller), then on to the RAMDAC which converts it to a signal which can be
interpreted by your display.

3.2.3 Program execution and involvement of main components

Typically, computer programs are stored in non-volatile memory until requested

either directly or indirectly to be executed by the computer user. Upon such a
request, the program is loaded into random access memory, by a computer
program called an operating system, where it can be accessed directly by the
central processor. The central processor then executes ("runs") the program,
instruction by instruction, until termination. A program in execution is called a
process. Termination is either by normal self-termination or by error — software or
hardware error.

Exercise

1. Define the following terms.

i) Hardware
ii) Processor
iii) Arithmetic Logic Unit
iv) Control Unit
v) Integrated circuit [10marks]
2. Explain the Fetch execute cycle [5marks]

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3. State the components that constitute the CPU. Outline briefly the role of each
component in processing [10marks]

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3.3 Peripherals (input and output) and data storage

A peripheral is a device attached to a host computer but not part of it, and is more
or less dependent on the host. It expands the host's capabilities, but does not form
part of the core computer architecture. Whether something is a peripheral or part of
a computer is not always clearly demarcated. A video capture card inside a
computer case is not part of the core computer but is contained in the case.
However, whether something can be considered a peripheral or not is a trivial
matter of nomenclature, and is not a significant issue.
Examples are computer printers, image scanners, tape drives, microphones,
loudspeakers, webcams, and digital cameras.

Input Devices
Computer peripherals are devices that are used to introduce data into the computer
system are known as input devices. is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware
equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing
system (such as a computer).As data is introduced to the computer system it is
converted from analog to digital form, the form in the computer operates.
Examples of Input Devices:
1. Keyboard:- One of the main input devices used on a computer, a PC's
keyboard looks very similar to the keyboards of electric typewriters, with some
additional keys. Below is a graphic of the Saitek Gamers' keyboard with indicators
pointing to each of the major portions of the keyboard.

Finally, today most users use the QWERTY style keyboards. Below is a graphic
illustration of where each of the keys are on a U.S. QWERTY style keyboard.

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2. Mouse:- A hardware input device that allows the user to move the mouse
pointer. Good examples of pointing devices are a computer mouse, trackball,
lightpens, touchpad and even the keyboard. To below is a picture of a Microsoft
mouse and an example of a pointing device.

3. Barcode reader:- Lines of different widths and sizes representing data that,
when read, will determine what the scanned object is. Bar codes are often used to
help organize and be able to index information or prices about an object. Another
example of how barcodes are used are the barcodes used by the US postal service
that helps speed the delivery of mail. Below is an example of what a barcode for an
address may look like.

Barcode readers and scanners

A barcode reader or scanner also known as a point of sale (POS) scanner are
hardware devices capable of reading a barcode and printing out the details of the
product and/or logging that product into a database so a company can easily keep
track of its inventory

4. Joystick:- An input device that looks similar to a control device you would find
on an arcade game at your local arcades. A joystick allows an individual to easily
move an object in a game such as navigating a plane in a flight simulator. The
picture to the right is of the Logitech Freedom 2.4 joystick and an example of what
a Joystick may look like.

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5. Scanner:- Hardware input device that allows a user to take an image and/or
text and convert it into a digital file, allowing the computer to read and/or display
the scanned object. A scanner is commonly connected to a computer USB,
Firewire, Parallel or SCSI port. To the right is a picture and an example of a flatbed
photo scanner, the Epson V300.
Other types of scanners include: sheetfed scanner, which is a scanner that scans
paper fed into it, handheld scanner, which is a scanner that is held and drag over
a page to scan it, and a card scanner, which is a small scanner capable of
scanning business cards.

6. Digital camera:- A type of camera that stores the pictures or video it takes in
electronic format instead of to film. There are several features that make digital
cameras a popular choice when compared to film cameras. First, the feature often
enjoyed the most is the LCD display on the digital camera. This display allows users
to view photos or video after the picture or video has been taken, which means if
you take a picture and don't like the results, you can delete it; or if you do like the
picture, you can easily show it to other people. Another nice feature with digital
cameras is the ability to take dozens, sometimes hundreds of different pictures. To

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the right is a picture of the Casio QV-R62, a 6.0 Mega Pixel digital camera used to
help illustrate what a digital camera may look like.
Digital cameras have quickly become the camera solution for most users today as
the quality of picture they take has greatly improved and as the price has
decreased. Many users however are hesitant in buying a digital camera because of
the inability of getting their pictures developed. However, there are several
solutions in getting your digital pictures developed. For example, there are
numerous Internet companies capable of developing your pictures and send you
your pictures in the mail. In addition, many of the places that develop your
standard cameras film now have the ability to develop digital pictures if you bring
them your camera, memory stick, and/or pictures on CD.

7. Microphone:- Sometimes abbreviated as mic, a microphone is a hardware

peripheral originally invented by Emile Berliner in 1877 that allows computer users
to input audio into their computers. To the right is a visual example of a USB
headset from Logitech with a microphone. A popular solution for computer gaming.

8. Webcam:- A camera connected to a computer that allows anyone connected to

the Internet to view either a still pictures or motion video of a user or other object.
To the right is a picture of the Logitech QuickCam Express and an example of what
a webcam may look like. Today, most webcams are either embedded into the

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display with laptop computers or connected to the USB or Firewire port on the
computer.

9. OCR (optical character recognition):- usually abbreviated to OCR, is the

mechanical or electronic translation of scanned images of handwritten, typewritten
or printed text into machine-encoded text. It is widely used to convert books and
documents into electronic files, to computerize a record-keeping system in an
office, or to publish the text on a website. OCR makes it possible to edit the text,
search for a word or phrase, store it more compactly, display or print a copy free of
scanning artifacts, and apply techniques such as machine translation, text-to-
speech and text mining to it. OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition,
artificial intelligence and computer vision.
OCR systems require calibration to read a specific font; early versions needed to be
programmed with images of each character, and worked on one font at a time.
"Intelligent" systems with a high degree of recognition accuracy for most fonts are
now common. Some systems are capable of reproducing formatted output that
closely approximates the original scanned page including images, columns and
other non-textual components.

10. MICR (magnetic ink character recognition):- is a character recognition

technology used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of
cheques. The technology allows computers to read information (such as account
numbers) off of printed documents. Unlike barcodes or similar technologies,
however, MICR codes can be easily read by humans.
MICR characters are printed in special typefaces with a magnetic ink or toner,
usually containing iron oxide. As a machine decodes the MICR text, it first
magnetizes the characters in the plane of the paper. Then the characters are
passed over a MICR read head, a device similar to the playback head of a tape
recorder. As each character passes over the head it produces a unique waveform
that can be easily identified by the system.
The use of magnetic printing allows the characters to be read reliably even if they
have been overprinted or obscured by other marks, such as cancellation stamps.
The error rate for the magnetic scanning of a typical check is smaller than with
optical character recognition systems. For well printed MICR documents, the "can't

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read" rate is usually less than 1% while the substitution rate (misread rate) is in
the order of 1 per 100,000 characters.

Output Devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to
communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information
processing system (such as a computer) to the outside world.
In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an
information processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world. Inputs
are the signals or data sent to the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent
by the system to the outside.
Examples of output devices:
Speaker: - Computers produce audio data that require output devices such as
speakers and headphones to deliver the sound to the user. Audio data is created by
the computer and then sent to the audio card, which is located in an expansion slot.
The card translates the data into audio signals, which are sent to the audio output
device.
Headphones: - are a pair of small loudspeakers, or less commonly a single
speaker, with a way of holding them close to a user's ears and a means of
connecting them to a signal source such as an audio amplifier, radio or CD player.
They are also known as stereophones, headsets or, colloquially cans. The in-ear
versions are known as earphones or earbuds. In the context of
telecommunication, the term headset is used to describe a combination of
headphone and microphone used for two-way communication, for example with a
telephone.
Screen (Monitor):- or display (sometimes called a visual display unit) is an
electronic visual display for computers. The monitor comprises the display device,
circuitry, and an enclosure. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin
film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD), while older monitors use a cathode
ray tube (CRT).

Printer: -
Types of Printer
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on paper.
Major types of printer
Printers can be divided into two main groups, impact printer and non-impact
printer. Impact printer produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print
head strike the ink ribbon by physically contacting the paper. Non-impact printer
produces text and graphics on paper without actually striking the paper.
Printers can also be categorized based on the print method or print technology.
The most popular ones are inkjet printer, laser printer, dot-matrix printer and
thermal printer. Among these, only dot-matrix printer is impact printer and the
others are non-impact printers.

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Some printers are named because they are designed for specific functions, such as
photo printers, portable printers and all-in-one / multifunction printers. Photo
printers and portable printers usually use inkjet print method whereas multifunction
printers may use inkjet or laser print method.
Inkjet printers and laser printers are the most popular printer types for home and
business use. Dot matrix printer was popular in 70’s and 80’s but has been
gradually replaced by inkjet printers for home use. However, they are still being
used to print multi-part forms and carbon copies for some businesses. The use of
thermal printersis limited to ATM, cash registers and point-of-sales terminals.
Some label printers and portable printers also use thermal printing.
Due to the popularity of digital camera, laptop and SoHo office (small office / home
office), the demand for photo printers, portable printers and multifunction printers
has also increased substantially in recent years.

Printer Technologies:

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact printers which print text and images by spraying tiny
droplets of liquid ink onto paper. They are the most popular printers for home use.
Currently, most inkjet printers use either thermal inkjet or piezoelectric inkjet
technology. Thermal inkjet printer uses heating element to heat liquid ink to form
vapor bubble, which forces the ink droplets onto the paper through the nozzle.
Most inkjet manufacturers use this technology in consumer inkjet printers.
Piezoelectric inkjet technology is used on all Epson printers and industrial inkjet
printers. Instead of using heating element, these printers use a piezoelectric
crystal in each nozzle. The piezoelectric crystal changes shape and size based on
the electric current received, and forces tiny droplets of ink onto the paper from the
nozzle.
Thermal inkjet printers use aqueous ink which is a mixture of water, glycol and
dyes. These inks are inexpensive but they can only be used on paper or specially
coated materials. Piezoelectric inkjet printers allow the use of a wider range of
inks, such as solvent inks, UV-curable inks, dye sublimation inks, and can print text
and graphics on different uncoated materials.

The inkjet head design is also divided into two main groups: fixed-head and
disposable head. Fixed-head is built into the printer and should last for the whole
life of the printer. It produces more accurate output than cheap disposable head.
The ink cartridges for fixed head printers are also cheaper as the print head does
not need to be replaced. However, if the head is damaged, the entire printer has to
be replaced.

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Disposable head is included in replacement ink cartridge. It is replaced each time
an ink cartridge runs out of ink. This increases the cost of ink cartridges and also
limits the use of high quality print head in these cartridges. However, a damaged
print head is not a problem as one can easily replace it with a new ink cartridge.

Some printer manufacturers use disposable ink and disposable print head
separately. The print head can last much longer than cheap disposable head and is
suitable for high volume printing. However, it can also be replaced easily if the
head is clogged or damaged.

Although inkjet printers are generally used in home and small businesses, some
manufacturers, such as Hewlett Packard, have produced high end inkjet printers for
industrial use. These professional inkjet printers are usually used to print
advertising graphics or technical drawings.

Advantages of inkjet printers:

1) Low cost

2) High quality of output, capable of printing fine and smooth details

3) Capable of printing in vivid color, good for printing pictures

4) Easy to use

5) Reasonably fast

6) Quieter than dot matrix printer

7) No warm up time

Disadvantages of inkjet printers:

1) Print head is less durable, prone to clogging and damage

2) Expensive replacement ink cartridges

3) Not good for high volume printing

4) Printing speed is not as fast as laser printers

5) Ink bleeding, ink carried sideways causing blurred effects on some papers

6) Aqueous ink is sensitive to water, even a small drop of water can cause
blurring
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7) Cannot use highlighter marker on inkjet printouts

Many consumer inkjet printers are selling at very low price (under $100) these
days. It is the printer manufacturer’s marketing strategy to reduce the price of the
printers but dramatically mark up the price of replacement cartridges. However,
consumers still have the options to buy cheap compatible and remanufactured
inkjet cartridges or ink refill kits to cut down printing cost.

Laser printers

Laser Printers

Laser printers are non-impact printers which can print text and images in high
speed and high quality resolution, ranging from 600 to 1200 dpi.

Unlike inkjet printers, laser printer use toner (black or colored powder) instead of
liquid inks. A laser printer consists of these major components: drum cartridge,
rotating mirror, toner cartridge and roller. The drum cartridge rotates as the paper
is fed through. The mirror deflects laser beam across the surface of the drum.
Laser beam creates charge that causes the toner to stick to the drum. As the drum
rotates and presses on paper, toner is transferred from the drum to paper, creating
images. Rollers then use heat and pressure to fuse toner to paper. Colored laser
printers add colored toner in three additional passes.

Advantages of laser printers:

1) High resolution

2) High print speed

3) No smearing

4) Low cost per page (compared to inkjet printers)

5) Printout is not sensitive to water

6) Good for high volume printing

Disadvantages of laser printers:

1) More expensive than inkjet printers

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2) Except for high end machines, laser printers are less capable of printing vivid
colors and high quality images such as photos.

3) The cost of toner replacement and drum replacement is high

4) Bulkier than inkjet printers

5) Warm up time needed

Dot-matrix printer

Dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that produces text and graphics when tiny
wire pins on the print head strike the ink ribbon. The print head runs back and
forth on the paper like a typewriter. When the ink ribbon presses on the paper, it
creates dots that form text and images. Higher number of pins means that the
printer prints more dots per character, thus resulting in higher print quality.

Dot-matrix printers were very popular and the most common type of printer for
personal computer in 70’s to 80’s. However, their use was gradually replaced by
inkjet printers in 90’s. As of today, dot matrix printers are only used in some point-
of-sales terminals, or businesses where printing of carbon copy multi-part forms or
data logging are needed.

Advantages of dot matrix printer:

1) Can print on multi-part forms or carbon copies

2) Low printing cost per page

3) Can be used on continuous form paper, useful for data logging

4) Reliable, durable

Disadvantages of dot matrix printer:

1) Noisy

2) Limited print quality

3) Low printing speed

4) Limited color printing

Thermal printers

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Thermal printers use two types of printing technologies: direct thermal and
thermal transfer printing.

Traditional thermal printers use direct thermal method by pushing electrically

heated pins against heat-sensitive paper (thermal paper). The coating on the
thermal paper turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing characters or
images. Direct thermal printers have no ink, toner or ribbon. These printers are
durable, easy to use and cost less to print than other printers. However, the
thermal paper is sensitive to heat, light, water, and abrasion and the text and
images may fade over time.

In thermal transfer printing, a thermal print head applies heat to a heat-sensitive

ribbon, which melts ink onto paper and a wide range of materials to form text and
images. The printouts can be extremely durable and can be stored over long period
of time.

Thermal printers are often used in cash registers, ATM and point-of-sales
terminals. Direct thermal printing was used in some older fax machines before the
21st century. However, these old models are now replaced by new machines which
use laser and inkjet printing. Thermal printing is still considered as the best
technology for bar code printing because it produces accurate, high quality images
with exact bar widths. Some portable printers and most label printers still use
thermal printing method.

Thermal printer is not the same as thermal inkjet printer. The latter uses inkjet
print technology by heating liquid ink to form vapor bubble, which forces the ink
droplet onto the paper from the nozzle.

Specialty Printers
Photo printer
Photo printers are color printers that produce photo lab quality pictures on photo
paper. They can also be used to print documents. These printers have a very high
number of nozzles and can print very fine droplets for improved image quality.
Some photo printers also have media card readers. They can print 4‖ x 6‖ photos
directly from the media card of digital cameras without a computer in between.
Theoretically, most inkjet printers and high end laser printers are capable of
printing high quality pictures. Sometimes, these printers are marketed as ―photo
printers‖. However, a dedicated photo printer is designed to print photos effectively
and economically. Apart from a higher number of nozzles and very fine droplets,
these printers also use additional cartridges, such as photo cyan, light magenta and

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light black. These additional color cartridges allow the printing of more vivid and
realistic photos and the result is better than ordinary inkjet and laser printers.

MultiFunction / All-in-One Printers

Multifunction printer (MFP) is also known as all-in-one printer or multifunction

device (MFD). It is a machine that includes several functionalities including printer,
scanner, copier and fax.

Multifunction printer is very popular in SoHo (small office / home office) offices. It
can use either inkjet or laser print method. Some multifunction printers also have
media card readers, allowing printing of pictures directly from digital cameras
without using a computer.

Advantages of multifunction printers:

1) Low cost – it is often cheaper to buy a multifunction printer than individual

components (fax machine, scanner, printer, copier) separately

2) Take up less room

Disadvantages of multifunction printers:

1) If one component is broken, the entire machine has to be replaced

2) Failure in any component will affect other functions

3) The print quality and speed may be lower than some stand alone
components

Plotter:-Plotters create a hard copy rendition of a digitally rendered design. The

design is sent to the plotter via a graphics card, and creates the design using a
pen. Generally used with engineering applications, plotters basically draw an
image using a series of straight lines.

Exercise

1. Indicate whether the following is an input/output device and describe how it

operates or is used.

i) Mouse

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 ii) scanner
iii) web-cam
iv) speaker
v) monitor

2. Describe the following types of printers

i) Dot matrix
ii) Thermal
iii) Inkjet
iv) laser

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3.4 Software Components of computers system

Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer

programs and data held in the storage of a computer for some purpose. Program
software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly
providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another
piece of software. Data software exists solely for its eventual use by other program
software. The term software was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1957;
colloquially, the term is often used to mean application software. In computer
science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed
by computer system, programs and data.

Computer software is so called in contrast to computer hardware, which is the

physical substrate which stores and executes (or "runs") the software.

3.4.1 Operating System and its Functions

What is an Operating System?

The operating system is the core software component of your computer. It

performs many functions and is, in very basic terms, an interface between your
computer and the outside world. In the section about hardware, a computer is
described as consisting of several component parts including your monitor,
keyboard, mouse, and other parts. The operating system provides an interface
to these parts using what is referred to as "drivers". This is why sometimes
when you install a new printer or other piece of hardware, your system will ask
you to install more software called a driver.

What does a driver do?

A driver is a specially written program which understands the operation of the
device it interfaces to, such as a printer, video card, sound card or CD ROM
drive. It translates commands from the operating system or user into commands
understood by the component computer part it interfaces with. It also translates
responses from the component computer part back to responses that can be
understood by the operating system, application program, or user. The below
diagram gives a graphical depiction of the interfaces between the operating
system and the computer component.

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 Other Operating System Functions

The operating system provides for several other functions including:

 System tools (programs) used to monitor computer performance, debug

problems, or maintain parts of the system.
 Computer memory management.
 Processor time scheduling.
 A set of libraries or functions which programs may use to perform specific
tasks especially relating to interfacing with computer system components.
 Provide user interface to launch programs they want to work with.

The operating system makes these interfacing functions along with its other
functions operate smoothly and these functions are mostly transparent to the
user.

Operating System Concerns

As mentioned previously, an operating system is a computer program. Operating

systems are written by human programmers who make mistakes. Therefore
there can be errors in the code even though there may be some testing before
the product is released. Some companies have better software quality control
and testing than others so you may notice varying levels of quality from
operating system to operating system. Errors in operating systems cause three
main types of problems:

 System crashes and instabilities - These can happen due to a software bug
typically in the operating system, although computer programs being run
on the operating system can make the system more unstable or may even
crash the system by themselves. This varies depending on the type of
operating system. A system crash is the act of a system freezing and
becoming unresponsive which would cause the user to need to reboot.
 Security flaws - Some software errors leave a door open for the system to
be broken into by unauthorized intruders. As these flaws are discovered,
unauthorized intruders may try to use these to gain illegal access to your
system. Patching these flaws often will help keep your computer system
secure. How this is done will be explained later.
 Sometimes errors in the operating system will cause the computer not to
work correctly with some peripheral devices such as printers.

Operating System Types

There are many types of operating systems. The most common is the Microsoft
suite of operating systems. They include from most recent to the oldest:

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  Windows XP Professional Edition - A version used by many businesses on
workstations. It has the ability to become a member of a corporate domain.
 Windows XP Home Edition - A lower cost version of Windows XP which is for
home use only and should not be used at a business.
 Windows 2000 - A better version of the Windows NT operating system which
works well both at home and as a workstation at a business. It includes
technologies which allow hardware to be automatically detected and other
enhancements over Windows NT.
 Windows ME - A upgraded version from windows 98 but it has been
historically plagued with programming errors which may be frustrating for
home users.
 Windows 98 - This was produced in two main versions. The first Windows 98
version was plagued with programming errors but the Windows 98 Second
Edition which came out later was much better with many errors resolved.
 Windows NT - A version of Windows made specifically for businesses offering
better control over workstation capabilities to help network administrators.
 Windows 95 - The first version of Windows after the older Windows 3.x
versions offering a better interface and better library functions for programs.

There are other worthwhile types of operating systems not made by Microsoft. The
greatest problem with these operating systems lies in the fact that not as many
application programs are written for them. However if you can get the type of
application programs you are looking for, one of the systems listed below may be a
good choice.

 Unix - A system that has been around for many years and it is very stable. It
is primary used to be a server rather than a workstation and should not be
used by anyone who does not understand the system. It can be difficult to
learn. Unix must normally run an a computer made by the same company
that produces the software.
 Linux - Linux is similar to Unix in operation but it is free. It also should not be
used by anyone who does not understand the system and can be difficult to
learn.
 Apple MacIntosh - Most recent versions are based on Unix but it has a good
graphical interface so it is both stable (does not crash often or have as many
software problems as other systems may have) and easy to learn. One
drawback to this system is that it can only be run on Apple produced
hardware.

3.4.2 Using Windows 95, 98, 2000, XP

Understanding File Organization

Understanding file names and organization will make using your computer less
stressful and more efficient. This knowledge will help in managing

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  files on your local hard drive or a network drive,
 files shared through e-mail attachments,
 files shared through FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and
 files put on the Web server for your Web site.

Files are organized by using folders (directories) on a physical location — just like
paper documents within folders in file cabinet drawers.

File

Each letter, slide show, spreadsheet, or database you create is stored as a file.
Every file saved has a filename. You can use multiple words for the filename; for
example, Letter to Sam. Do NOT use special characters, \ / : * ? " < > | .

Every file also has a three-letter extension, assigned by the Windows system, that
associates it with a specific program. For example, a WordPerfect complete file
name would be "Letter to Sam.wpd" and a Word file name would be "Letter to
Sam.doc".

Folder

You can store or organize similar types of files within a folder. You create as many
folders and subfolders as you need. Folders organize the files in a logical manner,
like using manila folders inside hanging folders to organize paper documents in a
file cabinet drawer. A good place to put your folders and files is in the "My
Documents" folder on your local hard drive — to provide easy backup.

Disk drive

The physical location where folders and files can be found. A disk drive name
consists of a single letter and a colon.
Drive A: = First floppy disk drive
Drive C: = First hard disk drive
Drive D - Z: = optional drives (2nd hard drive, CD-ROM or DVD drive, ZIP drive,
and network drives)

Path name

The complete name of your file on a computer actually includes the path name. A
path simply describes where a file is located on your computer or the network. The
path name lists the drive (such as the hard disk, floppy disk, or CD-ROM) and folder
that contains your data file. When you use the Recycle Bin or Find/Search feature,
you will see the path name listed for each file.

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Complete path and file name examples:
C:\My Documents\Letter to Sam.wpd
A:\picture of john.jpg
V:\7PKP\newsletter\Sept.rtf

Viewing Folders and Files

To start Windows Explorer, click on the Start button and select Programs. In
Windows 98, next click on Windows Explorer to start the program. In Windows
2000 & XP, click on Accessories, then Windows Explorer. Or, you can use a shortcut
to open the Windows Explorer program — right-click on the My Computer icon on
your Desktop and choose Explore from the Shortcut menu.

NOTE for Windows XP users: To see the My Computer icon on the desktop, you may
need to change the Start menu to the "Classic" view. Right-click on the Start button
and select Properties from the Shortcut menu. Select "Classic Start Menu" and click
the OK button.

The Explorer window has two panes: the " Folders" pane, on the left, showing you
all connected drives (under My Computer) and folders on one drive and the
"Contents" pane, on the right, showing the contents of the selected drive or folder.
To expand the view of a drive or folder in the "Folders" pane, click on the + symbol
next to it and you will see more detail in the hierarchical view. To see the contents
of a folder, click once on the name or folder icon.

Depending on your version of Windows and changes you have made to the View
option, you will see your files and folders shown in different ways. Figure 1 above
shows the Windows Classic look with the "Details" View option. To get the Classic
look,

 in Windows 98, uncheck the as Web Page option on the View menu.
 in Windows 2000, select Tools > Folder Options from the menu. Then select
the Use Windows classic folders option in the "Web View" section (second set
of options) in the General tab area. Next select the View tab and check (turn-
on) the option to Display the full path in the address bar.
 Windows XP requires no changes.

The preferred Contents pane view is the Details option because you see the Name,
Size, Type (program association), and Modified (date and time) properties for each
file and folder. To see the Details View: Choose View > Details from the menu bar.

To make Windows use this view option as your default, you need to make one more
change. Go to Tools > Folder Options and select the View tab in the dialog box.
Then uncheck (turn off) the option to Remember each folder's view settings.

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The default listing in the Details view is alphabetical by Name. The column headings
are active buttons that you can click to sort the listing in different orders. Click on
any column heading once to list in ascending order and again to list in descending
order.

TIP: In the Details view, Explorer can automatically adjust all the columns to fit to
the width of the text. Click anywhere in the Contents pane, then hold down the
<Ctrl> key and press the <+> Plus key on the numeric keypad.

NOTE: The default setting of Windows Explorer is to NOT display the three-letter
extension of the file name. You don't need to see the extension because in the
Details view, the file "Type" column tells you the program associated with the file. If
you want to see the the file extension name, go to Tools > Folder options. In the
dialog box, select the View tab and select Hide file extensions for known file types
to turn it off (uncheck).

Managing Files and Folders

To create a new folder:

1. Select the location for the folder. For example, select the "My Documents"
folder to create a subfolder within My Documents. Putting all your files in
folders under My Documents will make it easier and quicker to make
backups. Choose File > New > Folder from the menu bar. Or, right-click on a
blank area of the Contents pane and choose New > Folder from the Shortcut
menu.
2. Type in a folder name and press the <Enter> key.

You can move or copy files by using the Cut/Copy/Paste procedure you are used to
using in your word processor. There are also other ways to move or copy files and
you can find information on those options in the Help index.

TIP: There are two ways to select multiple files or folders.

 To select consecutive files or folders, click the first item, press and hold down
the <Shift> key, and then click the last item.
 To select files or folders that are not consecutive, click the first item, press
and hold down the <Ctrl> key, and then click each additional item.

To move files or folders:

1. Select the file(s) or folder(s) to move.

2. Choose Edit > Cut (or click on the Cut button on the Toolbar or right-click on
a file or a folder to move and choose Cut from the Shortcut menu).
3. Select the destination folder.

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 4. Choose Edit > Paste (or click on the Paste button on the Toolbar or right-click
on the destination folder and choose Paste from the Shortcut menu).

To copy files or folders:

1. Select the file(s) or folder(s) to copy.

2. Choose Edit > Copy (or click on the Copy button on the Toolbar or right-click
on a file or a folder to copy and choose Copy from the Shortcut menu).
3. Select the destination location (for example, a different disk drive).
4. Choose Edit > Paste (or click on the Paste button on the Toolbar or right-click
on the destination folder and choose Paste from the Shortcut menu).

TIP: If you are copying files or folders to a disk or CD to make a backup, you may
want to check the total size of the files to make sure they will fit on the disk. After
selecting the files or folders, right-click on any selected item and choose Properties
from the Shortcut menu. In the Properties dialog box you will see the information
on the number of files, number of folders, and total size of all selected items. Click
OK. Copy your files if there is enough room on the disk.

To rename a file or folder:

1. Select the file or folder to rename.

2. Choose File > Rename from the menu bar (or right-click on the file or folder
name and choose Rename from the Shortcut menu).
3. Type the new file or folder name in the text box.
4. Press <Enter> key.

To find a file:

If you don't remember where a file is located, you can use the Find feature in
Windows 98 and the Search feature in Windows 2000/XP.

Windows 98

1. Choose Tools > Find > Files or Folders from the menu bar. This will open a
separate window.
2. Enter part of the file name in the "Named" text box.
3. If you want to search the entire hard drive, make sure the "Look in" box is
showing (C:).
4. Click the Find Now button. for a partial listing of files and folders found using
"doc" as the search criteria. The files/folders will be listed in alphabetical
order within folders.)

Windows 2000/XP

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 1. Click on the Search Button on the Toolbar. The Search pane will replace the
Folders pane.
o In Windows XP, select "All files and folders."
2. Enter part of the file name in the "Search for files or folders named" or "All or
part of the file name" text box.
3. If you want to search the entire hard drive, make sure the "Look in" box is
showing (C:).
4. Click the Search Now button. for a partial listing of files and folders found
using "doc" as the search criteria. The files/folders will be listed in
alphabetical order within folders.)

The search results list can be sorted by any column. Click on the column heading
once to list in ascending order and again to list in descending order. To move a file
from the old folder to a new folder, follow the instructions under "To move files or
folders." To open a file to look at its contents, double-click on the file name.

NOTE for Windows 2000/XP users: Use the Back button on the Toolbar to go to the
previous list of files. You will need to click on the Folders button on the Toolbar to
see your list of drives and folders again in the left pane.

TIP: You can also find or search for a file by its content or search by a date range
without a file name. See the Help information for details.

To delete a file(s) or folder(s):

1. Select the file(s) or folder(s) to be deleted.

2. Press <Delete> key (or right-click on the file or folder to be deleted and
choose Delete from the Shortcut menu).
3. Click Yes in the Confirm File Delete dialog box to put the file in the Recycle
Bin.

TIP: Deleting a folder also deletes all files in that folder.

To restore deleted file(s) or folder(s) while in Windows Explorer:

If you deleted the wrong file, select Edit > Undo from the menu bar. The Undo
menu item will show the last function performed and if it isn't the "Delete" option,
you need to select multiple Undo's to get to the Delete choice. This retrieves the file
and places it in the original folder it was deleted from.

NOTE: The Undo option only works for the current session in the Windows Explorer
program. After you exit Windows Explorer, you will need to use the Recycle Bin to
restore deleted files or folders. Please see the next section.

Using the Recycle Bin

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The Recycle Bin acts as a temporary storage area for files deleted from your local
hard drive. The Recycle Bin does NOT keep a copy of any file or folder deleted from
other locations (diskette, ZIP drive, or network drive).

Deleting a file or folder to the Recycle Bin does not permanently delete the file from
your local hard drive. The Recycle Bin allows you to restore deleted files. To
permanently delete the file and regain some hard drive space, you need to delete
the file(s) from the Recycle Bin.

To restore deleted file(s) from the Recycle Bin:

1. Open the Recycle Bin outside of Windows Explorer by double-clicking on its

icon on the Desktop.
2. Select the file(s) to be restored.
3. Choose File > Restore from the menu bar (or right-click on the file or folder
to be restored and choose Restore from the Shortcut menu).

To delete a file(s) from the Recycle Bin:

1. Select the Recycle Bin icon inside Windows Explorer or open the Recycle Bin
on your desktop.
2. Select the file(s) to be deleted. NOTE: The column headings in the Recycle
Bin are active buttons, so you can sort the files to list the way it is easiest for
you to work with them.
3. Press <Delete> key (or right-click on the file or folder to be deleted and
choose Delete from the Shortcut menu).
4. Click Yes in the Confirm File Delete dialog box.

To delete all files at one time from the Recycle Bin, use the Empty Recycle Bin
option:

1. Choose File > Empty Recycle Bin.

2. Click Yes in the Confirm Multiple File Delete dialog box.

Creating and Using Shortcuts

To create a desktop shortcut to Windows Explorer:

You can quickly create a desktop shortcut or QuickLaunch shortcut to this program
or other programs. The default QuickLaunch toolbar is a section of 3 or 4 icons on
the Taskbar next to the Start button. You only need to click once on these icons to
open the program.

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 1. Click on the Start button and select Programs.
2. Find your program name. Right-click and hold and drag to the desktop or
QuickLaunch area and release. (When you drag the program name to the
QuickLaunch area you will see an I-beam that allows you to place the icon in
the sequence you want.)
3. In Windows 98/2000, choose Create Shortcut(s) Here from the Shortcut
menu. In Windows XP, choose Copy Here from the Shortcut menu.

NOTE for Windows XP users: If you don't see the QuickLaunch icons on the
Taskbar, right-click on the Taskbar and select Toolbars > QuickLaunch from the
Shortcut menu.

To create a desktop shortcut for a frequently used file:

1. In Windows Explorer, right-click and hold on the file name.

2. Drag it to the desktop and release. NOTE: Windows Explorer needs to be
running in a smaller window, not maximized, so you can see the desktop.
3. Select the Create Shortcut(s) Here option.

When you double-click on the shortcut icon you will open the program and the file
at the same time.

Keyboard shortcuts

These keyboard shortcuts simplify various operations and give your hand a rest
from using the mouse. Here's a list of selected shortcuts and their effects.

Windows key = Display Start Menu (and taskbar, if it isn't visible)

Use the arrow keys to move up and down the menu and to move to the right (open
sub-menus). Use the Enter key to make a selection.
Windows key + E = Start Windows Explorer
Windows key + F = Find/Search files or folders
Ctrl + Windows key + F = Find a computer

These shortcut keystrokes work in all Windows programs:

Alt + F4 = Exit the program
Esc = Cancel (in menus and dialog boxes)
Ctrl+A = Select all
Ctrl+C = Copy
Ctrl+X = Cut
Ctrl+V = Paste
Ctrl+S = Save current document with same name
Ctrl+Z = Undo

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If you want a list of additional keyboard shortcuts, click on the Start button and
then select Help. Use the Search feature to look for keyboard shortcut.

3.4.3 Application software and programming languages

Application Software
Is the general designation of computer programs for performing user tasks.
Application software may be general purpose (word processing, web browsers, ...)
or have a specific purpose (accounting, truck scheduling, ...). Application software
contrasts with (2} system software, a generic term referring to the computer
programs used to start and run computer systems and networks; and (3)
programming tools, such as compilers and linkers, used to translate and combine
computer program source code and libraries into executable programs (programs
that will belong to one of the three said categories). Application software is a
subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly
and thoroughly to a task that the user wishes to perform. This should be contrasted
with system software which is involved in integrating a computer's various
capabilities, but typically does not directly apply them in the performance of tasks
that benefit the user.
In this context the term application refers to both the application software and its
implementation. A simple, if imperfect analogy in the world of hardware would be
the relationship of an electric light bulb (an application) to an electric power
generation plant (a system).
The power plant merely generates electricity, not itself of any real use until
harnessed to an application like the electric light that performs a service that
benefits the user. Typical examples of software applications are word processors,
spreadsheets, and media players. Multiple applications bundled together as a
package are sometimes referred to as an application suite.
Some might bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several other
discrete applications.
The separate applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some
commonality making it easier for the user to learn and use each application.
And often they may have some capability to interact with each other in ways
beneficial to the user.
For example, a spreadsheet might be able to be embedded in a word processor
document even though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet application.
User-written software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs.
User-written software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros,
scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts.
Even email filters are a kind of user software.
Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. In
some types of embedded systems, the application software and the operating
system software may be indistinguishable to the user, as in the case of software
used to control a VCR, DVD player or Microwave Oven.

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Programming Languages
A program is a set of instructions that tell the computer to do various things;
sometimes the instruction it has to perform depends on what happened when it
performed a previous instruction. This section gives an overview of the two main
ways in which you can give these instructions, or ―commands‖ as they are usually
called. One way uses an interpreter, the other a compiler.
Evolution of Programming
Computer programming languages have evolved into four generations beginning
with languages that were tied to the hardware and evolved into general purpose
programming languages.
First Generation
The first generation of programming language were machine languages which were
used by the first computers. This generation of programming languages were
written in binary, a series of zeros and ones. Binary is difficult to read and errors
occurred frequently. Machine languages were created differently for different for
each CPU. Machine dependency was a problem because this programming language
would only work for the system that it was written for.
Second Generation
When the second generation of programming languages were created, assembly
languages did not completely resolve the issue of machine dependency. The
assembly programming language was written in a more simplistic form, and at a
higher level of abstraction machine language, instead of a series of zeros and ones
there were symbols (percents, dollar and portions of a word and number
combination used to make commands. Although assembly languages seem easier
than the machine languages; machine dependency is still an existing problem.
ThirdGeneration
Third generation programming languages were converted from English into machine
language; compilers were used to convert these instructions. Languages such as
C++ and Visual Basic are third generation programs that are well-known today.
Important elements of assembly and machine language were not used for this
generation of languages. Machine dependency was not a problem encountered by
the generation of programming languages; but there was a need for a different
type of processor to write each source code. Third generation programming
languages are quite difficult to write, but people who are not technically inclined
would find it easy to write programs in fourth generation programming languages.
Fourth Generation
Fourth generation programming languages are strictly for applications that will
process fourth generation commands. Object-oriented programming should be used

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when programming is focused on a specific concept, rather than a process. Java,
C++, and Smalltalk are used for this purpose.

Compilation and Interpretation of Computer Programs

Before a program can be executed on a computer, it must be translated to machine
code. Alternatively it must be simulated by another program, called an interpreter.
A compiler is a program that translates a programming language called the source
programming language into another programming language called the destination
language. Usually this source is a high level language while the destination
language is machine code. An interpreter may require that the source programming
language be compiled into an intermediate form before interpretation, called byte
code. This is a more low level language for which it is easier to write an interpreter.

3.4.4 Utility programs

Software utilities/Utility Software is a type of computer system software also

referred to as service program, tool, service routine, or utility routine. Software
Utilities are specifically designed to help the end-user manage and tune the
computer hardware/Software, Operating system or application software and
perform as single precise task as opposed to application software which performs
multi-tasking. Utility software can be seen in many operating systems to day e.g.
Windows XP, Windows Vista, Mac OS X etc.

3.4.5 Memory, devices and Computer Processing Unit (C.P.U)

Among the least understood aspects of a computer’s operating system and function
has to do with memory. Many people assume that their computer only has one sort
and that it has limitless space available. When their computer begins to run

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sluggishly or not at all, many are surprised to learn that the trouble is the system’s
memory and it's simple to fix. Before you are forced to learn the hard way about
your computer’s memory, we've provided a brief outline of the different types of
memory and their roles.

Fast, powerful CPUs need quick and easy access to enormous quantities of data in
order to maximize their performance. If the CPU can't get to the data it requires, it
literally halts and waits for it. Modern CPUs running at speeds of about 1 gigahertz
can run through massive quantities of data -- potentially billions of bytes per
second. The problem that computer designers confront is that memory that can
keep up with a 1-gigahertz CPU is exceedingly expensive -- much more expensive
than anyone can afford in large quantities. Computer designers have solved the
cost problem by "tiering" memory -- using expensive memory in small quantities
and then backing it up with larger quantities of less costly memory.

There are different types of computer memory designated to store different types of
data. They also have varied capabilities and specialties when it comes to storing
essential information inside the computer. The best known computer memory is the
RAM, also known as Random Access Memory. It's called random access because
any stored data can be accessed directly if you know the precise row and column
that intersect a certain memory cell. In this type of computer memory, data can be
accessed in any order. RAM’s exact opposite is called SAM or Serial Access Memory,
which stores data in a series of memory cells that can only be accessed in order. It
works very much like a cassette tape where you have to go through other memory
cells before accessing the data that you're seeking.

Secondary/Auxiliary storage

Also known as external memory and auxiliary storage, secondary storage is a

storage medium that holds information until it is deleted or overwritten regardless if
the computer has power. For example, a floppy disk drive and hard disk drive are
both good examples of secondary storage devices. As can be seen by the below
picture there are three different types of storage on a computer, although primary
storage is accessed much faster than secondary storage because of the price and
size limitations secondary storage is used with today's computers to store all your
programs and your personal data. The secondary memory is used to store the data
permanently in the computer. The secondary storage devices are usually as follows:
hard disk drives – this is the most common type of storage device that is used in
almost all the computer systems. The other ones include the floppy disk drives, the
CD ROM, and the DVD ROM. The flash memory, the USB data card etc.

The storage devices are used to record the data over any storage surface. The
memories may also be of different types depending upon the architecture and the
design like the optical data storage memory, magnetic media storage and the
mechanical storage media etc and also the flash memory devices etc.

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The storage devices are actually defined as the peripheral unit which holds the data
like the tape, disk, or flash memory card etc. The most of the drives that are used
for the purpose of data storage are fragile and the data can be easily corrupted in
them. The data storage devices are the ones that are also used for the backup and
the archiving of the data. The data storage devices were at a time in the past used
to be too costly and expensive. But these days the data storage devices are
becoming cheap day by day. Hence the data storage devices price is falling. So, we
are in a position to get a storage device for a comparatively cheaper price than the
earlier drive. The technology is improving a lot and now the memory storage
capacity has gone up TB.

The data in the storage devices can be in the form of the files, databases, digital
video and the audio etc. The storage devices that are called as the non-volatile can
store the data permanently until otherwise erased purposely. This is in the case of
the hard disk drives or the floppy disk drives.

The other kinds of the storage media like for example the CD and the DVD can even
have again two types of the storage; the first one is that in which the data once
written cannot be erased. It is stored permanently over it. While the second type of
the CD’s or the DVD’s are called as the rewritable; where in the data that is once
written can be erased completely and the same storage device can be used again
for storing the different data.

Secondary memory devices

1. Hard Drive

A hard disk drive (hard disk, hard drive, HDD) is a non-volatile storage device for
digital data. It features one or more rotating rigid platters on a motor-driven
spindle within a metal case. Data is encoded magnetically by read/write heads that
float on a cushion of air above the platters.
Hard disk manufacturers quote disk capacity in SI-standard powers of 1000,
wherein a terabyte is 1000 gigabytes and a gigabyte is 1000 megabytes. With file
systems that measure capacity in powers of 1024, available space appears
somewhat less than advertised capacity.
The first HDD was invented by IBM in 1956. They have fallen in cost and physical
size over the years while dramatically increasing capacity. Hard disk drives have
been the dominant device for secondary storage of data in general purpose
computers since the early 1960s. They have maintained this position because
advances in their areal recording density have kept pace with the requirements for
secondary storage. Form factors have also evolved over time from large standalone
boxes to today's desktop systems mainly with standardized 3.5-inch form factor
drives, and mobile systems mainly using 2.5-inch drives. Today's HDDs operate on
high-speed serial interfaces, i.e., Serial ATA (SATA) or Serial attached SCSI (SAS).

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2. Magnetic tape

Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin magnetizable

coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic. It was developed in Germany, based on
magnetic wire recording. Devices that record and play back audio and video using
magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores
computer data on magnetic tape is a tape drive (tape unit, streamer).
Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording. When all radio was live, it
allowed programming to be prerecorded. At a time when gramophone records were
recorded in one take, it allowed recordings in multiple parts, which mixed and
edited with tolerable loss in quality. It is a key technology in early computer
development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created,
stored for long periods, and to be rapidly accessed.
Today, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape. In many
cases these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the
technology continues and tape is still widely used.
Over years, magnetic tape can suffer from deterioration called sticky-shed
syndrome. Caused by absorption of moisture into the binder of the tape, it can
render the tape unusable.

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3. Magnetic disks

4. Floppy disks

A floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible
("floppy") magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic
shell.

Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive or FDD, [2] Invented by
the American information technology company IBM, floppy disks in 8 inch, 5¼ inch
and 3½ inch forms enjoyed nearly three decades as a popular and ubiquitous form
of data storage and exchange, from the mid-1970s to the late 1990s. While floppy
disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer
equipment, they have now been superseded by USB flash drives, external hard disk
drives, CDs, DVDs, Blu-Ray disc, memory cards and computer networks.

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5. CD ROM

CD-ROM (pronounced /ˌsiːˌdiːˈrɒm/, an acronym of "compact disc read-only

memory") is a pre-pressed compact disc that contains data accessible to, but not
writable by, a computer for data storage and music playback, the 1985 ―Yellow
Book‖ standard developed by Sony and Philips adapted the format to hold any form
of binary data.

CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute computer software, including games and
multimedia applications, though any data can be stored (up to the capacity limit of
a disc). Some CDs hold both computer data and audio with the latter capable of
being played on a CD player, while data (such as software or digital video) is only
usable on a computer (such as ISO 9660 format PC CD-ROMs). These are called
enhanced CDs.

Although many people use lowercase letters in this acronym, proper presentation is
in all capital letters with a hyphen between CD and ROM. At the time of the
technology's introduction it had more capacity than computer hard drives common
at the time. The reverse is now true, with hard drives far exceeding CDs, DVDs and
Blu-ray, though some experimental descendants of it such as HVDs may have more
space and faster data rates than today's biggest hard drive.

CD-ROM discs are identical in appearance to audio CDs, and data are stored and
retrieved in a very similar manner (only differing from audio CDs in the standards
used to store the data). Discs are made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of polycarbonate
plastic, with a thin layer of aluminium to make a reflective surface. The most
common size of CD-ROM disc is 120 mm in diameter, though the smaller Mini CD
standard with an 80 mm diameter, as well as numerous non-standard sizes and
shapes (e.g., business card-sized media) are also available. Data is stored on the
disc as a series of microscopic indentations. A laser is shone onto the reflective
surface of the disc to read the pattern of pits and lands ("pits", with the gaps
between them referred to as "lands"). Because the depth of the pits is
approximately one-quarter to one-sixth of the wavelength of the laser light used to
read the disc, the reflected beam's phase is shifted in relation to the incoming
beam, causing destructive interference and reducing the reflected beam's intensity.
This pattern of changing intensity of the reflected beam is converted into binary
data.

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CPU (central processing unit)
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor is the portion of a computer
system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, and is the primary
element carrying out the computer's functions. This term has been in use in the
computer industry at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and
implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but
their fundamental operation remains much the same.
Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind,
computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular
application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors
that are made for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally
began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has
rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has
allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances
on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs
have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the
limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors
appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones and children's toys.

Functions of the CPU and its components(ALU, Control Unit e.t.c)

CPU stands for central processing unit. Overall a personal computer can be divided
into the following major parts from point of view of functions performed:

1. Input devices (keyboard, mouse)

2. Output devices (monitor which displays the output or results of work being done
on the computer)
3. CPU (central processing unit, which is the brain of the computer which does all
the processing and calculations on data inputs and provides output on screen or

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printer)
4. Storage devices (memories, hard disk which store data).
5. Memory management
6. Interrupt handling

Many times in common language the CPU term is used for the computer box unit
which contains motherboard, processor, hard disk, CD/DVD and floppy drives. This
is the box to which we connect monitor, keyboard, mouse and printer through
cables. In technical terms the term CPU is used only for the processor, which fits on
the motherboard.
Central Processing Unit (CPU), in computer science, microscopic circuitry that
serves as the main information processor in a computer. A CPU is generally a single
microprocessor made from a wafer of semiconducting material, usually silicon, with
millions of electrical components on its surface. On a higher level, the CPU is
actually a number of interconnected processing units that are each responsible for
one aspect of the CPU's function. Standard CPUs contain processing units that
interpret and implement software instructions, perform calculations and
comparisons, make logical decisions (determining if a statement is true or false
based on the rules of Boolean algebra), temporarily store information for use by
another of the CPU's processing units, keep track of the current step in the
execution of the program, and allow the CPU to communicate with the rest of the
computer.
A CPU is similar to a calculator, only much more powerful. The main function of the
CPU is to perform arithmetic and logical operations on data taken from memory or
on information entered through some device, such as a keyboard, scanner, or
joystick. The CPU is controlled by a list of software instructions, called a computer
program. Software instructions entering the CPU originate in some form of memory
storage device such as a hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, or magnetic tape. These
instructions then pass into the computer's main random access memory (RAM),
where each instruction is given a unique address, or memory location. The CPU can
access specific pieces of data in RAM by specifying the address of the data that it
wants.

As a program is executed, data flow from RAM through an interface unit of wires
called the bus, which connects the CPU to RAM. The data are then decoded by a
processing unit called the instruction decoder that interprets and implements
software instructions. From the instruction decoder the data pass to the
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), which performs calculations and comparisons. Data may
be stored by the ALU in temporary memory locations called registers where it may
be retrieved quickly. The ALU performs specific operations such as addition,
multiplication, and conditional tests on the data in its registers, sending the
resulting data back to RAM or storing it in another register for further use. During
this process, a unit called the program counter keeps track of each successive
instruction to make sure that the program instructions are followed by the CPU in
the correct order.

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Control Unit

A control unit in general is a central (or sometimes distributed but clearly

distinguishable) part of whatsoever machinery that controls its operation, provided
that a piece of machinery is complex and organized enough to contain any such
unit. One domain in which the term is specifically used is the area of computer
design. In the automotive industry, the control unit helps maintain various
functions of the motor vehicle.

Arithmetic Logic

In computing, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs

arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the
central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors
contain one for purposes such as maintaining timers. The processors found inside
modern CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) accommodate very powerful
and very complex ALUs; a single component may contain a number of ALUs.

Mathematician John von Neumann proposed the ALU concept in 1945, when he
wrote a report on the foundations for a new computer called the EDVAC. Research
into ALUs remains an important part of computer science, falling under Arithmetic
and logic structures in the ACM Computing Classification System.

3.4.6 File Management Systems

A file system (often also written as filesystem) is a method of storing and

organizing computer files and their data. Essentially, it organizes these files into a
database for the storage, organization, manipulation, and retrieval by the
computer's operating system.

File systems are used on data storage devices such as hard disks or CD-ROMs to
maintain the physical location of the files. Beyond this, they might provide access to
data on a file server by acting as clients for a network protocol (e.g., NFS, SMB, or
9P clients), or they may be virtual and exist only as an access method for virtual
data (e.g., procfs). It is distinguished from a directory service and registry.

Most file systems make use of an underlying data storage device that offers access
to an array of fixed-size physical sectors, generally a power of 2 in size (512 bytes
or 1, 2, or 4 KiB are most common). The file system is responsible for organizing
these sectors into files and directories, and keeping track of which sectors belong to
which file and which are not being used. Most file systems address data in fixed-
sized units called "clusters" or "blocks" which contain a certain number of disk
sectors (usually 1-64). This is the smallest amount of disk space that can be
allocated to hold a file. However, file systems need not make use of a storage

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device at all. A file system can be used to organize and represent access to any
data, whether it is stored or dynamically generated (e.g., procfs).

File names

A file name (or filename) is a name assigned to a file in order to secure storage
location in the computer memory. Whether the file system has an underlying
storage device or not, file systems typically have directories which associate file
names with files, usually by connecting the file name to an index in a file allocation
table of some sort, such as the FAT in a DOS file system, or an inode in a Unix-like
file system. Directory structures may be flat, or allow hierarchies where directories
may contain subdirectories. In some file systems, file names are structured, with
special syntax for filename extensions and version numbers. In others, file names
are simple strings, and per-file metadata is stored elsewhere.

Metadata

Other bookkeeping information is typically associated with each file within a file
system. The length of the data contained in a file may be stored as the number of
blocks allocated for the file or as an exact byte count. The time that the file was last
modified may be stored as the file's timestamp. Some file systems also store the
file creation time, the time it was last accessed, and the time the file's meta-data
was changed. (Note that many early PC operating systems did not keep track of file
times.) Other information can include the file's device type (e.g., block, character,
socket, subdirectory, etc.), its owner user-ID and group-ID, and its access
permission settings (e.g., whether the file is read-only, executable, etc.).

Arbitrary attributes can be associated on advanced file systems, such as NTFS, XFS,
ext2/ext3, some versions of UFS, and HFS+, using extended file attributes. This
feature is implemented in the kernels of Linux, FreeBSD and Mac OS X operating
systems, and allows metadata to be associated with the file at the file system level.
This, for example, could be the author of a document, the character encoding of a
plain-text document, or a checksum.

Hierarchical file systems

The hierarchical file system (not to be confused with Apple's HFS) was an early
research interest of Dennis Ritchie of Unix fame; previous implementations were
restricted to only a few levels, notably the IBM implementations, even of their early
databases like IMS. After the success of Unix, Ritchie extended the file system
concept to every object in his later operating system developments, such as Plan 9
and Inferno.

Types of file systems

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File system types can be classified into disk file systems, network file systems and
special purpose file systems.

Disk file systems

A disk file system is a file system designed for the storage of files on a data storage
device, most commonly a disk drive, which might be directly or indirectly connected
to the computer. Examples of disk file systems include FAT (FAT12, FAT16, FAT32,
exFAT), NTFS, HFS and HFS+, HPFS, UFS, ext2, ext3, ext4, btrfs, ISO 9660, ODS-
5, Veritas File System, VMFS, ZFS, ReiserFS, Linux SWAP and UDF. Some disk file
systems are journaling file systems or versioning file systems.

ISO 9660 and Universal Disk Format are the two most common formats that target
Compact Discs and DVDs. Mount Rainier is a newer extension to UDF supported by
Linux 2.6 series and Windows Vista that facilitates rewriting to DVDs in the same
fashion as has been possible with floppy disks.

Flash file systems

A flash file system is a file system designed for storing files on flash memory
devices. These are becoming more prevalent as the number of mobile devices is
increasing, and the capacity of flash memories increase.

While a disk file system can be used on a flash device, this is suboptimal for several
reasons:

 Erasing blocks: Flash memory blocks have to be explicitly erased before they
can be rewritten. The time taken to erase blocks can be significant, thus it is
beneficial to erase unused blocks while the device is idle.
 Random access: Disk file systems are optimized to avoid disk seeks
whenever possible, due to the high cost of seeking. Flash memory devices
impose no seek latency.
 Wear levelling: Flash memory devices tend to wear out when a single block is
repeatedly overwritten; flash file systems are designed to spread out writes
evenly.

Log-structured file systems have many of the desirable properties for a flash file
system. Such file systems include JFFS2 and YAFFS.

Tape file systems

A tape file system is a file system and tape format designed to store files on tape in
a self-describing form. Magnetic tapes are sequential storage media, posing
challenges to the creation and efficient management of a general-purpose file
system. IBM has recently announced a new file system for tape called the Linear

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Tape File System. The IBM implementation of this file system has been released as
the open-source IBM Long Term File System product.

Database file systems

A recent concept for file management is the idea of a database-based file system.
Instead of, or in addition to, hierarchical structured management, files are identified
by their characteristics, like type of file, topic, author, or similar metadata.

Transactional file systems

Some programs need to update multiple files "all at once." For example, a software
installation may write program binaries, libraries, and configuration files. If the
software installation fails, the program may be unusable. If the installation is
upgrading a key system utility, such as the command shell, the entire system may
be left in an unusable state.

Transaction processing introduces the isolation guarantee, which states that

operations within a transaction are hidden from other threads on the system until
the transaction commits, and that interfering operations on the system will be
properly serialized with the transaction. Transactions also provide the atomicity
guarantee, that operations inside of a transaction are either all committed, or the
transaction can be aborted and the system discards all of its partial results. This
means that if there is a crash or power failure, after recovery, the stored state will
be consistent. Either the software will be completely installed or the failed
installation will be completely rolled back, but an unusable partial install will not be
left on the system.

Windows, beginning with Vista, added transaction support to NTFS, abbreviated

TxF. TxF is the only commercial implementation of a transactional file system, as
transactional file systems are difficult to implement correctly in practice. There are
a number of research prototypes of transactional file systems for UNIX systems,
including the Valor file system, Amino, LFS, and a transactional ext3 file system on
the TxOS kernel, as well as transactional file systems targeting embedded systems,
such as TFFS.

Ensuring consistency across multiple file system operations is difficult, if not

impossible, without file system transactions. File locking can be used as a
concurrency control mechanism for individual files, but it typically does not protect
the directory structure or file metadata. For instance, file locking cannot prevent
TOCTTOU race conditions on symbolic links. File locking also cannot automatically
roll back a failed operation, such as a software upgrade; this requires atomicity.

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Exercise

1. Give any two differences between machine code and assembly

language [4marks]

2. State and explain five functions of an operating system [15marks]

3. State any five examples of an operating system [5marks]

4. State and describe any three (3) secondary storage devices

[12marks]

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3.5 Main Memory

There are four major storage levels.

1. Internal – Processor registers and cache.

2. Main – the system RAM and controller cards.
3. On-line mass storage – Secondary storage.
4. Off-line bulk storage – Tertiary and Off-line storage.

There are different types of computer memory designated to store different types of
data. They also have varied capabilities and specialties when it comes to storing
essential information inside the computer. The best known computer memory is the
RAM, also known as Random Access Memory. It's called random access because
any stored data can be accessed directly if you know the precise row and column
that intersect a certain memory cell. In this type of computer memory, data can be

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accessed in any order. RAM’s exact opposite is called SAM or Serial Access Memory,
which stores data in a series of memory cells that can only be accessed in order. It
works very much like a cassette tape where you have to go through other memory
cells before accessing the data that you're seeking.

The primary memory of a computer: it is random-access and stores the programs

and data while they are being processed. It is volatile, meaning it loses all the data
when the power is switched off.

The primary storage section (also called internal storage, main storage, main
memory, or just memory) serves four purposes: .

To hold data transferred from an I/O device to the input storage area, where it
remains until the computer is ready to process it.

To hold both the data being processed and the intermediate results of the
arithmetic-logic operations. This is a working storage area within the
storage section. It is sometimes referred to as a scratch pad memory. .

To hold the processing results in an output storage area for transfer to an

I/O device.

To hold the program statements transferred from an I/O device. This area is called
the program storage area.

The Differences Between RAM and ROM

Other types of computer memory include the ROM or Read Only Memory. ROM is an
integrated circuit already programmed with precise data that can't be altered or
changed, hence the name ―Read Only‖. There is also another type of computer
memory called Virtual Memory. This type of memory is a common element in most
operating systems and desktops. It helps the computers RAM to be freed up with
inactive applications to make way for loading current applications being used. It
works merely by checking for data stored in RAMnot being used recently and have
it stored in the computer’s hard disk, thereby freeing useful space in RAM for

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loading other applications. A virtual memory will make a computer believe that it
has nearly unlimited RAM inside it.

Understanding Cache Memory

Another type of computer memory that has made computers process tasks faster is
what is known as cache memory. Caches are configured to relieve this bottleneck
by making the data used most often by the CPU instantly available. This is achieved
by establishing a small amount of memory, known as primary or level 1 cache,
right into the CPU. Level 1 cache is very small, normally ranging between 2
kilobytes (KB) and 64 KB. The secondary or level 2 cache usually resides on a
memory card situated near the CPU. The level 2 cache has a direct connection to
the CPU. A dedicated integrated circuit on the motherboard, the L2 controller,
governs the use of the level 2 cache by the CPU. Depending on the CPU, the size of
the level 2 cache ranges from 256 KB to 2 megabytes (MB). In most systems, data
required by the CPU is accessed from the cache roughly 95 percent of the time,
greatly reducing the overhead required when the CPU has to wait for data from the
main memory.

Beyond operating system needs, the amount of RAM necessary depends on the
applications to be run. For instance, heavy graphics, real time video, and such need
more RAM to keep matters from slowing to a crawl or halt. Typically, off-the-rack
machines come with 4 to 8MB, more than adequate for a general purpose
computer.

3.5.2 Random access and sequential access

Random Access

In computer science, random access (sometimes called direct access) is the

ability to access an arbitrary element of a sequence in equal time. The opposite is
sequential access, where a remote element takes longer time to access. A typical
illustration of this distinction is to compare an ancient scroll (sequential; all material
prior to the data needed must be unrolled) and the book (random: can be
immediately flipped open to any random page. A more modern example is a
cassette tape (sequential—you have to fast-forward through earlier songs to get to
later ones) and a phonograph record (random access—you can place the needle
right on the groove you want). In data structures, random access implies the ability
to access the Nth entry in a list of numbers in constant time. Very few data
structures can guarantee this, other than arrays (and related structures like
dynamic arrays). Random access is critical to many algorithms such as quicksort
and binary search. Other data structures, such as linked lists, sacrifice random
access to make for efficient inserts, deletes, or reordering of data.

Sequential Access

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In computer science, sequential access means that a group of elements (e.g.
data in a memory array or a disk file or on a tape) is accessed in a predetermined,
ordered sequence. Sequential access is sometimes the only way of accessing the
data, for example if it is on a tape. It may also be the access method of choice, for
example if we simply want to process a sequence of data elements in order. In data
structures, a data structure is said to have sequential access if one can only visit
the values it contains in one particular order. The canonical example is the linked
list. Indexing into a list that has sequential access requires O(k) time, where k is
the index. As a result, many algorithms such as quicksort and binary search
degenerate into bad algorithms that are even less efficient than their naïve
alternatives; these algorithms are impractical without random access. On the other
hand, some algorithms, typically those that don't index, require only sequential
access, such as mergesort, and face no penalty.

3.5.3 Access /Cycle times

The average time lag between a request for information stored on a particular
component, such as the hard drive or RAM, and its delivery.

Exercise

1. Highlight any three difference between the main memory and the
backing storage [6marks]

2. Explain the following memory access methods

i) Sequential access
ii) Random access [10marks]
3. Describe the following types of computer memory
i) RAM
ii) ROM
iii) Cache [12marks]

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3.6 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic logic unit is that part of the computer which performs the different
logic operations and arithmetic calculations like addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. It is the high speed digital circuit that solves calculations and does
comparisons.

Functions of Arithmetic Logic Unit:

• Almost all the actions of the computer are done by it. It gets its data from a
certain computer memory called processor register . After the data gets
processed, its results get stored in output registers of the arithmetic logic unit .

• The arithmetic logic unit can perform integer arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, etc.

• It can also perform bitwise logic operations like AND, OR, XOR, etc.

• The arithmetic logic unit performs bit-shifting operations like rotating or shifting
a certain word to either the left or the right by a given number of bits. These can
also be represented as divisions by 2 and also multiplications by 2. These are the
simple operations carried out by the arithmetic logic unit .

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In computing, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs
arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the
central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors
contain one for purposes such as maintaining timers.

Most of a processor's operations are performed by one or more ALUs. An ALU loads
data from input registers, an external Control Unit then tells the ALU what
operation to perform on that data, and then the ALU stores its result into an output
register. Other mechanisms move data between these registers and memory.

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3.7 Computers Room Environment and Security

Computer Room Environment

IT operations are a crucial aspect of most organizational operations. One of the

main concerns is business continuity; companies rely on their information
systems to run their operations. If a system becomes unavailable, company
operations may be impaired or stopped completely. It is necessary to provide a
reliable infrastructure for IT operations, in order to minimize any chance of
disruption. Information security is also a concern, and for this reason a data center
has to offer a secure environment which minimizes the chances of a security
breach. A data center must therefore keep high standards for assuring the integrity
and functionality of its hosted computer environment. This is accomplished through
redundancy of both fiber optic cables and power, which includes emergency backup
power generation.

The physical environment of a data center is rigorously controlled. Air conditioning

is used to control the temperature and humidity in the data center. ASHRAE's
"Thermal Guidelines for Data Processing Environments" recommends a temperature
range of 16–24 °C (61–75 °F) and humidity range of 40–55% with a maximum dew
point of 15°C as optimal for data center conditions. The temperature in a data
center will naturally rise because the electrical power used heats the air. Unless the
heat is removed, the ambient temperature will rise, resulting in electronic
equipment malfunction. By controlling the air temperature, the server components
at the board level are kept within the manufacturer's specified
temperature/humidity range. Air conditioning systems help control humidity by
cooling the return space air below the dew point. Too much humidity, and water
may begin to condense on internal components. In case of a dry atmosphere,
ancillary humidification systems may add water vapor if the humidity is too low,
which can result in static electricity discharge problems which may damage
components. Subterranean data centers may keep computer equipment cool while
expending less energy than conventional designs.

Modern data centers try to use economizer cooling, where they use outside air to
keep the data center cool. Washington state now has a few data centers that cool
all of the servers using outside air 11 months out of the year. They do not use
chillers/air conditioners, which creates potential energy savings in the millions.

There are many types of commercially available floors that offer a wide range of
structural strength and loading capabilities, depending on component construction
and the materials used. The general types of raised floors include stringerless,
stringered, and structural platforms, all of which are discussed in detail in GR-2930
and summarized below.

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  Stringerless Raised Floors - One non-earthquake type of raised floor
generally consists of an array of pedestals that provide the necessary height
for routing cables and also serve to support each corner of the floor panels.
With this type of floor, there may or may not be provisioning to mechanically
fasten the floor panels to the pedestals. This stringerless type of system
(having no mechanical attachments between the pedestal heads) provides
maximum accessibility to the space under the floor. However, stringerless
floors are significantly weaker than stringered raised floors in supporting
lateral loads and are not recommended.

 Stringered Raised Floors - This type of raised floor generally consists of a

vertical array of steel pedestal assemblies (each assembly is made up of a
steel base plate, tubular upright, and a head) uniformly spaced on two-foot
centers and mechanically fastened to the concrete floor. The steel pedestal
head has a stud that is inserted into the pedestal upright and the overall
height is adjustable with a leveling nut on the welded stud of the pedestal
head.

 Structural Platforms - One type of structural platform consists of members

constructed of steel angles or channels that are welded or bolted together to
form an integrated platform for supporting equipment. This design permits
equipment to be fastened directly to the platform without the need for toggle
bars or supplemental bracing. Structural platforms may or may not contain
panels or stringers.

Computer Security

Computer Crime

1. unauthorized use of a computer, which might involve stealing a username

and password, or might involve accessing the victim's computer via the
Internet through a backdoor operated by a Trojan Horse program.

2. creating or releasing a malicious computer program (e.g., computer virus,

worm, Trojan Horse).

3. harassment and stalking in cyberspace.

4. Using a computer, a scanner, graphics software, and a high-quality color
laser or ink jet printer for forgery or counterfeiting is the same crime as
using an old-fashioned printing press with ink.

5. Stealing a laptop computer with proprietary information stored on the hard

disk inside the computer is the same crime as stealing a briefcase that
contains papers with proprietary information.

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 6. Using the Internet or online services to solicit sex is similar to other forms of
solicitation of sex, and so is not a new crime.

Computer Virus

A computer virus is created when a programmer creates computer code that has
the capability to replicate itself, hide, watch for a certain event to occur, and/or
deliver a destructive or prankish payload on a disk or in a computer program.
Viruses can attach themselves to just about any type of file and are spread as
infected files are used by other computers. Some viruses are relatively harmless,
while others are very devastating. They can destroy files, software, program
applications, and cause the loss of data.

New computer viruses are constantly being created by malicious programmers.

Because of this, it is vital to keep anti-virus software on computers up-to-date.
Some anti-virus software programs allow users to set them to silently check for
updates whenever users are connected to the Internet. Others remind users to
periodically check for updates.

Worms and Trojans are closely related to viruses. A worm makes copies of itself on
a computer, rather than infecting other files like viruses. A Trojan is a program that
secretly installs itself on a computer and opens a back door to the computer so that
malicious attacks can be remotely controlled. The actual Trojan is usually not
damaging at first, but it is usually accompanied by other damaging programs.

To protect your home computer against computer viruses, worms, and trojans, you
should invest in anti-virus software, such as the software offered by Norton or
McAfee. You should also make sure it stays up-to-date. Virus protection software on
school computers is regularly updated by the school system network technicians.

What Computer Viruses Infect

Viruses can enter computers in many ways. Once a virus has entered a system, it
will generally hide until it is unknowingly run by the user. A virus will not act until it
has been run or some pre-established condition has been met, such as a specific
date. The effects of a virus may not be noticed for some time after it has infected a
computer.

Viruses can infect several components of a computer's operating and file system
including:

 System Sectors/Boot Records - Viruses can infect the parts of the

system that are used to run programs and perform functions such as
start up and shut down.
 Files - Viruses can infect program files. These viruses stick to program
files such as .com, .exe, .sys, etc. Some viruses hide in the memory of

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 the computer at first, while others simply attack a specific software
program, such as Microsoft Word.
 Companion Files - Viruses can create companion files that are a
special type of file that adds files that run on the hard disk.
 Macros - Viruses can infect macro or data files.
 Disk Clusters - Viruses can infect files through the disk directory.
 Batch Files - Viruses can use batch files to infect a computer.
 Source Code - Viruses can be in additional code that is added to
actual program source code.
 Visual Basic Worms - These worms use the Visual Basic
programming language to control a computer and perform tasks.

Types of Computer Viruses

Viruses are categorized by how they infect computers. Some viruses fall into more
than one of these categories.

Types of viruses include:

 Polymorphic Viruses - Polymorphic viruses change characteristics as

they infect a computer.
 Stealth Viruses - Stealth viruses actively try to hide themselves from
anti-virus and system software.
 Fast and Slow Infectors - Fast and Slow viruses infect a computer in
a particular way to try to avoid being detected by anti-virus software.
 Sparse Infectors - Sparse Infectors don't infect very often.
 Armored Viruses - Armored viruses are programmed to make
eradication difficult.
 Multipartite Viruses - Multipartite Viruses are viruses that may fall
into more than one of these categories.
 Cavity (Spacefiller) Viruses - Cavity (Spacefiller) viruses attempt to
maintain a constant file size when infecting a computer in order to try
to avoid detection.
 Tunneling Viruses - Tunneling viruses try to "tunnel" under anti-
virus software while infecting.
 Camouflage Viruses - Camouflage viruses attempt to appear as a
benign program.
 Virus Droppers - Virus Droppers are a special category of programs
that place viruses on computers but are not by themselves an actual
virus.

Ways to Catch a Computer Virus

There are several ways to catch a computer virus:

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  From Floppy Disks - Be very careful about putting a floppy disk that
has been in another computer in your computer, even if it is from a
trusted source.
 From the Internet - Viruses can be attached to various types of
Internet files, such as graphics and program files that people download
from the Internet. Just browsing the Internet does not put your
computer at risk. You have to download and install a file for a virus to
be able to infect a computer.
 From E-Mail - Viruses often travel via e-mail attachments. E-mail
messages by themselves do not carry viruses. Only .exe, .com or
other types of executable files can carry a virus.
 From a Computer Network - Computer Networks are groups of
computers linked together by a large computer called a server. The
server and these computers constantly share information. If one file
that is used by several network users becomes infected with a virus,
the virus will quickly spread to the other users.

Symptoms of a Computer Virus

The following are some possible indications that a computer has been infected by a
virus. These problems can also be caused by non-virus problems, but they are the
most reported symptoms of a computer virus infection.

 Computer programs take longer to load than normal.

 The computer's hard drive constantly runs out of free space.
 The floppy disk drive or hard drive runs when you are not using it.
 New files keep appearing on the system and you don't know where
they came from.
 Strange sounds or beeping noises come from the computer or
keyboard.
 Strange graphics are displayed on your computer monitor.
 Files have strange names you don't recognize.
 You are unable to access the hard drive when booting from the floppy
drive.
 Program sizes keep changing.
 Conventional memory is less than it used to be and you can't explain
it.
 Programs act erratically.

Safe Computing Practices

There are several things you can do the help protect your computer against
viruses:

 Anti-Virus Software - If you don't have an anti-virus software

program, invest in one.

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  Scan Your Computer on a Regular Basis - Scan you system with
anti-virus software regularly.
 Update Your Anti-Virus Software on a Regular Basis - Keep your
anti-virus software up to date. Do this at least weekly and more often
if there are news reports of a new virus threat.
 Backup - Backup your files on a regular basis. Always maintain copies
of files you can't do without, just in case your computer gets infected
and crashes.
 Turn off E-Mail Preview - Turn off the preview function if your e-
mail software has one.
 Scan Floppy Disks - Scan floppy disks from other computers with
anti-virus software before you use the disk. Simply place the disk in
your floppy drive and run the anti-virus software program. If a virus is
found, most programs will give you several choices about what to do,
such as removing the virus, doing nothing, or deleting the file that
contains the virus.
 Protect Your Floppy Disks - Write-protect any floppy disk you place
into another computer. If the other computer has a boot sector virus,
the write-protect on the disk will prevent it from becoming infected
with the virus.
 Scan Downloaded Files - Scan downloaded Internet files with anti-
virus software before you use or run them.
 Scan All E-Mail Attachments - If you receive an attachment you
need to view, scan it with anti-virus software before you open it.
 Beware of E-Mail Attachments from Unknown Sources - If you
receive an unexpected attachment from an unknown source, delete it.
Never open attachments for files that end in .vbs (Visual Basic Script)
or .js (Java Script). Viruses often travel in these types of files.
 Be Alert - Pay attention to news about virus alerts. You might want to
subscribe to a virus alert e-mail notice from one of the anti-virus
software makers.

Exercise

1. The use of computers have health effects on the users. Outline any five (5)
health effects. [10marks]

2. a) What is a computer virus? [2marks]

b) Identify any four (4) indicators that show the presence of a virus on a
computers. [8marks]

3. Give five (5) requirements of a computer environment (computer room)

[10marks]

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3.8 Data Processing

Data processing is any process that uses a computer program to enter data and
summarise, analyse or otherwise convert data into usable information. The process
may be automated and run on a computer. It involves recording, analysing, sorting,
summarising, calculating, disseminating and storing data. Because data is most
useful when well-presented and actually informative, data-processing systems are
often referred to as information systems. Nevertheless, the terms are roughly
synonymous, performing similar conversions; data-processing systems typically
manipulate raw data into information, and likewise information systems typically
take raw data as input to produce information as output.

Data processing may or may not be distinguished from data conversion, when the
process is merely to convert data to another format, and does not involve any data
manipulation.

Data Processing (DP) makes use of powerful computer systems to collect and
process large volumes of data at high speed.

Most large companies and organisations use a mainframe computer which

processes data very quickly and can store vast amounts of data that large
companies require.

Banks and other organisations deal with millions of pieces of data each day.

DP is used for:

 Stock control – keeping track of what a shop has to sell.

 Calculating wages and making up payslips
 Keeping track of orders
 Producing invoices
 Monitoring payments and withdrawals
 Processing application forms
 Producing statements

DP makes it possible for businesses to keep accurate, up-to-date records of

thousands of customers that can be accessed straight away. This ensures that a
company operates as efficiently as possible.

Advantages of Electronic Data Processing

(i) Data is processed much more quickly than in a manual system.

(ii) Errors are much less likely – data is more accurate.

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(iii) It is easier to store large amounts of data than with a manual system.

(iv) Information can be accessed very quickly and by many people at the same
time.

(v) Computer systems do repetitive tasks without getting bored, slowing down or
making error

Data processing cycle

Storage Origination of Data

Output Preparation of
CONTROL Data

Processing Input of Data

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Data origination

Data origination is the process of transferring data between storage types,

formats, or computer systems. Data origination is usually performed
programmatically to achieve an automated migration, freeing up human resources
from tedious tasks. It is required when organizations or individuals change
computer systems or upgrade to new systems, or when systems merge (such as
when the organizations that use them undergo a merger or takeover).

To achieve an effective data migration procedure, data on the old system is

mapped to the new system providing a design for data extraction and data loading.
The design relates old data formats to the new system's formats and requirements.
Programmatic data origination may involve many phases but it minimally includes
data extraction where data is read from the old system and data loading where
data is written to the new system.

If a decision has been made to provide a set input file specification for loading data
onto the target system, this allows a pre-load 'data validation' step to be put in
place

Preparation of Data

Basically involves Data Verification and Data validation

Data Verification is a process wherein the data is checked for accuracy and
inconsistencies after data origination is done.

It helps to determine whether data was accurately translated, is complete, and

supports processes in the new system. During verification, there may be a need for
a parallel run of both systems to identify areas of disparity and forestall erroneous
data loss.

Data validation is the process of ensuring that a program operates on clean,

correct and useful data. It uses routines, often called "validation rules" or "check
routines", that check for correctness, meaningfulness, and security of data that are
input to the system. The rules may be implemented through the automated
facilities of a data dictionary, or by the inclusion of explicit application program
validation logic.

For business applications, data validation can be defined through declarative data
integrity rules, or procedure-based business rules. Data that does not conform to
these rules must negatively affect business process execution. Therefore, data
validation should start with business process definition and set of business rules
within this process. Rules can be collected through the requirements capture
exercise.

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The simplest data validation verifies that the characters provided come from a valid
set. For example, telephone numbers should include the digits and possibly the
characters +, -, (, and) (plus, minus, and parentheses). A more sophisticated data
validation routine would check to see the user had entered a valid country code,
i.e., that the number of digits entered matched the convention for the country or
area specified.

Incorrect data validation can lead to data corruption or a security vulnerability.

Data validation checks that data are valid, sensible, reasonable, and secure before
they are processed.

Data Processing
In this step the input data are changed, and usually combined with other
information, to produce data is more useful form. Thus, paychecks may be
calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month maybe
calculated from the sales orders. The processing step usually involves a sequence of
certain basic processing operations.

Output
Here the results of the preceding processing steps are collected. The particular form
of the output data depends on the use of data.

Storage
Data is stored in some secondary memory storage awaiting future use or to be
communicated to other areas were it is suppose to be used as feedback or as input.

Validation methods

Allowed character checks

Checks that ascertain that only expected characters are present in a field.
For example a numeric field may only allow the digits 0-9, the decimal point
and perhaps a minus sign or commas. A text field such as a personal name
might disallow characters such as < and >, as they could be evidence of a
markup-based security attack. An e-mail address might require exactly one
@ sign and various other structural details. Regular expressions are effective
ways of implementing such checks. (See also data type checks below)

Batch totals

Checks for missing records. Numerical fields may be added together for all
records in a batch. The batch total is entered and the computer checks that
the total is correct, e.g., add the 'Total Cost' field of a number of transactions
together.

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Cardinality check

Checks that record has a valid number of related records. For example if
Contact record classified as a Customer it must have at least one associated
Order (Cardinality > 0). If order does not exist for a "customer" record then
it must be either changed to "seed" or the order must be created. This type
of rule can be complicated by additional conditions. For example if contact
record in Payroll database is marked as "former employee", then this record
must not have any associated salary payments after the date on which
employee left organisation (Cardinality = 0).

Check digits

Used for numerical data. An extra digit is added to a number which is

calculated from the digits. The computer checks this calculation when data
are entered, e.g., The ISBN for a book. The last digit is a check digit
calculated modulus 11.

Consistency checks

Checks fields to ensure data in these fields corresponds, e.g., If Title = "Mr.",
then Gender = "M".

Control totals

This is a total done on one or more numeric fields which appears in every
record. This is a meaningful total, e.g., add the total payment for a number
of Customers.

Cross-system consistency checks

Compares data in different systems to ensure it is consistent, e.g., The

address for the customer with the same id is the same in both systems. The
data may be represented differently in different systems and may need to be
transformed to a common format to be compared, e.g., one system may
store customer name in a single Name field as 'Doe, John Q', while another in
three different fields: First_Name (John), Last_Name (Doe) and
Middle_Name (Quality); to compare the two, the validation engine would
have to transform data from the second system to match the data from the
first, for example, using SQL: Last_Name || ', ' || First_Name ||
substr(Middle_Name, 1, 1) would convert the data from the second system
to look like the data from the first 'Doe, John Q'

Data type checks

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 Checks the data type of the input and give an error message if the input data
does not match with the chosen data type, e.g., In an input box accepting
numeric data, if the letter 'O' was typed instead of the number zero, an error
message would appear.

Exercise

1. State and explain the five(5) stages of the data processing cycle.
[10marks]
2. Give four advantages of electronic data processing [5marks]

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3.9 Software Delivery

Computer software, or just software, is the collection of computer programs and

related data that provide the instructions telling a computer what to do and how to
do it. We can also say software refers to one or more computer programs and data
held in the storage of the computer for some purposes. Program software performs
the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions
to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The
term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices).
In contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched".
Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application
software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not traditionally been
associated with computers, such as film, tapes, and records.

Choosing software

Software Buyer’s Checklist

 How long has the company been around? Has it delivered its promises?

 What is the price?

 How steep is the learning curve? How easily can the software be integrated
with existing systems?

 Is its navigation & interface familiar with other software used?

 Is my data safe?

Factors to consider when choosing software

Features: What does the software do? Can it do the things you need it to do?;
Fit: How will the software fit in with other products that you use, and with your
organisation's IT strategy?;
Futures: Where is the market going? Is this product going to leave you in a
proprietary niche
or without support?;
Flexibility: What changes can you foresee for your organization? Do you need to
plan for
different needs or working practices?
Funds: What's your budget? Can you afford the product, the licenses, the training,
the
upgrades?

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Good Support Practices

- Availability of human help

- Quality of execs’ support
- Well documented help engine
- Free training sessions

Low Maintenance, High Performance

? Needs special support staff?
? How reliable is it?
? Is it updated regularly?
? Are bugs fixed?

Security is a top consideration because in many cases the software

company will be handling information critical to us – business,
financial or personal data.”

Better Safe than Sorry

? What encryption standard is used?
? Is the data regularly backed up?
? What is their past record like?
? Is their server system modern?
- Company Background

- Technical Factors
- Ease of Use
- Familiarity
- Security

Types of software

System software

System software provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps run the
computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the following:

 device drivers
 operating systems
 servers
 utilities
 window systems

System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware

components, so that they can work together harmoniously. Its purpose is to
unburden the application software programmer from the often complex details of

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the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications
devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the
computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable
manner.

Programming software

Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing

computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a
more convenient way. The tools include:

 compilers
 debuggers
 interpreters
 linkers
 text editors

An Integrated development environment (IDE) is a single application that attempts

to manage all these functions.

Application software

System software does not aim at a certain application fields. In contrast,different

application software offers different functions based on users and the area it
served. Application software is developed for some certain purpose,which either can
be a certain program or a collection of some programmes,such as a graphic
browser or the data base management system. Application software allows end
users to accomplish one or more specific (not directly computer development
related) tasks. Typical applications include:

 industrial automation
 business software
 video games
 quantum chemistry and solid state physics software
 telecommunications (i.e., the Internet and everything that flows on it)
 databases
 educational software
 Mathematical software
 medical software
 molecular modeling software
 image editing
 spreadsheet
 simulation software
 Word processing

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  Decision making software

Advantages and disadvantages of:

Integrated software

Integrated software is software for personal computers that combines the most
commonly used functions of many productivity software programs into one
application.The integrated software genre has been largely overshadowed by fully
functional office suites, most notably Microsoft Office. The integrated software
market of today is exemplified by entry-level programs such as Microsoft Works
which are often bundled with personal computers as "starter" productivity suites.

Advantages

1. When you purchase the product, you get everything you need all at the
same time.
2. They will work together quite efficiently to help you create quality
documents (for example you can embed Excel charts in Word or Powerpoint
documents. Or you can import Excel tables into Access (for databases).)
3. Standard GUI - learn one and you've got a great head start on the others.

4. The programs are smaller and all applications are together making it
easier to use.

5. Assists users in performing a number of interrelated tasks such as word

processing, presentations, spreadsheets and data base management etc.

6. By selling the software in packages, it will save the users the hassle of
installing the software one by one.

Disadvantages

1. You can't upgrade (or fix) just one part, as all the software is
intergrated into one application.
2. Another problem with intergrated software is that they usually have
have weak areas, meaning that they may have a brilliant word
processing application, but a below average spreedsheet program.
3. it also tend to lean towards the idea that because there are multiple
programs and utility software all complied together, they don't tend to
specialise in one section. When you have one company trying to
improve lots of different programs at once, the individual programs
tend advance at different rates. Though this shouldn't be the case with
multiple companies supporting the intergrated software set.
4. And to add it is also memory hungry, it takes up more space than an
average package

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Off the shelf software

Commercial, off-the-shelf (COTS) or simply off the shelf (OTS) is a term

defining technology which is ready-made and available for sale, lease, or license to
the general public. The term often refers to computer software or hardware
systems and may also include free software with commercial support. COTS
purchases are alternatives to in-house developments or one-off government-funded
developments. COTS typically requires configuration that is tailored for specific
uses. The use of COTS has been mandated across many government and business
programs, as such products may offer significant savings in procurement,
development, and maintenance.

Advantages

 The software tends to be relatively cheap as the cost of development can be

spread over a large number of users
 The software can be very sophisticated (e.g. Excel or Word) as the revenues
from a very large numbers of users means that a lot of resources can be
applied to it's development
 It is easy to get support and literature is usually widely available as there are
many other users using exactly the same software
 It is easy to share files produced by the software with others as chances are
they also have the software available to open the file
 You don't have to dedicate any of your time to the development process (e.g.
helping with specifications, testing etc.)

Disadvantages

 The software can be highly complex and will usually include large sections
that you will never use (the average Word user is reputed to only use about
10% of the available facilities).
 It tends to be a compromise. By it's nature it is designed for many different
types of users, each of whom will have different requirements
 As the software tends to be large and complicated it may take a long time to
learn properly (some of the most asked for additions to later versions of
Word were ones that already existed in the previous version!)
 You may have to alter the way that you work in order to fit in with the way
that the software has been designed
 There will probably be operations that you require that you simply cannot do
with the software
 As one small voice amongst many others your requests will not carry much
weight
 If you have problems you are usually at the mercy of a large and faceless
organisation who may not be quite as concerned as you are if you have a
major problem that absolutely MUST be fixed before tomorrow morning!

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  As the same system can be bought by your competitors it is very difficult to
gain any competitive advantage from it's use

In-house software

In-House development means that a company has programmers on its staff and
develops software internally. When a company needs a piece of software written
they sometimes choose to use programmers within their own company to write it.

Advantages

 It has been specifically designed for your particular requirements and can be
tailored to fit in exactly with the way that your business or organisation
wishes to operate.
 It can be customised to interface with other software that you operate with
the potential to provide you with a fully integrated IT infrastructure across
your whole organisation
 Users will usually find it easier and more intuitive to use as it should not
contain unnecessary or superfluous facilities and should operate in the way
that they are used to working
 It is much more flexible than packaged software and can be modified and
changed over time as your requirements and business practices change
 You will receive much better support and can in many cases talk directly to
the developers concerned
 If you are lucky and find a good developer then they can significantly add
value to your company by suggesting alternatives, improvements and by
acting as a source of IT advice and information
 The use of professionally developed bespoke software applications can give
you a significant business advantage over your competition
 As an alternative to the point above, you have the option, assuming you own
the rights to the application to sell the application to others and recoup some
or all of your investment.

Disadvantages

 If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an application that is
unstable, unreliable and full of bugs (but then again so is some packaged
software!). Selecting a developer who works to Best Practice and industry
standards should counteract this.
 The investment required will usually be much higher than with packaged
software. This is usually the biggest reason for not going down the custom
route - you need to undertake a business justification exercise and compare
the costs against the expected benefits and commercial advantages.
 A large investment in your time is required during the development process
and a bespoke application will take longer to implement.

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  An unacceptable proportion of developers are either incompetent,
unprofessional or are 'cowboys' and it can be difficult to sort out the good
guys from the bad.

Contracted software

Contracted software operates on the basis of mutual obligations and benefits. The
metaphor comes from business life, where a "client" and a "supplier" agree on a
"contract" which defines for example that:

 The supplier must provide a certain product (obligation) and is entitled to

expect that the client has paid its fee (benefit).
 The client must pay the fee (obligation) and is entitled to get the product
(benefit).
 Both parties must satisfy certain obligations, such as laws and regulations,
applying to all contracts.

Tailor made software

Tailor made or Custom software (also known as bespoke software) is

software that is specially developed for some specific organization or other user. As
such it can be contrasted with the use of software packages developed for the mass
market, such as commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software, or existing free
software. Custom software can be developed by an in-house software development
group, or be commissioned from a software house or independent software
developer. Large companies commonly use custom software for critical functions,
including content management, inventory management, customer management,
human resource management, or otherwise to fill needs that existing software
packages cannot. Often such software is legacy software, developed before COTS
software packages offering the required functionality became available.

Advantages

 It has been specifically designed for your particular requirements and can be
tailored to fit in exactly with the way that your business or organisation
wishes to operate.
 It can be customised to interface with other software that you operate with
the potential to provide you with a fully integrated IT infrastructure across
your whole organisation
 Users will usually find it easier and more intuitive to use as it should not
contain unnecessary or superfluous facilities and should operate in the way
that they are used to working
 It is much more flexible than packaged software and can be modified and
changed over time as your requirements and business practices change
 You will receive much better support and can in many cases talk directly to
the developers concerned
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  If you are lucky and find a good developer then they can significantly add
value to your company by suggesting alternatives, improvements and by
acting as a source of IT advice and information
 The use of professionally developed bespoke software applications can give
you a significant business advantage over your competition
 As an alternative to the point above, you have the option, assuming you own
the rights to the application to sell the application to others and recoup some
or all of your investment.

Disadvantages

 If you do not have the source code you are dangerously exposed and are
wholly dependent upon the developer's continuing existence and good will.
To avoid this problem make sure you choose a developer who provides you
with the source code.
 If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an application that is
unstable, unreliable and full of bugs (but then again so is some packaged
software!). Selecting a developer who works to Best Practice and industry
standards should counteract this.
 The investment required will usually be much higher than with packaged
software. This is usually the biggest reason for not going down the custom
route - you need to undertake a business justification exercise and compare
the costs against the expected benefits and commercial advantages.
 A large investment in your time is required during the development process
and a bespoke application will take longer to implement.
 It can be difficult to get support for bespoke software, unless the developers
themselves offer support services.
 An unacceptable proportion of developers are either incompetent,
unprofessional or are 'cowboys' and it can be difficult to sort out the good
guys from the bad.

Exercise

1. State and describe the two major types of software [8marks]

2. Give advantages and disadvantages of the following types of application
software
i) Off the shelf software
ii) Tailor made software
iii) In house software [12marks]
3. Highlight any five (5) factors you would consider when choosing software
[10marks]

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3.10 Communication System Basics

What is a Network?

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

The two basic types of networks include:

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

You may also see references to a Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN), a Wireless
LAN (WLAN), or a Wireless WAN (WWAN).

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area.
It is generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building.
Rarely are LAN computers more than a mile apart.

In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It

stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the software that can
be shared by the computers attached to the network. Computers connected to the
file server are called workstations. The workstations can be less powerful than the
file server, and they may have additional software on their hard drives. On many
LANs, cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer;
other LANs may be wireless. See the Topology, Cabling, and Hardware sections of
this tutorial for more information on the configuration of a LAN.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as Florida, the
United States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may
be used to connect this type of network.

Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter
of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses
multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications
networks like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much
different than a LAN.

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Advantages of Installing a Network

 Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring
files. Without a network, files are shared by copying them to memory cards
or discs, then carrying or sending the discs from one computer to another.
This method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) can be very
time-consuming.
 Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available
at considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed
copies.
 Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy
inhibit," so that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs.
Also, passwords can be established for specific directories to restrict access
to authorized users.
 Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of
installing a network is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one
computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and
energy installing updates and tracking files on independent computers
throughout the building.
 Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another advantage of networks.
Most schools cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines, modems,
scanners, and CD players for each computer. However, if these or similar
peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by many users.
 Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware
necessary to install an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and
professional communication for all personnel, and it facilitates the
dissemination of general information to the entire school staff. Electronic mail
on a LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers and peers at
their own school. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, students can
communicate with others throughout the world.
 Flexible Access. College networks allow students to access their files from
computers throughout the school. Students can begin an assignment in their
classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the network, then go to
the media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.
 Workgroup Computing. Collaborative software allows many users to work
on a document or project concurrently. For example, educators located at
various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas
about new curriculum standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or
website.

Disadvantages of Installing a School Network

 Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over

time, the initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards,

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 routers, and software are expensive, and the installation may require the
services of a technician.
 Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires
considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only
to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
 File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure
than any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire
network may come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose
access to necessary programs and files.
 Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the
various configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to
minimize the inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one
broken cable can stop the entire network.
 Must Monitor Security Issues. Wireless networks are becoming
increasingly common; however, security can be an issue with wireless
networks.

Network Hardware

Network Interface Cards

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the
network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are internal, and they are
included in the purchase of most computers. Network interface cards are a major
factor in determining the speed and performance of a network. It is a good idea to
use the fastest network card available for the type of workstation you are using.

The most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards (LocalTalk
connectors and Token Ring cards are seldom used in current networks).

Ethernet Cards

Ethernet cards are usually purchased separately from a computer, although many
computers (such as the Macintosh) now include an option for a pre-installed
Ethernet card. Ethernet cards contain connections for either coaxial or twisted pair
cables (or both) (See fig. 1). If it is designed for coaxial cable, the connection will
be BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection. Some
Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach coaxial,
twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this method is used
there is always an external transceiver attached to the workstation. (See the
Cabling section for more information on connectors.)

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LocalTalk Connectors

LocalTalk is Apple's built-in solution for networking older Macintosh computers. It

utilized a special adapter box and a cable that plugged into the printer port of a
Macintosh. A major disadvantage of LocalTalk was that it is slow (only 230 Kbps) in
comparison to Ethernet; therefore, it is rarely used in current networks.

Token Ring Cards

Token Ring network cards look similar to Ethernet cards and were popular in IBM
computers. They are seldom used with current networks.

Switches

A concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from
workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run
from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active, that is
they electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another. Switches
no longer broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they memorize
addressing of computers and send the information to the correct location directly.
Switches are:

 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports

 Often used in a star or tree topology
 Sold with specialized software for port management
 Also called hubs
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store
netmodems, bridges, or routers

Repeaters

Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to

boost the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies
the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can be separate devices or
they can be incorporated into a concentrator. They are used when the total length
of your network cable exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being used.

A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a
star topology with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded
twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The most common configuration is for each
workstation to be connected by twisted-pair cable to a multi-port active
concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass through it allowing
for the total length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.

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Bridges

A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller,
more efficient networks. If you are adding to an older wiring scheme and want the
new network to be up-to-date, a bridge can connect the two.

A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can
pass packets of information to the correct location. Most bridges can "listen" to the
network and automatically figure out the address of each computer on both sides of
the bridge. The bridge can inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on
the other side of the network.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of
the network. You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy
intersection during rush hour. It keeps information flowing on both sides of the
network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can be used to
connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They must, however, be
used between networks with the same protocol.

Routers

A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a

superintelligent bridge. Routers select the best path to route a message, based on
the destination address and origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on
collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic along back roads and
shortcuts.

While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network,
routers know the addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the
network. Routers can even "listen" to the entire network to determine which
sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those sections until they
clear up.

If you have a school LAN that you want to connect to the Internet, you will need to
purchase a router. In this case, the router serves as the translator between the
information on your LAN and the Internet. It also determines the best route to send
the data over the Internet. Routers can:

 Direct signal traffic efficiently

 Route messages between any two protocols
 Route messages between linear bus, star, and star-wired ring topologies
 Route messages across fibre optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair cabling

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 Network Topologies

Network topology refers to the geometric arrangement or physical layout of

computers, peripherals and cable links in a network. There are three primary
topologies:

 Bus
 Star
 Ring
The Bus Topology

The bus topology is the simplest and most commonly used topology for networking
computers. It is also known as a linear bus because computers are attached of
connected to a single linear cable called a trunk or backbone. Computers on the bus
network communicate by sending packets of data to each other. A computer will
send a packet of data to all computers on the network (broadcast). Each computer
listens and examines every packet on the wire to determine if the packet is
intended for it, and accepts only packets addressed to it. The bus topology is a
passive topology because computers on the network are not actively involved in the
movement of data. On an active topology computers regenerate the data signals
and pass the signal to the next computer on the network. The number of computers
on the network affects network performance. Performance degrades as more
computers are added to the bus network.

Backbone/trunk

Terminator Terminator

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Advantages

 It uses the least amount of cable and is easy to expand.

 It is relatively simple, inexpensive and reliable.
 Failure of one does not bring the whole network down.
Disadvantages
 A cable break can bring the entire network down.
 Network becomes slower and slower as more and more computers are added
to the network.
 It is difficult to troubleshoot and isolate problems.

Star Topology

On a star topology, each computer is connected by cable segment to a central

device, which can be a hub, switch or repeater. Computers communicate with each
other by passing data through the hub. The network requires more cables because
each computer requires a cable segment to connect to the central device. If a
computer fails or the cable segment that connects the computer to the hub is
broken, only that link is affected the rest of the network continues to function
normally.

Repeater, Hub, Switch

Advantages

 Network expansion and reconfiguration are relatively simple. For instance,

new computers can easily be added to the network.
 Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network.
 Each computer is attached by its own cable segment to the central hub,
which makes it easy to isolate individual computers from the network by
disconnecting them from the wiring hub.
 Can accommodate different wiring.

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Disadvantages
 Uses a large amount of cable because each computer must have a separate
cable run from the central device.
 If the central device fails, the entire network fails.

Ring Topology

On a ring topology, computers are connected one node to other by a single cable
forming a circle. Computers on the ring network use a signal called a token to carry
the data from one computer to the other. The access method used by the
computers to put data on the communication medium is called token passing.
Unlike the bus topology, the ring is an active topology. Each computer on the ring
acts as a repeater to boost the signal and pass it to the next computer until it
reaches the destination computer. The receiving computer strips the data from the
token and returns the token to the sending computer with an acknowledgement.
After verification, the token is regenerated and release for use by any other
computer requiring data transfer. While the token is in use by one computer, other
computers on the ring cannot transmit, because only the computer with the token
can transmit data. This ensures that there are nom collisions and hence no times
spend waiting for computers to resend data after a collision.

Advantages

 All computers have equal access to data. During peak usage performance is
even for all users. Ring networks perform well with heavy network traffic.

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  Each computer acts as a repeater and as a result there is little signal
degradation.
Disadvantages

 Network expansion or reconfiguration will disrupt network operations.

 If one computer fails, the whole network goes down.

Mesh Topology

Apart from the three primary topologies, we also have the mesh topology. The
mesh topology connects each computer to every other computer on the network
(each computer has a point-to-point connection to every other computer on the
network). Meshes use a significantly larger amount of network cabling than the
other network topologies, which makes it more expensive. Every computer has
multiple possible connection paths to the other computers on the network for
redundancy. As a result, a single cable break will not stop network communications
between any two computers.

The total number of connections required can be calculated using the following
formula:

Number of connections = n*(n-1)/2

Where n is the number of stations.

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Exercise

1. Illustrate the following topologies

i) Star
ii) Ring
iii) Bus
iv) Mesh [2marks each]

2. A computer network has a number of disadvantages. These include; rapid

spreading of viruses when any machine is infected, potential loss of privacy,
data corruption and destruction by other uses amongst other.
Explain why managers implement computer networks [8marks]

3. Explain the following terms as used in computer networks and data

communications.
i) Signal multiplexing
ii) Circuit switching [4marks]

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3.11 Ethical Challenges of Computing

Ethics, in the classical sense, refers to the rules and standards governing the
conduct of an individual with others. As technology and computers became more
and more a part of our everyday lives, we must understand that the problems that
have always plagued business and conduct will continue to be a problem. In fact, a
new medium can provide even more difficult questions of judgment. In other
words, since the introduction of the World Wide Web, the definition of ethics has
evolved, too. A new type of ethics known as computer ethics has emerged.
Computer ethics is concerned with standards of conduct as they pertain to
computers. Overall, this seems rather a lightweight introduction to a subject
crawling with deep complexities, but since I was recently asked by a student for
just such a publication, it may be one whose time has come.

Six major issues in Computer Ethics

(1) Unauthorized and illegal database entry, surveillance and monitoring, and
privacy issues;

(2) Piracy and intellectual property theft;

(3) Equity and equal access;

(4) Philosophical implications of artificial intelligence and computer rights;

(5) Social consequences of robotics and the automated office, human skill
obsolescence, and job displacement;

(6) Computers as tools of war.

Formulating rules & regulations for computer use in an organization

Rules on Computer Usage

 You must Use only the computers, computer accounts and computer files
for which you have authorization.
 Do not use another individual's ID or account, or attempt to capture or guess
other users' passwords.
 Users are individually responsible for all use of resources assigned to them;
therefore, sharing of accounts is prohibited.
 Respect the privacy and personal rights of others. Do not access or copy
another user's e-mail, data, programs, or other files without permission.
 Always ensure that your connected computer has most up-to-date OS and
software patches.

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 Always ensure that your connected computer has properly configured and
up-to-date antivirus software and you regularly scan your computer for
viruses.
 Use UM computing facilities with utmost cares.
 You must not Alter IP address without authorized permission; Changing IP
address may cause IP conflict or breach network security.
 Attempt to access restricted portions of the operating system (e.g. registry)
or security software (e.g. Active Directory) unless authorized by the
appropriate PTj’s representative (Wakil ICT).
 Don’t use computer not assign to you, other than those designated as public
machines, without the consent of the owner or the system's administrator.
 Don’t commit computer vandalism, which is defined as any malicious attempt
to harm or destroy hardware, software or data of another computer through
the network.
 This includes but not limited to the dissemination of viruses.
 Obtain access to services and data that do not belong to you, in other words,
don’t use the Campus Network to gain unauthorized access to any computer
systems.
 Alter or destroy data that does not belong to you.
 Use campus computing resources to attack computers, accounts, or other
users by launching viruses, worms, trojan horses, or other attacks on
computers here or elsewhere.
 Perform unauthorized vulnerability scans on systems; such scanning is
considered to be a hostile act.
 Use campus computing resources to harass or threaten others.
 Knowingly or carelessly performing acts which will interfere with the normal
operation of computers, terminals, peripherals, or networks
 Knowingly or carelessly running or installing on any computer system or
network, or giving to another user, a program intended to damage or to
place excessive load on a computer system or network.
 Create, install, or knowingly distribute computer virus, "Trojan horse", or
other surreptitiously destructive program on any University computer or
network facility, regardless of whether any demonstrable harm results.
 Attempt to circumvent data protection schemes or uncover security
loopholes. This includes creating and/or running programs that are designed
to identify security loopholes and/or decrypt intentionally secure data.
 Move large files across networks (excluding official tasks) such that it
degrades resource performance.
 Post electronic bulletin boards materials that violate existing laws.
 Endanger or interfere with the operation of any computer system by any
means.
 Send electronic messages to unwilling recipients.
 Transmit or post fraudulent, defamatory, harassing, obscene, or threatening
messages, or any communications prohibited by law.

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  Executing any form of network monitoring which will intercept data not
intended for his/her host unless this activity is a part of the his/her normal
job/duty.

Data Privacy & Protection

Information privacy, or data privacy:

Is the relationship between collection and dissemination of data, technology, the

public expectation of privacy, and the legal and political issues surrounding them.

Privacy concerns exist wherever personally identifiable information is collected and

stored - in digital form or otherwise. Improper or non-existent disclosure control
can be the root cause for privacy issues. Data privacy issues can arise in response
to information from a wide range of sources.

Data protection

Data security is the means of ensuring that data is kept safe from corruption and
that access to it is suitably controlled. Thus data security helps to ensure privacy. It
also helps in protecting personal data.

Data Security Technologies

Disk Encryption

Disk encryption refers to encryption technology that encrypts data on a hard disk
drive. Disk encryption typically takes form in either software (see disk encryption
software] or hardware (see disk encryption hardware). Disk encryption is often
referred to as on-the-fly encryption ("OTFE") or transparent encryption

Hardware based Mechanisms for Protecting Data

Software based security solutions encrypt the data to prevent data from being
stolen. However, a malicious program or a hacker may corrupt the data in order to
make it unrecoverable or unusable. Similarly, encrypted operating systems can be
corrupted by a malicious program or a hacker, making the system unusable.
Hardware-based security solutions can prevent read and write access to data and
hence offers very strong protection against tampering and unauthorized access.

Hardware based or assisted computer security offers an alternative to software-only

computer security. Security tokens such as those using PKCS#11 may be more
secure due to the physical access required in order to be compromised. Access is
enabled only when the token is connected and correct PIN is entered (see two

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factor authentication). However, dongles can be used by anyone who can gain
physical access to it. Newer technologies in hardware based security solves this
problem offering fool proof security for data.

Working of Hardware based security: A hardware device allows a user to login,

logout and to set different privilege levels by doing manual actions. The device uses
biometric technology to prevent malicious users from logging in, logging out, and
changing privilege levels. The current state of a user of the device is read by
controllers in peripheral devices such as harddisks. Illegal access by a malicious
user or a malicious program is interrupted based on the current state of a user by
harddisk and DVD controllers making illegal access to data impossible. Hardware
based access control is more secure than protection provided by the operating
systems as operating systems are vulnerable to malicious attacks by viruses and
hackers. The data on harddisks can be corrupted after a malicious access is
obtained. With hardware based protection, software cannot manipulate the user
privilege levels, it is impossible for a hacker or a malicious program to gain access
to secure data protected by hardware or perform unauthorized privileged
operations. The hardware protects the operating system image and file system
privileges from being tampered. Therefore, a completely secure system can be
created using a combination of hardware based security and secure system
administration policies.

Backups

Backups are used to ensure data which is lost can be recovered

Data Masking

Data Masking of structured data is the process of obscuring (masking) specific data
within a database table or cell to ensure that data security is maintained and
sensitive customer information is not leaked outside of the authorized environment.

Data Erasure

Data erasure is a method of software-based overwriting that completely destroys all

electronic data residing on a hard drive or other digital media to ensure that no
sensitive data is leaked when an asset is retired or reused.

International Laws and Standards

International Laws

In the UK, the Data Protection Act is used to ensure that personal data is accessible
to those whom it concerns, and provides redress to individuals if there are
inaccuracies. This is particularly important to ensure individuals are treated fairly,

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for example for credit checking purposes. The Data Protection Act states that only
individuals and companies with legitimate and lawful reasons can process personal
information and cannot be shared.

International Standards

The International Standard ISO/IEC 17799 covers data security under the topic of
information security, and one of its cardinal principles is that all stored information,
i.e. data, should be owned so that it is clear whose responsibility it is to protect and
control access to that data.

The Trusted Computing Group is an organization that helps standardize computing

security technologies.

1.4 Legal issues in software licensing

Software license

A software license is a legal instrument (by way of contract law) governing the
usage or redistribution of software. All software is copyright protected, irrespective
of whether it is in the public domain. Contractual confidentiality is another way of
protecting software. A typical software license grants an end-user permission to use
one or more copies of software in ways where such a use would otherwise
constitute copyright infringement of the software owner's exclusive rights under
copyright law.

Some software comes with the license when purchased off the shelf or an OEM
license when bundled with hardware. Software can also be in the form of freeware
or shareware. Software licenses can generally be fit into the following categories:
proprietary licenses and free and open source licenses, which include free software
licenses and other open source licenses. The features that distinguishes them are
significant in terms of the effect they have on the end-user's rights.

A free or open source license makes software free for inspection of its code,
modification of its code, and distribution. While the software released such a
license, like the GNU General Public License can be sold for money, the distribution
cannot be restricted in the same ways as software with copyright and patent
restrictions used by firms to require licensing fees.

Proprietary software

The hallmark of proprietary software licenses is that the software publisher grants a
license to use one or more copies of software, but that ownership of those copies
remains with the software publisher (hence use of the term "proprietary"). One
consequence of this feature of proprietary software licenses is that virtually all
rights regarding the software are reserved by the software publisher. Only a very
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limited set of well-defined rights are conceded to the end-user. Therefore, it is
typical of proprietary software license agreements to include many terms which
specifically prohibit certain uses of the software, often including uses which would
otherwise be allowed under copyright law.

The most significant effect of this form of licensing is that, if ownership of the
software remains with the software publisher, then the end-user must accept the
software license. In other words, without acceptance of the license, the end-user
may not use the software at all.

One example of such a proprietary software license is the license for Microsoft
Windows. As is usually the case with proprietary software licenses, this license
contains an extensive list of activities which are restricted, such as: reverse
engineering, simultaneous use of the software by multiple users, and publication of
benchmarks or performance tests.

Free and open source software

With a free software license, in contrast to proprietary software licenses, ownership

of a particular copy of the software does not remain with the software publisher.
Instead, ownership of the copy is transferred to the end-user. As a result, the end-
user is, by default, afforded all rights granted by copyright law to the copy owner.
Note that "copy owner" is not the same as "copyright owner". While ownership in a
particular copy is transferred, ownership of the copyright remains with the software
publisher. Additionally, a free software license typically grants to the end-user extra
rights, which would otherwise be reserved by the software publisher.

With a free software license, in contrast to proprietary software licenses, a primary

consequence of the free software form of licensing is that acceptance of the license
is essentially optional -- the end-user may use the software without accepting the
license. However, if the end-user wishes to exercise any of the additional rights
granted by a free software license (such as the right to redistribute the software),
then the end-user must accept, and be bound by, the software license.

Open source licenses generally fall under two categories: Those that aim to
preserve the freedom and openness of the software itself ('copyleft' licenses), and
those that aim to give freedom to the users of that software (permissive licenses).

An example of a copyleft Free Software license is the GNU General Public License
(GPL). This license is aimed at giving the end-user significant permission, such as
permission to redistribute, reverse engineer, or otherwise modify the software.
These permissions are not entirely free of obligations for the end-user, however.
The end-user must comply with certain terms if the end-user wishes to exercise
these extra permissions granted by the GPL. For instance, any modifications made
and redistributed by the end-user must include the source code for these, and the

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end-user is not allowed to re-assert the removed copyright restrictions back over
their derivative work.

Examples of permissive free software licenses are the BSD license and the MIT
license, which essentially grant the end-user permission to do anything they wish
with the source code in question, including the right to take the code and use it as
part of closed-source software or software released under a proprietary software
license.

Other characteristics

In addition to granting rights and imposing restrictions on the use of software,

software licenses typically contain provisions which allocate liability and
responsibility between the parties entering into the license agreement. In enterprise
and commercial software transactions these terms (such as limitations of liability,
warranties and warranty disclaimers, and indemnity if the software infringes
intellectual property rights of others) are often negotiated by attorneys specialized
in software licensing. The legal field has seen the growth of this specialized practice
area due to unique legal issues with software licenses, and the desire of software
companies to protect assets which, if licensed improperly, could diminish their
value.

Software licenses and copyright law

In the United States, Section 117 of the Copyright Act gives the owner of a
particular copy of software the explicit right to use the software with a computer,
even if use of the software with a computer requires the making of incidental copies
or adaptations (acts which could otherwise potentially constitute copyright
infringement). Therefore, the owner of a copy of computer software is legally
entitled to use that copy of software. Hence, if the end-user of software is the
owner of the respective copy, then the end-user may legally use the software
without a license from the software publisher.

As many proprietary "licenses" only enumerate the rights that the user already has
under U.S.C 17, S 117, and yet proclaim to take rights away from the user, these
contracts may lack consideration. Proprietary software licenses often to proclaim to
give software publishers more control over the way their software is used by
keeping ownership of each copy of software with the software publisher. By doing
so, Section 117 does not apply to the end-user and the software publisher may
then compel the end-user to accept all of the terms of the license agreement, many
of which may be more restrictive than copyright law alone. It should be noticed that
the form of the relationship determines if it is a lease or a purchase,

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3.12 Applications (word processing)- Ms Word

Microsoft Word 2003/2002 for Windows

This tutorial teaches Microsoft Word basics. Although knowledge of how to navigate
in a Windows environment is helpful, this tutorial was created for the computer
novice. To begin, open Microsoft Word. Your screen will look like the one shown
here.

Click the X in the upper right corner of the New Document pane to close the New
Document pane. Your screen will then look like the one shown here.

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The Title Bar

This lesson will familiarize you with the Microsoft Word screen. We will start with
the Title bar, which is located at the very top of the screen. On the Title bar,
Microsoft Word displays the name of the document on which you are currently
working. At the top of your screen, you should see "Microsoft Word - Document1"
or a similar name.

The Menu Bar

The Menu bar is generally found directly below the Title bar. The Menu bar displays
the menu. The Menu bar begins with the word File and continues with Edit, View,
Insert, Format, Tools, Table, Window, and Help. You use the menus to give
instructions to the software. Point with your mouse to a menu option and click the
left mouse button to open a drop-down menu. You can now use the left and right
arrow keys on your keyboard to move left and right across the Menu bar options.
You can use the up and down arrow keys to move up and down the drop-down
menu.

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The most frequently used menu options appear on the menu list. A chevron
appears at the bottom of the list. Click the chevron to display additional menu
options.

To select an option, click the option or use the arrow keys to move to the option on
the drop-down menu and press Enter. An ellipse or a right arrow after a menu item
signifies additional options; if you select that menu item, a dialog box appears.
Items in gray are not available.

You can customize your screen so that all of the menu options display when you
click a menu item. This tutorial assumes that your menu is set to display all menu
options. To customize your menu to display all of the menu options:

1. Click Tools on the Menu bar.

2. Click Customize on the drop down menu. The Customize dialog box opens.
3. Click the Options tab.
4. Click in the check box to select Always Show Full Menus.

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 Exercise 1

Do the following exercise. It demonstrates using the Microsoft Word menu.

1. Click File on the Menu bar.

2. Press the right arrow key until Help is highlighted.
3. Press the left arrow key until Format is highlighted.
4. Press the down arrow key until Styles and Formatting are highlighted.
5. Press the up arrow key until Paragraph is highlighted.
6. Press Enter to select the Paragraph menu option.
7. Click Cancel to close the dialog box.

Toolbars

The Standard Toolbar

The Formatting Toolbar

Toolbars provide shortcuts to menu commands. Toolbars are generally located just
below the Menu bar. Before proceeding with this lesson, make sure the toolbars you
will use -- Standard and Formatting -- are available. Follow these steps:

1. Click View on the Menu bar.

2. Highlight Toolbars.
3. Standard and Formatting should have check marks next to them. If both
Standard and Formatting have heck marks next to them, press Esc three
times to close the menu.
4. If they do not both have check marks, click Customize.
5. Click the Toolbars tab.
6. Point to the box next to the unchecked option and click the left mouse button
to make a check mark appear.
Note: You turn the check mark on and off by clicking the left mouse button.
7. Click Close to close the dialog box.

The Ruler

The ruler is generally found below the main toolbars. The ruler is used to change
the format of your document quickly. To display the ruler:

1. Click View on the Menu bar.

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 2. The option Ruler should have a check mark next to it. If it has a check mark
next to it, press Esc to close the menu. If it does not have a check mark next
to it, continue to the next step.
3. Click Ruler. The ruler now appears below the toolbars.

Document View

In Word, you can display your document in one of five views: Normal, Web Layout,
Print Layout, Reading Layout, or Online Layout.

Normal View

Normal view is the most often used and shows formatting such as line
spacing, font, point size, and italics. Word displays multiple-column text in
one continuous column.

Web Layout

Web layout view enables you to view your document as it would appear in a
browser such as Internet Explorer.

Print Layout

The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when it is printed.

Reading Layout

Reading Layout view formats your screen to make reading your document
more comfortable.

Outline view

Outline view displays the document in outline form. Headings can be

displayed without the text. If you move a heading, the accompanying text
moves with it.

Tables

Working With Tables

Now that we've covered how to insert tables and how to navigate within them, let's
cover some of the other issues that arise while working with tables.

The last issue covered the options of evenly distributing rows or columns.

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So... moving on, what about the situations where you want the columns different
widths? Is there an easy way to accomplish this effect?

You bet!

Adjusting the width of a column can be done by running your mouse pointer
over the vertical lines dividing the columns. When the pointer switches to a double-
sided arrow click and hold. Now you can drag the side of the column left or right,
creating whatever width you need.

Row height can also be adjusted in the same manner, using the divider line below
the row.

It is also important to mention that row height will automatically be increased when
text wraps within a cell. (Provided that you have not set the height using an exact
measurement under the Table menu, Cell Height and Width choice.)

Something that automatically expands to fit … hmm… ever wish your clothes would
do that?

Another way to set row height and column width is to click the Table menu, Cell
Height and Width choice. In the resulting window you will have a row or column
tab at the top to choose from. Keep in mind, changes set there will affect only the
row or column your cursor is currently in.

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To change settings for multiple rows or columns, highlight all cells that need to be
changed and go through the menu to set the changes.

If only that worked in real life, highlight all rooms, vacuum one and they're all
vacuumed…in my dreams!

Within the cell of a table, the normal font formatting (font size, type, bold, italic,
underline, etc…) and alignments (left, center, right and justify) can be completed
using the ususal methods. In addition, you can choose where to place the text
within a cell of the table - known as Alignment. You can align text to the top of the
cell, the bottom or to the center. This option is extremely helpful with column
headings.

The following buttons can set the alignment.

Other ways to access alignment options would include the Table menu, Cell
Height and Width (look at the bottom of the row tab) or right clicking on
selected cells and choosing Alignment from the pop up menu.

Once again, these changes will affect only the cell you are currently in or the cells
highlighted at the time the changes are set.

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Along the same lines as the text alignment there is the changing of the text
direction.

This option allows you to set text to read up or down.

You can access this option in several ways. One of them is the Change Text
Direction button on the Tables and Borders toolbar.

Each click of the button will cycle through the possible changes for the text, finally
returning you to the original left to right text.

Another way would be to right click in the cell to be changed and use the Change
Text Direction option on the resulting pop up menu.

You can also sort data within a table.

The fastest way would be to click in a cell and then choose one of the sorting
buttons on the Tables and Borders toolbar.

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These buttons will sort either ascending or descending, depending on the button
you chose. All data in each row is kept together as a row and moved at the same
time.

I would like to note that this method works best when you have only one
sort criteria. If you have multiple criteria, located in separate columns,
(such as by date and then by name) then you should use the next method.

The other option for sorting is in the Table menu, Sort choice.

A screen will open allowing you to choose your sorting options including the option
to set sorting criteria using multiple columns. You can tell Word to sort first on one
column and then for matching entries use a secondary column to determine order.

OK, so for today that was changing column width, row height, alignment, text
direction and data sorting. Whew! I'm tired after all that, how about you?

Importing objects

How to Insert Excel Data into Word

Step 1: Open the Excel spreadsheet that contains your data, or create a new
spreadsheet and enter your information. In this example, we’ll use the same
monthly budget information that we worked with in Part 4 of this series.

Step 2: Select all of the cells in your Excel spreadsheet that you want to insert into
your Word document, and press Ctrl + C to copy the entire selection.

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Step 3: Switch over to your Microsoft Word document and place the cursor at the
point in the document where you want to insert the data. Open the Home tab on
the Word ribbon, and click on the arrow underneath Paste. Select the Paste
Special option.

Step 4: In the Paste Special dialog box, choose the paste as Microsoft Office
Excel Worksheet Object option.

If you later decide that you want to make any changes to this information, you
don’t have to go through these steps again. You can edit the Excel spreadsheet
directly within Microsoft Word simply by double-clicking on the object. You’re not
restricted to just formatting edits either – you can make any changes to the table,
including adding formulas and calculations, that you normally would make in Excel.

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Tip: If you haven’t entered your data into Excel yet, you can bypass opening Excel
altogether by choosing Excel Spreadsheet from the Table dropdown list on the
Insert tab of the Word ribbon. This will open a blank Excel spreadsheet directly
inside your Word document in which you’ll have access to all of the functionality
you normally would have within a regular Excel file.

Using Tables and Charts in Microsoft Word 2007

In this series, we’ll take a look at how charts and tables can be used in Microsoft
Word 2007 documents to help illustrate important concepts and keep the reader’s
attention.

Mail Merge

You use mail merge when you want to create a set of documents, such as a form
letter that is sent to many customers. Each letter has the same kind of information,
yet the content is unique. For example, in letters to your customers, each letter can
be personalized to address each customer by name. The unique information in each
letter comes from entries in a data source.

The mail merge process entails the following overall steps:

1. Set up the main document. The main document contains the text and
graphics that are the same for each version of the merged document — for
example, the return address or salutation in a form letter.

2. Connect the document to a data source. A data source is a file that

contains the information to be merged into a document. For example, the
names and addresses of the recipients of a letter.

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3. Refine the list of recipients or items. Microsoft Office Word generates a
copy of the main document for each item, or record, in your data file. If your
data file is a mailing list, these items are probably recipients of your mailing. If
you want to generate copies for only certain items in your data file, you can
choose which items (records) to include.

4. Add placeholders, called mail merge fields, to the document. When you
perform the mail merge, the mail merge fields are filled with information from
your data file.

5. Preview and complete the merge. You can preview each copy of the
document before you print the whole set.

You use commands on the Mailings tab to perform a mail merge.

IMPORTANT If you plan to use custom contact fields with the Contacts list in
Microsoft Office Outlook, you must begin the mail merge process in Outlook.

TIP You can also perform a mail merge by using the Mail Merge task pane,
which leads you step by step through the process. To use the task pane, in the
Start Mail Merge group on the Mailings tab, click Start Mail Merge, and then
click Step by Step Mail Merge Wizard.

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Set up the main document

1. Start Word.

A blank document opens by default. Leave it open. If you close it, the
commands in the next step are not available.

2. On the Mailings tab, in the Start Mail Merge group, click Start Mail
Merge.

3. Click Letters.

You can also use mail merge to create:

A catalog or directory The same kind of information, such as name and

description, is shown for each item, but the name and description in each item
is unique. Click Directory to create this type of document.

A set of envelopes The return address is the same on all the envelopes,
but the destination address is unique on each one. For more information, see
Create and print envelopes for a mass mailing.

A set of mailing labels Each label shows a person's name and address,
but the name and address on each label is unique. For more information, see
Create and print labels for a mass mailing.

A set of e-mail messages The basic content is the same in all the
messages, but each message goes to the individual recipient and each message
contains information that is specific to that recipient, such as the recipient's

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 name or some other piece of information. For more information, see Use mail
merge to send personalized e-mail messages to your e-mail address list.

Resume a mail merge

If you need to stop working on a mail merge, you can save the main document and
resume the merge later. Microsoft Office Word retains the data source and field
information. If you were using the Mail Merge task pane, Word returns to your
place in the task pane when you resume the merge.

1. When you're ready to resume the merge, open the document.

Word displays a message that asks you to confirm whether you want to open
the document, which will run a SQL command.

2. Because this document is connected to a data source and you want to

retrieve the data, click Yes. If you were opening a document that you did not
realize was connected to a data source, you could click No to prevent
potentially malicious access to data.

The text of the document, along with any fields that you inserted, appears.

3. Click the Mailings tab, and resume your work.

Connect the document to a data source

To merge information into your main document, you must connect the document to
a data source, or a data file. If you don't already have a data file, you can create
one during the mail merge process.

If you use an existing list, make sure that it contains the information that you want
to use, including all the columns and the rows. You can make some changes during

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the merge, but you can't open your data source separately during the merge. The
merge process is easier if your data source is ready before you connect to it.

Choose a data file

1. On the Mailings tab, in the Start Mail Merge group, click Select
Recipients.

2. Do one of the following:

 Use Outlook Contacts If you want to use your Contacts list in

Outlook, click Select from Outlook Contacts.

For more information about using the Contacts list, see Tips for working
with Microsoft Office Outlook Contacts list.

 Use an existing data source file If you have a Microsoft Office

Excel worksheet, a Microsoft Office Access database, or another type of
data file, click Use Existing List, and then locate the file in the Select
Data Source dialog box.

For Excel, you can select data from any worksheet or named range within
a workbook. For Access, you can select data from any table or
query (query: A means of finding all the records stored in a data source
that fit a set of criteria you name. Queries can contain operators, quotation
marks, wildcard characters, and parentheses to help focus your search.)
that is defined in the database.

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 For tips on formatting the data in your Excel worksheet for mail merge,
see Tips for formatting data in Office Excel.

For another type of data file, select the file in the Select Data Source
dialog box. If the file is not listed, select the appropriate file type or select
All Files in the Files of type box. In a mail merge, you can use the
following types of data files:

 Files from single-tier, file-based database programs for

which you have installed an OLE DB (OLE DB: A component database
architecture that implements efficient network and internet access to
many types of data sources, including relational data, mail files, flat
files, and spreadsheets.) provider or ODBC (Open Database
Connectivity (ODBC): A standard method of sharing data between
databases and programs. ODBC drivers use the standard Structured
Query Language (SQL) to gain access to external data.) driver (a
number of which are included with Microsoft Office).

 An HTML file that has a single table. The first row of the
table must contain column names, and the other rows must contain
data.

 Electronic address books:

 Microsoft Outlook Address Book

 Microsoft Schedule+ 7.0 Contact List

 Any similar address lists that were created with a

MAPI (MAPI: The Microsoft interface specification that allows
different messaging and workgroup applications (including e-mail,
voice mail, and fax) to work through a single client.)-compatible
messaging system, such as Microsoft Outlook.

 A Microsoft Word document. The document should

contain a single table. The first row of the table must contain

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 headings, and the other rows must contain the records that you want
to merge. You can also use a header source (header source: A
document that contains the header row (or header record) to be used
with the data source specified for a mail-merge main document.) as a
data source.

Any text file that has data fields (data field: A category of information
that corresponds to one column of information in a data source. The
name of each data field is listed in the first row (header row) of the
data source. "PostalCode" and "LastName" are examples of data field
names.) separated (or delimited) by tab characters or commas and
data records (data record: A complete set of related information that
corresponds to one row of information in the data source. All
information about one client in a client mailing list is an example of a
data record.) separated by paragraph marks.

 Create a new data file in Word If you don't have a data file
yet, click Type New List, and then use the form that opens to create your
list. The list is saved as a database (.mdb) file that you can reuse. For
more information, see Type a new list.
Advanced image editing

Step 1. Open Microsoft Word. Remember to leave your browser window open
until this lesson is finished.

Step 2. Open a new blank document using keyboard commands

 IBM - Use Ctrl+N (Hold down the Ctrl key and tap the N key one time)
 Macintosh - Use Command+N (Hold down the Command key and tap the N
key one time)

Step 3. Turn the document to landscape orientation, that makes the longest
dimension the width of the page, not the depth. Go to the File menu, select Page
Options, choose Orientation and select Landscape.

Step 4. Enter the following line at the top of the page:

Classroom Computer Rules

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  Do not use all caps anywhere on the page. The eye has difficulty scanning
text in an all caps format, even including headlines.

Step 5. Copy the following rules and paste them into your document two lines
below the headline using toolbar buttons, menu items or keyboard combinations:

Sign in before using any Internet connected computer.

Save only to the Desktop or a floppy disk.
Get the teacher's permission before printing.
No food or drinks near the computers, no exceptions!
If you don't know how to do something, ask.
Click and drag to highlight the rules you see above. With the text selected use the
toolbar button, menu item or keyboard combination to copy text. Go to the new
Word document and paste what you copied using the toolbar button (it looks like a
clipboard), menu item (it is in the Edit menu) or keyboard combination
(IBM=Ctrl+V, Mac=Command+V).

Step 6. Highlight the title (Classroom Computer Rules) and perform the following
actions using toolbar buttons, menu items or keyboard combinations:

 Format the text to Bold

 Increase the side to 36 pt.
 Center the text
 Click Bold button to remove Bold
 Return text size to default
 Note: all of these actions can be performed using the Formatting toolbar.

Step 6. Highlight the five rules and perform the following actions using toolbar
buttons, menu items or keyboard combinations:

 Format the text to Bold

 Increase the side to 24 pt.
 Left align the text, if it is not already aligned

Note: all of these actions can be performed using the Formatting toolbar.

Step 7. Place your cursor under the title, but above the five rules. You may have to
hit Enter/Return to do this.

In Word go to the Insert menu, select Picture then Clip Art. Insert the image
named computer training. It can be found in any of the following clip art libraries on
Office: Academic, Office, People At Work, Computers, PCs, Computer Hardware,
Students, Schools, Education, or Personal Computers.

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Step 8. With the picture selected, go to the Format menu and select Format
Picture. There are several things that you can do with this picture.

Tab Actions available

 Crop the picture one margin at a time

 Change the color to grayscale, black and
white, or make a very light watermark out of
Picture
the image
 Change the brightness or contrast of the
image

 Five styles of wrapping allow you to place an

image in the middle of a block of text
 Four possible alignment of text choices are
Wrapping
offered
 distance from the text to the picture can also
be specified

 Place a block of color or a pattern behind the

image
Colors and
 Place a box around the image, change the
Lines thickness and character of the line making
the box

 Change the size of the picture using an

Size inches scale, or a percent scale
(best done by clicking and dragging)

 Change the position of the image on the

Position page
(best done by clicking and dragging)

Step 9. Resize the image by clicking and dragging. Click once on the image
and it will be surrounded by eight boxes; one at each corner, and one in the middle
of each line.

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If you click on a box in the middle of a line and drag outward from the center of the
image you will change only the width or height of the picture, causing distortion.

If you click on a corner box, hold the shift key down, and drag outward from the
picture you will change width and height proportionally. If the aspect ratio is locked,
Word automatically does this without your having to hold down the shift key.

Step 10. Move the image by clicking and dragging. Click once on the image
and it will be surrounded by eight boxes; one at each corner, and one in the middle
of each line.

Move your cursor over the image and it becomes a pointer with a four headed
arrow attached to it. Click anywhere in the picture and drag it to the desired
location.

Assignment

Leave your browser window open. Open Microsoft Word, if it is not already
open.

1. Open a new Word document to be used to create a certificate. This

certificate will be awarded by a student to his/her favorite character in a
book
2. Turn the document to Landscape orientation.
3. Insert an image at the top center of the page using Word Clip Art.
4. Create a title for the certificate. Suggestion: "My Favorite Character"
5. Insert a name. Suggestion: "Character's name from book".
6. Write a short statement as to why the character was chosen.
7. Draw a line and leave a place for the student's name to be signed.
8. Print "Student's Name" below the line.
9. Save the document.

One possible use of this certificate would be as a template for students to

use to give you a novel book report.

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3.13 Spreadsheet-Ms Excel

Starting Excel 2003

In the following exercises you will learn some of the necessary steps to create a
spreadsheet using Microsoft Excel 2003 for Windows 2000, Me, and XP. You will
learn not only how to type various items into the spreadsheet, but also how to copy
columns, widen columns, fill columns, add, subtract, multiply, divide, do graphics
and a variety of other ―things.‖

To begin, load the spreadsheet by quickly clicking twice on the

Excel 2003 Windows Icon in the Windows Screen. If you do
not see an Excel Icon, click-on the Start Button in the lower left
corner of the screen, move the cursor up to Programs, and then
move to Microsoft Excel 2003 and click-on it.

A spreadsheet is a ―number manipulator.‖ To make the manipulation of

numbers easier all spreadsheets are organized into rows and columns. Your
initial spreadsheet will look something like the one below:

Notice that the ―main‖ part of the spreadsheet is composed of Rows (Labeled 1,
2, 3, 4, etc.) and Columns (Labeled A, B, C, D, etc.). There are a lot of rows
and columns in a spreadsheet. The ―intersection‖ of each row and column is

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called a cell. In the image above the cursor is on the ―home‖ cell – A1. Notice
Row 1 and Column A are “bold,” and colored “orange.” This indicates what is
called the ―address of the cell. Notice right above cell A1, that A1 is
displayed in a small box called the Name Box. Whenever you ―click‖ on a cell the
address of that cell will be shown in the Name Box.

You can move around the spreadsheet/cells by clicking your mouse on various
cells, or by using the up, down, right and left arrow movement keys on the
keyboard. Or, you can move up and down by using the ―elevator‖ bars on the
right and bottom of the spreadsheet. Go ahead and move around the
spreadsheet. Hold down the down arrow key on the keyboard for a few
seconds – then click-on a cell. Notice how the Name Box always tells you
―where you are.‖ Now hold down the right arrow key on the keyboard for a few
seconds. Notice how the alphabet changes from single letters (A, B, C,. …. Z)
to several letter combinations (AA, AB, AC). There are hundreds of columns
and thousands of rows in a spreadsheet. Anytime you desire to return to the
Home Cell (A1) simply click-in the Name Box and type-in A1. Then tap the
Enter key and you will go to cell A1. You can go to any cell by this method.
Simply type-in a row and column, tap the Enter key, and you’ll go to that cell.

Now that you have the ―feel‖ of how to move around Excel spreadsheet, go to the
cells as indicated below and type-in the following:

Cl (Your Name)'s Budget. It should look similar to the image below. Do

not tap Enter when you finish

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Look at cells C1 and D1. Notice how your entry has spilled over from C1 into
D1. Sometimes this is a problem, and sometimes it is not. Tap the Enter key and
then click-on cell D1 and type-in the word BONZO and tap Enter key.

Notice how Bonzo now COVERS the right part of your original entry!! Now
move back to cell C1 and click-on it. Look at the upper part of the spreadsheet,
just above the cells where you typed Bonzo. Your name and the word budget are
still there! Bonzo only COVERED the portion in cell D1. See the image and
arrow below.

There are several ways to take care of this. For the moment move back to cell
D1 and click-on cell D1. Tap the Delete key (above the arrow movement keys on
the keyboard). Notice that Bonzo disappears and your entire entry

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reappears. This is one way to expose the entry. We'll look at some others as we
go along. Now we'll continue making some entries. Move to the following cells
and type-in the information indicated. You can click-on each cell and then type-
in the entries. If you happen to make a mistake simply retype the entries.
Later on we'll see how to edit mistakes. Any time you want to replace something in
a cell you can simply retype a new entry and it will replace the old one.

Cell Type-in

A3 Income

B4 Parents

B5 Job

B6 Investments

B7 Total

A10 Expenses

B11 Food

B12 Beverages

B13 Parties

B14
Miscellaneou
s

B15 Total

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Your spreadsheet should now look like the picture on the right.

At this point you probably have noticed, the words "Investments" and
"Miscellaneous" run over the spaces given in the cells. Do not be concerned at this
point. We’ll soon fix this.

Now, type the numbers in the

cells indicated:

C4 300
C5 50

C6 150

When you type-in the 150, tap

Enter.

Your spreadsheet should look

like the one on the right. We
would like to place an underline at the bottom of the three figures so
that we can indicate a total below – in cell C7. Point to cell C7 with the
mouse. That's where we want the line -- always move the cursor to
the place where you want to insert a line. With the Arrow on cell C7
tap the RIGHT mouse button.

A sub-menu with a caption Format Cells

appears.

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The right click will ―always bring up‖ a menu that is ―tailored‖ to the ―place‖
where you click. This will work in any Microsoft Windows product. You can always
tell “where” you click the right mouse button for the cursor arrow will
always be in a corner of the menu that appears – exactly where you clicked the
right mouse button..

Select Format Cells.

When the Format Cells menu screen below appears, select Border.

Look at the Line Style

box in the lower right.
There are several types
of lines that you can
choose. Point to the
thick single line in the
Style Area (see
arrow) and click the
left mouse button. A
box will go around the
line. Look at the area
which says Border.
Point to the upper part
of the Text box (see
arrow) and click the
left mouse button. A
thick black line will appear at the top of the Text box.

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If the thick line does not show-up at the top of the Text box, click-again at
the ―top line area in the Text box‖ and the line will ―disappear‖. Then click-on the
thick, single line in the Line Style box again and repeat the previous instructions.
If, somehow, you make a mistake, simply click ―on and off in the Text line
boxes.‖ You will notice that the lines appear and disappear. This is called a
―toggle‖ in computer jargon. So, work at this until you get the line on the top or
where you want it. We have just indicated that we want a single thick underline at
the top of the cell C7. Point to OK and click the left mouse button.

When you return to the spreadsheet, click somewhere other than cell C7.
This is called ―clicking away.‖ You should now see a line at the top of cell C7.
Sometimes the box highlighting a cell hides the lines. If you ―messed-up‖, try
again.

Now type in the numbers in the cells indicated.

C11 30

C12 50

C13 150

C14 70 (After you type 70, tap the Enter key)

Now, underline the top of cell C15 like you did cell C7.

Widening Columns
You probably noticed, as you typed in the numbers, some of the words were just
too wide for the default cell width (Investments and Miscellaneous). Let's widen
column B to take care of this.

Slowly move the mouse arrow to the right edge of the B cell (between the B
and the C). The cursor will turn into an arrow pointing right and left with a
small vertical line in the middle (see arrow below). Hold down the left
mouse button and move (drag) the line to the right.

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As soon as you start to move (drag), a dotted vertical line will go down the
spreadsheet and it will move as you hold down the left button and drag the
mouse. Keep dragging to the right until you are past the widest word and a bit
more (for some space). Release the button. The column is widened. Notice in the
upper left corner of the screen, below File in the menu bar, and above the buttons,
that as you hold down and drag that it tells you that current width
of the column.

This is one way to widen a column. Here is another way. Point

to the B at the top of column B (in the Gray area) and click the
left mouse button (The cell should turn dark blue and the
column light blue.).

Now, keeping the cursor somewhere in the ―blue‖

area, click the Right Mouse Button. Notice that a
menu with Column Width… appears.
Click-on Column Width… and type in 15 and
click-on OK. This is another way to widen a
column.

Inserting Rows

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Oops... a mistake (on purpose). We haven't left enough room at the top of the
spreadsheet to insert some budget months. So... move the cursor to the gray 2
along the left edge (this is the second row) so we can insert two new rows.
Click the left mouse button. You will notice that the whole row goes light blue
and the 2 turn‟s dark blue. Make sure the cursor arrow is either on the 2 or
somewhere in the blue row.

Click the RIGHT mouse button. A drop down menu will

appear. Point to Insert. Click the left button on Insert.
Notice how one row was inserted and how everything
below moved down. Do this again to insert another
row. Excel, and all spreadsheets, will remember
where they moved your work and automatically
adjust for these changes. Income should now be in cell A5.

Aligning Cells

Now we'll type some more. Go to cell

C3 SEPT (Type-in SEPT and tap the Enter key)

Notice again how SEPT is automatically left aligned. Logically,

since you are using Excel, the English version, the text is left
aligned so that all of the text entries will line up nicely in the
column cells. We would like to center SEPT in cell C3. Click on
cell C3 to ―mark‖ the cell. One way to center SEPT is to simply click-on the
Center button in the button bar at the top of the screen. Make sure that you

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are ON cell C3, then click-on the center button (see image above right).
You’ll notice that SEPT is now centered in cell C#.

Here is another way to center SEPT. Click RIGHT

on cell C3. Then click on Format Cells.

When the Format

Cells Menu appears,

click-on the –
Alignment Tab and then
click-on -- Horizontal -
Center --Vertical -
Center -- then click OK.
Try it.

This is how you can align

words for neatness. You
can also point to several
cells you want aligned
and do this. We'll try that next.

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134 Compiled by ICT Department©2011 KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC
Now type the below text in the cells indicated.

D3 OCT

E3 NOV

F3 DEC

G3 MONTHLY TOTALS (tap the Enter key and then correct the
width of

this column)

Next we‟ll highlight cells C3 through G3. To do this, point to C3 and click the
Left

mouse button. Then, holding down the left mouse button, drag the mouse to
the right through G3 – when the cells are highlighted – take your finger off
of the left mouse button. Then point to the group of cells and click the right
mouse button to bring up the Format Cells menu. Click on Alignment and choose
Center (vertical & horizontal). Then point to OK and click the left mouse
button. All of the cells will then be as centered.

You could also click the Center button as you did before.

MONTHLY TOTALS will not fit its space when you do this. But, you know what
to do. Move the cursor over the line between cells G and H and drag the line to
the right to widen the G cell just like you did a few minutes ago.

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Saving Spreadsheets

We have done quite a bit of work so now is a

good time to save our spreadsheet. Point to
File in the Menu Bar at the top of the
spreadsheet. Point to Save As and click-
on Save As. A Save As menu box appears (like the one below).

Notice in the upper left corner

that there is a ―box‖ to the right
of Save In: with a down pointing
arrow to the right. Click-on the
arrow. This will show you all of the ―drives‖ and ―folders‖ where you may save
your work.

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When you see the drop-down list in the Save in: area, choose the drive where you
want to save your file. If you are going to use a diskette, put a formatted 3 ½
diskette in the A Drive, then click-on the 3 ½ Floppy (A):. We are going to
save our file on the Local Disk (C:) – our hard drive, so we chose that drive in the
image above (see top arrow).

To the right of File name:, delete the information (which is in the box) and type-
in MYBUDGET (see lower left arrow). This is the name under which you are
saving your file. (In the future you will choose logical names for your spreadsheets
as you save them.) Now point to Save and click the left mouse button (see lower
right arrow).

Exiting Spreadsheets

Anytime you need to leave your spreadsheet

simply click on File in the menu bar, then
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click-on Exit. If you have not saved your spreadsheet, a reminder box will
appear asking you to do so.

Retrieving Spreadsheets

When you need to return to a spreadsheet,

you first load Excel, as you did originally
(Page 1). When Excel is on the screen, click-
on File in the

menu bar then click-on Open.

The following Open menu screen will appear:

Click on the down arrow to the right of the Look in: box (Similar to the arrow in
the Save in: box – see top arrow). Click-on the 3 ½ Floppy (A:), or the drive or

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folder you chose. Files saved on a disk or in a folder will appear in the box below.
Click-on your file (MYBUDGET), and then click-on Open. Your file will open. You
could also double-click quickly on the file to open it.

Also, if you have not done so already, move your cursor slowly over the
"buttons" located below the menu bar. You will notice a little box appears that
tells you what these buttons do. These little boxes are called Text Help boxes.
Many of them will save you extra ―clicks‖ by using them. Notice, that under File
and Edit in the Menu bar, there are a small folder (Open) and a diskette
(Save). Clicking-on them will take you directly to Open and Save.

Adding Numbers

Next we want to learn how to add numbers. There are several ways to do this.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.

To do this, begin by moving your cursor to cell C9, and clicking-on cell C9.

Always move to the cell where you want the answer

to be located.

TYPE-IN METHOD

We want to add the three numbers in cells C6, C7 and C8. To use this method
type-in (using the keys on the keyboard) the following in cell C9:

= C6 + C7 + C8

Your spreadsheet should look like

the image to the right as you are
typing in this equation. Note: you

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don’t have to use capital letters – we only did this because they are easier to ―see‖
in the tutorial.

Now – tap the Enter key. Then,

click on cell C9 again. The total
of these cells will now appear in
C9.

When you have completed typing your equation, you will

see this formula in the area below the menu bar.

Change the number in cell C6 to 500 (and tap Enter). See how the total
AUTOMATICALLY recalculates!!!

THIS IS THE TRUE POWER OF THE SPEADSHEET !!!

Whenever a number is entered in a cell the entire spreadsheet will

automatically recalculate.
Something happened here. Notice how you typed in an (equal sign) = before
the cell location. If you had simply typed in C6 + C7 + C8, Excel would have
thought this entry was a word (text) and this entry would have shown as you
typed it.

Try this if you want. Any time you ―create‖ an error in Excel, you can simply re-
type or edit the formula to correct the error.

The Type in Method is really easy if you have a few numbers and can see their
cell locations on the screen. If you have a lot of cells in the formula, which are
on several screens, this is not such a great method. The next method will work a
lot better for numbers ―all over the place.‖

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Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division
You can put in a (minus) - for subtraction, (asterisk) * for multiplication, and
(slash) / for division. As you become more capable we'll, build some nifty
formulas – using these features.

Point Method

Move to cell C9 again and click-on it. We'll now add the numbers a second way.
Tap the Delete key on the keyboard to delete the current formula.

First, tap the = and then POINT (move) the cursor over cell C6 using the
mouse, tap the left mouse button on cell C6
(you will see a marquee box go around the cell).
Now tap a + and move cursor to C7, tap the
left mouse button, and tap another + and
move the cursor to C8 and tap the left mouse
button (notice how as you " + and point " the
addition formula is being built in cell C9), now
tap Enter. The same formula can be built
using the arrow movement keys on the keyboard (except that you don’t have
to click-on each cell as the cell is marked - as you move the arrows). Notice, as
you are entering the cell addresses, that as you place another + in the formula,
that the cursor ―returns” to cell C9. Also notice, as you point to each cell that
it is highlighted by a ―marquee box.‖ This ―tells‖ you what cell you’ve pointed
to. Pretty neat!

This method is good when you need to move to numbers that are spread out
all over the place. Some people like it best and use it all the time -- it's your
choice.

Function Method
Move again to cell C9. Delete the formula by tapping the Delete key again.

Now type in the following:

=SUM(

[This tells Excel that we are going to sum some numbers in a RANGE which will
follow the =SUM(.]

There are two ways to put in this range:

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Arrow Key and Anchor Method: With the keyboard arrow keys, move the
cursor to cell C6. As you move you will notice that the cell where the cursor is
located appears after the =SUM(. When you get to C6 tap the . (Period) Key.
This is called an ANCHOR and holds one end of the RANGE in place. You will
notice that a C6:C6 appears in the formula area under the button bar. This is
a one cell range. Now move, with the arrow keys, to cell C8. See how cells
C6, C7 and C8 are highlighted. This indicates the Range is C6:C8. Excel
assumes, logically, that these are the numbers you want to add. Now tap Enter.
The numbers still add, but now the formula reads =SUM(C6:C8) instead of
=C6+C7+C8 like it did before.

Mouse Method: Move again to cell C9. Delete the formula in cell C9 by
tapping the Delete key. Type in =SUM( as you did before. Point to Cell C6 –
with your mouse cursor. Click and hold down the left mouse button and
move/drag the cursor down to cell C8. (Cells C6, C7 and C8 should be
highlighted.) Now tap Enter.

This =SUM Function is a great way to add a lot of numbers, or a block/range

of numbers. By simply anchoring, and using page downs, or using the mouse,
you can highlight lots and lots of numbers to add quickly. However, since it only
sums you can't do subtraction, etc.

Point to cell C9 again. Tap the Delete key to remove the formula currently in cell
C9. This is a really important DELETE, since what we’ll explain below won’t
work correctly if you do not delete the formula in cell C9.

Functions

There are a number of formulas built into Excel,

like Sum. These formulas are called Functions.
Below the Menu Bar (see right) you will see a
―sigma‖ ∑ with a small down triangle to the right
of the sigma (see arrow on diagram to the right).
Click on the down triangle. The drop down menu
that you see on the right will appear. Move down to
More Functions and click-on More Functions.

Two menu screens will now appear at the same time. An ―Office Assistant‖
will appear (see image on left of next page) and you can ask it questions (the
little assistant may be a paper clip or just about anything). The Insert Function

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menu screen will also appear (see image on right of next page). The two
menu screens work together to assist you when you are using functions.

Let’s work with the Insert

Function menu screen.
Click-on the small down
arrow to the right of Or
select a category: (see
arrow at left).

In the drop down menu

that appears you can see
that there are all kinds of
formulas (functions) that
come with Excel
spreadsheet (e.g.
statistical, mathematical,
financial, etc.). Instead of
having to go to math,

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financial, or statistical tables in a book, you can enter data from your spreadsheet
into the formulas and receive answers.

This is a really great, timesaving feature. We’ll now show you how to use the Help
features of Excel 2003 to work with and understand these functions.

Click-on All in the drop down menu.

The Select a function menu will look like the image below.

Look at all the functions (formulas)! We’ll just go through how to use the addition
formula (SUM) in this tutorial. If you need these formulas in the future, you’ll know
they’re here.

Use the elevator bar on the right side of the Select a function menu screen to
move down the list until you see SUM. Click-on SUM.

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Then click-on OK.

Remember, you clicked-on Cell C9 – which was ―empty‖ because you deleted the
formula in that cell.

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When you click-on OK, the Function Arguments menu screen (above) will
appear. If you look at the top of the screen in the SUM area, you’ll see that
Excel 2003 has ―guessed‖ that you desire to add the numbers above cell C9 –
where you clicked in your spreadsheet. Smart Excel! Notice that it indicates that
cells C6:C8 will be added (sum cells C6 through C8 – the colon (:) means
―through.‖ It also indicates the numbers in cells C6, C7 and C8 and give you the
sum {300;50;150} = 500 (right arrow above).

But it’s a little unclear how Excel did this. The Help in Excel Functions is excellent.
So, to see how this SUM equation works, we’ll go to Help. To do this, click-on
Help on this function in the lower left corner of the screen (see lower left
arrow above).

On the right side of your screen you will see a Microsoft Office Excel Help
window appear (similar to the one above) that will show you how to use this
SUM function (or any function).

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One of the really neat things about these Help windows is that there are examples
for each function. We moved down the SUM help screen using the elevator bar
on the right of the help screen. The bottom of the screen looks like the image
at the top of the next page. Spend a few minutes looking at the SUM Help
window and notice all of the features.

The bottom of
the SUM help
screen looks
like the image
on the left.
Notice that it
gives you
examples from
a small
spreadsheet that
has data in cells
A1 through A6.
It uses these
numbers in the
examples at the
bottom of the
help screen.

When you have reviewed all of the help you care to see, carefully click-on the X
at the upper right corner of the Microsoft Office Excel Help blue bar to close
the Microsoft Excel Help window. If you accidentally close the spreadsheet,
simply reply yes to Save, and then re-open the spreadsheet as you did on
pages 10 &
11.

147
The Function Arguments menu screen will still be on the screen.

If the Office Assistant is still on the screen simply point to it and click the
RIGHT mouse button. A pop-up menu will appear. Click-on Hide. This will put
the Assistant away until we need it again

As you can see, in the area to the right of Number 1, the ―Wizard‖ has “guessed”
that you want to add the numbers in the range C6 to C8. Now that you are
becoming proficient with Excel, we’ll try something special. Carefully, point to
some “plain part,” in the gray area above. Click and hold down the left
mouse button, and drag the above SUM box “away” so that you can see your
numbers in C column cells. When you have done this, release the mouse button.
Now click-on the ―small box‖ on the right edge of the Number 1 area (see
arrow above). It has a little red arrow in it.

The below Function Arguments window will appear.

148
Highlight cells C6 to C8 in the spreadsheet (click-on C6, hold down the left
mouse button, and drag until the three cells are highlighted). A “marquee”
will begin to flash around the cells, indicating they are highlighted (left arrow
above). The Function Arguments area will appear as above. Now click-on
the small button on the right of the cell (see right arrow above). The
numbers will show in the area to the right of Number 1. Now, click-on OK at
the bottom of the Function Arguments menu screen. You’ll see that the SUM
formula [=SUM(C6:C8)] shows in the formula area at the top of the screen.
This is a really handy method to highlight a ―group‖ of numbers you want to add.

AutoSum METHOD - ∑
Since we add numbers more than any other operation in
spreadsheets, Excel spreadsheet has an additional feature - Auto
Sum. Move to cell C9 again and tap the delete key to erase your
last formula. Now look at the upper area of the screen, just below
the menu bar, for a ∑ (summation) symbol button.
Point to it and click with the left mouse button.
WOW !! Automatic addition!! Notice that the
cells, you’d logically desire to add, have a marquee
around them and that the SUM function is
displayed in cell C9. You’ll need to confirm that this
is the correct formula. So, tap the Enter key and
the SUM function will now be set in cell C9. Any time you want to add using this
method just click-on the cell where you desire the total to be and click-on the ∑.

Now move to cell C17 and add the total Expenses in cells C13 to C16 -
using each of the four methods.

While you are in cell C17, go ahead and place a line at the top of cell C17 using
the format cells – border method that you learned on Page 5.

Subtraction

149
In cell A19 type-in Net Income. Next, adjust the width of column A (Page 6).

Click-on cell C19.

In cell C19 we want to subtract ( - )the amount in for Expenses in cell C17 from
the amount for Income in cell C9. This can be accomplished by using either the
Type-In Method or Point Method. Go ahead and do this. Don’t forget to tap the
Enter key to confirm your formula.

The formula should look like =C9-C17

More Cell Formatting

We want our numbers to look better. To do this we'll include dollar signs and
decimal points in our numbers. This is done by using the mouse. Point to cell
C6, hold down the left mouse button and drag down slowly to highlight
cells C6 through C19. Your screen should look like the one at the top of the
next page.

Now point anywhere in the highlighted

area and click the RIGHT mouse
button. A pop-up menu will appear.
Click-on Format Cells (like you have
done before).

Click-on the Number ―Tab‖ at the top of the

Format Cells menu screen. Point to
Currency and click-on Currency.

150
Notice several
things. The right
side shows the
number of decimal places. The 2 is the default for cents. We'll use 2. Notice
above the Decimal Places that there is a sample of what our number will look
like. At the lower right it shows how negative numbers can appear,
depending on your choice. When a negative number is calculated, it will appear
with your choice. Now click-on OK. All the numbers now have $. If you have
large numbers that are "too wide" for the current column width you will see
some ######## in the cells where these numbers are located. If this occurs in
your spreadsheet, go ahead and widen the columns as you did previously (Page
6).

151
Your spreadsheet numbers should now look like the one on the left.

Division and Percent

Now move to cell A21 and type in the word Percent. We're going to calculate a fun
percentage to show you how division works and give you some more practice with
numbers.

Now move to cell C21. Using either the Type-In Method or the Point Method,
divide ( / ) the amount for Income in cell C9 by the amount for Expenses in cell
C17.

[The formula should look like =C9/C17]

This will give you a horrid number so why not put a percent symbol with it. Now
we’ll repeat what we did above to format our $$$$.

Point to cell C21 and click the RIGHT mouse button. Point to Format Cells, then
click the Number tab, then click-on Percentage. Select zero ( O ) Decimal
Places. Click OK. Ta Da !!! a %.

Copying

We could repeat what we did to this point

and fill in the Income and Expenses for
each of the remaining columns. There is
a simpler way to do this. Assuming
our income and expense amounts are
about the same, throughout the months,
we want to copy the amounts in
Column C to Columns D, E and F. This
will require two “steps.‖

152
Move your cursor to cell C6. First, we'll highlight what we want to copy; next
we'll tell the spreadsheet where we want to place what we've copied. So,
point to C6, hold down the left mouse button and drag down the column
until cells C6 through C21 are high-lighted. Your highlighted area should look
like the one on the left.

Now, point to Edit in the Menu bar. Click the left button. Point
to Copy in the menu that appears. Click the left button. The
menu disappears.

You will notice that once again, when you highlight an area, a
marquee of running lights moves around the copy area. So,
you’ll know you highlighted the correct area (image on right).

Now we'll tell the program where to copy the information. Point to cell D6, click
and hold down the left mouse button and drag down and to the right to cell
F21 (This will highlight three columns -- OCT, NOV, DEC -- to copy to.). When
you have finished your highlighting, your screen should look like the one at the
top of the next page.

153
Now point to Edit in the Menu Bar again and click the left button. Point to
Paste. Click left button. Wow !' All those numbers and dollar signs and
formulas - EVERYTHING - was copied in a flash!! That sure saved us a lot of
time.

154
Note: You can also utilize the copy and paste buttons in the button bar to do
this if you desire.

Change a few numbers in each of the months in both the income and
expense areas to see how the spreadsheet works. (This will make the
graphs we’ll create more realistic when we create them later in the tutorial.)

This would be a great time to Save again.

Now for something to do on your own.

Entering formulas in the Monthly Totals

Column

Move to cell G6 under the title Monthly Totals.

Choose one of the formulas you learned
earlier to add each of the amounts in
Parents for the four months. Use any of the
four methods you desire. Your spreadsheet
should look like the one to right, just before
you copy the formulas.

155
After you have completed your formula copy it to cells G7 through G19. You will
see some "stuff (zeroes)" in cells G10, 11, 12, and 18. This is because there
was "nothing there" to add. So, go in and clean-up these cells by deleting the
zeros in these cells.

Next, go to cells G9 and G17 and underline like you did before (Page 5).

Copying Percentage Formula

Notice that we didn‟t copy the percentage formula

when we started this last copying effort. If we had copied
a SUM formula, it would have added the four
percentages. We don’t want the sum of the percentages.
We want a percentage of just the Monthly Totals. So,
we need to copy this percentage separately. Now, copy
the percentage formula in cell F21 to cell G21. Now put
a $ in cells G6 through G19 if you need to, and a % in
G21. Your spreadsheet column G should look
something like the image on the right

This would be a great time to Save again.

Absoluting (and multiplication)

There are times, when we are working with a spreadsheet, that we do not want a
cell to "roll" to the next column when we use the copy feature of the
spreadsheet – like it did in our last copying exercise. To stop the cells from
―rolling‖ we utilize something called absoluting. The following is an illustration of
absoluting.

Go to cell A23 and type-in Number. Go to cell A25 and type-in Result.

Go to cell C23 and type in a 2 – and tap the Enter key.

156
We'll now create a formula to multiply our number times Net Income. You may
use either the Type-in or Point method. Go to cell C25, and type-in a formula to
multiply cell C23 times cell C19.

The formula should look like: =C23*C19

The result in C25 should be two times the net income in cell C19.

Now copy the formula in cell C25 to cells D25, E25, F25 and G25. Your row 25
should look similar to the one below.

Point to each of the cells D25, E25, F25 and G25. Notice, as you click on
each cell and look at the screen, how C23 (the cell with the 2) "rolled" and
became D23, E23, F23 and G23 (which are blank - this caused the "0's"). A
blank times a number is a ―0.‖We want the 2 to be in each formula and not
to "roll".

To do this we utilize something called Absoluting or Anchoring.

Go back to cell C25. Now we'll enter the formula again, but a little
differently (to anchor the 2).

Type-in a =C23 (or you could type = and point to C23). NOW, tap the F4 key.
Notice, in the Edit bar at the top of the screen, that the =C23 changes to:
$C$23. (This tells you that cell C23 is absoluted or anchored. The "$'s"
indicate the absoluting.) Now finish the formula by typing in or pointing *C17
as before. Tap Enter.

The formula should look like: =$C$23*C19

Now copy the formula in cell C25 to cells D25, E25, F25 and G25 again. Your
row 25 should look similar to the image below.

The numbers should now be correct. Point to cells D25, E25, F25 and G25 (like
you did before). You will notice the "$'s" have copied the =$C$23 to each cell

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(absoluting) and the Net Income figures have rolled as they should. Absoluting is
something you should know and understand.

Pause and reflect -- Look at all you have accomplished. If you want go in
and change some more numbers or change the income and expense titles to
something you feel is more fun or appropriate, please do so.

This would be a great time to Save again.

The next important lesson is to learn how to print. This done with a few easy
steps.

Printing

First, move to cell A1.

All of the Windows spreadsheets try to figure out what you want to print. Sometimes
they're right,

sometimes they're wrong. So........

The most important thing with printing is to tell the printer what to print.

Unlike a word processor, you may need to highlight what you want to print. For
the moment, we’ll assume that Excel 2003 will ―guess‖ correctly, and that you have
not ―clicked‖ somewhere that will cause a problem. If you do have problem, which
we’ll know in a second, we’ll show you how to take care of the problem a bit later.

It's usually a good idea to see what our printout will look like –
before you print it. First, we’ll use a Print Preview to ―see‖
what our spreadsheet looks like. To do this we’ll click-on the
Print Preview Button in the Button Bar. Point to the Print
Preview button and click on it.

A picture, of what our printout will look like, appears on the next page.

At the top of the Print Preview screen you will see the button bar above. We’ll
use a number of the buttons on this bar to assist us with our printing.

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Notice that the Next and Previous buttons at the left end of the bar are not
highlighted with text – they are just gray. This means that the buttons are not
“active.” This indicates that we are OK with our spreadsheet – it is all on one
page. If we saw that the Next button was active, this would mean that there are
other pages to our spreadsheet. If you’ll look at the lower left corner of the
Print Preview screen you’ll see: Preview: Page 1 of 1. This confirms that our
spreadsheet is on one page. If you do not see this “combination,” we‟ll
show you how to take care of it later.

If you do see this combination, click-on the Print button. Click-on OK in the
Print menu screen that appears. Label this printout as: Default Spreadsheet
Printout.

Next, notice that an ―image‖ of your spreadsheet appears below the button
bar (above).

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If you move your cursor over the spreadsheet, you’ll notice that the cursor
changes from an arrow to a tiny magnifying glass. If you click the left mouse
button, your magnifying glass will “zoom-in” on the exact spot where the
magnifying glass is located. If you click-again, it will zoom-out. Try this a
couple of time. It is a really handy feature.

Now click-on Setup in the top button bar.

The Page Setup menu screen at the top of the next page will appear.

Notice that the Page Setup menu screen indicates that you are in Portrait view.
Now we’ll enhance the spreadsheet to make it a bit more presentable. In the
Orientation area click-in the small circle in front of Landscape (see arrow
above). The spreadsheet will now print on the page as indicated. Next, in the
Scaling area, click-in the box to the left of % normal size. Using either the

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―up/down” arrows, or by typing in the information, change the size to 125.
Then click-on OK.

Your spreadsheet will now be larger and fill the paper more appropriately. Click-on
Print and when this spreadsheet comes out of the printer label it: landscape –
enlarged to 125 %.

Go ahead and adjust the ―size‖ of your spreadsheet so that it becomes too large
to fit on a single page. Set the Scaling to 200 and click-on OK. When you return
to the Preview screen, the Next and Previous buttons at the top will now be
active, and you’ll see 1 of 3 or 4 pages in the lower left corner of the screen.
Go ahead and click-on the Next and Previous buttons to get a ―feel‖ of the ―size‖ of
your spreadsheet. If you click-on Print (please don’t do it), you’ll get these 3 or 4
pages. If you made a mistake when you created the spreadsheet, you might see
that you have 58 pages in your spreadsheet!

Now, click-in the small circle to the left of Fit 1 page(s) wide by 1 tall in the
Scaling area and make sure that 1 page is set. Excel 2003 will now return your
spreadsheet to one page. Try other things here. Work with the Margins,
Header/ Footer, and Sheet tabs at the top of the Page Setup menu screen. Any
time you desire to print, go ahead and do so. This will give you a feel for how the
spreadsheets will print. When you are finished, simply click-on Close and you will
return to your spreadsheet.

Many folks ask how to center a spreadsheet on the page. This feature is
located in Margins at the bottom of the Margins screen. Simply click-on Margins at
the top of the Preview screen or on the Margins tab when you are in the Page Setup
screen.

Many folks also ask about how to place gridlines and show the row and column
headings (A, B, C and 1, 2, 3) in their spreadsheet printouts. This feature is
located on the Sheet tab in the Setup screen menu.

Cure for the problem – if you have too many spreadsheet pages.

Simply click-on cell A1 and highlight

your spreadsheet down through cell
G25. This time however, after you‟ve
highlighted A1 through G25, click-on
File in the Menu Bar and then click-on
Print. In the lower left corner of the
Print menu screen you will see an
area that looks like the image on the
right. Click-in the small circle to the left of Selection. This indicates to Excel

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that you only want to print the area you’ve highlighted. Click OK. Only the
section that you’ve highlighted will print. You can still modify your spreadsheet
if you desire. Once you’ve clicked by Selection, you may click-on the Preview
button in the Print menu screen and you will see a preview of your highlighted area.
Follow the instructions above to modify as you desire.

Now we'll call it a day and close Excel 2003 for Windows. First, let's save our work
one more time. If you forget, Excel will remind you to do it. What a nice
program!!

Point to the Edit menu and click the left button. Point to Exit. Click the left
button. That's it for now.

When you return, we'll retrieve our work and do some really neat graphics. To
open your spreadsheet again, follow the instructions on Pages 10 and 11.

Graphics

This will be a lot of fun. We are now going to turn your spreadsheet numbers into
graphics -- bar charts, pie charts, etc. This will greatly assist you when you display
and explain your work.

Before we do this there are a couple of essential steps. First we have to tell an
Excel 2003 "Wizard" what we want to chart and then were we want the chart to
go.

First: in cell B9 type-in Income (to replace the word Total). Next, type-in
Expenses in cell B17 for the same reason.

Something new.... Hold down the left mouse button and highlight cells B3 to
F3. Next HOLD DOWN the Ctrl key at the bottom of the keyboard, and while
you are holding it down, highlight cells B9 through F9. You will now see two
"ranges" highlighted. Hold down the Ctrl again, and highlight cells B17
through F17. These three ranges will make up your chart. The x-axis will be
made up of B4 - F4. And, the two sets of bars (series) will make-up Income and
Expense. When you complete the above instructions, your screen should look like
the one below.

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If your spreadsheet does not look exactly like the one above, please try again.
This is a bit tricky and it often takes even experienced spreadsheet folks a couple of
―tries‖ to get the highlighting just right.

We’ll use the easiest method for our first chart (graph).

In the Menu Bar click-on to Insert, then click on

Chart. The Chart Wizard – Step 1 of 4 Chart Type
menu screen will appear (like the one at the top of
the next page).

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The Chart Wizard shows
the various types of
charts in Chart type: (on
the left side of the menu
screen).

Examples of the
selected chart type show
on the right under Chart
sub-type. We’ll stay
with Column and the
chart selected for now.

Click Next.

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The Wizard (on the last page) shows you what your chart will look like. The
―ranges‖ you selected originally are shown in the Data range: area. If you did
not highlight as indicated, your chart won‟t "look right." Your chart should
look like the example above. If you click-on the Series tab at the top of the
Wizard screen, you’ll see a new Wizard screen that shows you where the Income
and Expenses series came from. Click-back on the Data range tab at the top.
Now click-in the little circle in front of Columns. The Wizard will indicate that
the chart has been ―rotated” 90 degrees and thus the axis has changed. This is
often called a ―pivot.‖ Click-back in the small circle in front of Rows. Click Next
again.

The Chart Wizard Step 3 of 4 menu will appear: Titles (similar to the image
above). Click-in the blank area under Chart Title. A flashing cursor will appear.
Type-in your name with an apostrophe („) s and the word Budget (ex.
Janie's Budget). Now, click-in the area under Category (X) axis: and type in
Months. Next, click-in the area under Value (Y) axis: and type in Dollars. You
probably noticed that as you entered these titles, the chart in the area on the right
of the Wizard changed to give you an ―instant‖ preview of your final chart. You will
also notice that there are several tabs at the top of the Wizard. Click-on each of
the tabs and see what ―they do‖. Notice how some change axis and put in grid
lines. The legend is the small box on the right, which indicates what the colors

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of the ―bars‖ represent (Income and Expenses). Click Next one last time. The
Step 4 page of the Wizard will now appear (image at the top of the next page)

This is the final Wizard page. You’ll notice that it asks you where you want to put
your chart. Since this is your first chart, it is best if you select As a new sheet:
(see arrow above). This will put your chart on a new tab called Chart 1. Now
click-on Finish, You’ll see that you chart has a tab of its own at the bottom of the
screen, and ―fills‖ an entire screen.

There's your chart. Again, notice that Excel created a new tab at the bottom of
the spreadsheet that says Chart 1. Any time the numbers change on Sheet 1,
the bars in Chart 1 will reflect the change automatically! Click on the Sheet
1 and Chart 1 tabs to get the feel of going back and forth between the data and
the chart. After you make your changes, click on the Chart 1 tab and you’ll see
how the chart has changed.

In Excel 2003, when you save your spreadsheet, you also save your graph.
Your graph is saved wherever you are working in the graph.

Changing (Renaming) Excel 2003 Tabs

If you would like to have logical names for your Excel 2003 spreadsheet tabs –
rather than Sheet 1 and Chart 1, we’ll now show you how to do this.

At the bottom of your

spreadsheet you will see you
tabs (like the image on the
right). To change the name of one

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of the tabs, place your cursor over a tab and click the RIGHT mouse button.

We’ll change the name of Chart 1 first.

When you click the Right mouse button the drop down menu screen to the right will
appear. Choose Rename.

When you choose Rename, the Chart 1 tab will ―turn

black‖ – like the image on the right. As soon as you see
this, type in the name you want for your chart. We
typed in Budget Chart.

As soon as we began typing, the tab name changed.

When we finished, our chart tab looked like the one on
the right.

Go ahead and name your Sheet 1 tab something more

logical than Sheet 1. We named our Sheet 1 tab Budget
Data.

Note: We are about to do some things which could mess-up your graph. If you
do get "messed-up" in the graph - don't save again. Simply Close the
worksheet and DON'T SAVE. Open the worksheet again and you will be in a nice
neat graph where you can experiment some more.

Click on the Budget Chart (or whatever you named it) tab.

Click-once on your title at the top. A ―box‖ with little squares on the corners
will appear. These are ―sizing grabbers‖. When you move the cursor over them
you will notice that the
cursor changes to small,
directional arrows. If you
click, hold down the left
mouse button, and drag
when you see these
arrows, you will notice
that the Title Box gets
larger or smaller as you
drag. Next, click-on the
name of your budget

167
until you get a flashing cursor somewhere in the title. With the arrow
movement keys, or mouse, move to the end of the title, to the right of the "t"
in Budget, and tap Enter. Type in Fall 2003. Now click at the beginning of your
name, hold down the left mouse button, and drag to highlight the first line of
the budget title with your name in it. Keeping the cursor on the dark area,
click the right mouse button. Click-on Format Chart Title.

Change the Font to Times New Roman (by moving up and down with the
arrows) or any font that you like. As you change things you will see the results in
Preview on the lower right. Change the size to 20. Change the color if you want.
Click OK.

Click-on the upper right hand corner of your gray graph area. You will see
little squares now appear at the four corners and sides of the graph area. Point to
the upper right corner square and move the cursor until you see an arrow with
two heads  . Hold down the left mouse button and drag down and to the left
then let go. Your graph will get smaller. Now point somewhere in an open gray
area of the graph (not on one of the bars) and click again. Hold down the left
mouse button and drag the graph area so it looks more "appropriate".

Click-on the Legend on the right (box with Income and Expenses). When you see
the corner ―grabbers,‖ make the Legend box a bit larger. Then click right in the
Legend area. Click Format Legend. Click the Font tab. Make the font bold
and size 14. Click OK.

If you desire to change the colors of the Income and E2003ense bars in the
graph, simply move the mouse over one of the bars and click the right mouse
button. Notice all the bars with the same color now have a little square in the
middle of each bar. The right click ―marked‖ the bars. Click Format Data
Series. Choose a color you like and then click OK.

Now let's look at your graph and then print it. Go to File - Print Preview. If you
like what you see go ahead and print the graph. If not, close Preview and make
some more graph changes.

Whenever your graph is visible, you can point to any area of the graph, and
click the right mouse button on the area, and edit that particular area. You can
also click-right in the chart itself. In the menu that appears, click-on chart type
and then select a different type of chart.

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3.14 Database – Ms Access

Using Access 2003 for Windows 2000/Me/2003

Starting Access 2003

Double click on the Access 2003 icon on the Windows desktop

(see right), or click-on the Start button in the lower left
corner of the screen, then click-on Programs, and then click-on Microsoft
Access.

The following Access 2003 Getting Started

Task Pane will appear on the right side of
your Access 2003 screen.

For Access 97 and 2000 users, the Task

Pane is something new in Office XP/2002
and 2003. It is used in all of the Office
modules. It replaces many of the Microsoft
Menu Screens, Wizards, and Catalogs that
were a part of the Office 97 and 2000
screens. Once you get used to the Task Pane,
and its flexibility, we think you’ll like it. There
are a lot of Task Panes in PowerPoint 2003,
FrontPage and Publisher 2003 – because they
are so ―graphic‖ in nature. There are few Task
Panes in Excel and Access 2003.

In the Open area of the Access 2003 Getting

Started Task Pane, click the left mouse
button on Create a new file.

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The New File menu screen at the on the right will appear when you click the left
mouse button on Create a new file.

Click–on Blank database.

Saving your work

One of the unique things about Access database is that it requires you to save
your database as soon as you enter the program.

You can save your work on a floppy diskette in the A: Drive, or on your C: Hard
Disk, or in some other drive, please save to these areas and substitute your Drive
in the instructions.

A File New Database menu screen, similar to the one below, will be on your
screen. We’ll have to do several ―things‖ to set-up this screen to save your

database.

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In the upper left corner of the File New Database menu screen that appears,
you will see a Save in: area (see upper left arrow above). Click-on the small
down arrow on the right and it will show you the various disk drives available
on which you can save (see right upper arrow above). Point to the drive on
which you want to save your database, and click-on it. If you choose the 3½
Floppy (A:), make sure you have a formatted disk in the A drive. If you choose
the C: drive, choose the folder in which you want to save by double clicking on the
folder. Your selection should now appear in the Save in: area

Next click-in the area to the right of File Name:. Delete any text that is entered
in the area and then type-in the word PERSON as shown at the bottom of the
above image (see lower left arrow).

Now click-on the Create button or tap the Enter key as shown on last page
(see lower right arrow on last page).

The following person: Database menu screen should now appear.

Creating a Table

You will notice, in the person:Database menu screen, in the left border:
Tables, Queries, Forms, Reports, Pages, Macros, and Modules. You will
notice at the top of the screen: Open, Design and New. You may create

171
multiple Tables (Databases), as well as multiple other items associated with the
items in the left border. As you create them, they will be shown in the "white"
area. In other words, the PERSON database can be made-up of, or contain, many
other databases (tables), reports, queries, etc.

For now, we'll do a basic database (table) creation. Later, you can try Table
Wizards when you have the "feel" for creating a table.

To begin designing the database, please click-on the Design

“button” at the top of the person: Database menu screen (see
arrow on last page).

You should now see a Table1: Table design screen similar to

the one below. If the Table: Table1 image does not “fill”
the screen, click-on the small square between the ―minus
and the X‖ in the upper right hand corner of the screen
(see arrow and image on right).

Notice, under the Blue Bar at the top of the design screen that there are (3)
things: Field name, Data Type, and Description, and, in the lower half of the
window; Field Properties (see arrows in image below).

172
Next you will be creating the fields that make up a database. This is similar to
creating a blank personnel form (on paper) that will be "filled-in" for each employee
(Name, Address, Phone Number, etc – are called fields in a database). These
"forms" are called records in a database. There will be a record, or form, for each
employee. All the forms, together, make up a Table (database). So let’s create a
personnel database.

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Significant Note: When creating a database it is always best to ―break down‖
a field into its ―smallest parts.‖ For example – Name would break down into First
Name, and Last Name (you could also have Middle Initial, Title, etc.) Address
would break down into Street Address, City, State, and Zip (you could also have
Apartment Number, etc). Because we are working in Access 2003 it will be very
simple to ―put the fields back together‖ with a few mouse clicks when we need to
do this. Trust us. This will save you a lot of time later on.

Look at the image on the right. Click-in

the area or space under Field Name and
type-in Last Name. Tap Enter or click-
in the area to the right under Data Type.
The cursor now moves to the right under
Data Type. Notice, that Text appears as
the default (and a box with a down-
arrow appears in the right side of the
box). Click-on the down arrow. Your
design screen should look like the one on the right.

Now we’ll talk about Data Type.

Data Type
Text You may type in any alphabetical/numerical data that you desire - up
to a maximum of 255 characters. As indicated, this is a text field, so
you can't do mathematical calculations. Examples of Text data are:
names, addresses, stock numbers, room numbers, zip codes, etc.

Memo This field is for lots of text. You can have up to 32,000
characters.

Number This field is for numbers where you want to add, subtract, multiply,
divide, average, and do numerical calculations. This field can be a
very large size, so when we get to Field Properties, we'll talk about
"sizing" this field so it doesn't take up to much "space" in storage.

Date/Time Dates and Times. You may format these later, as you may desire.

174
Currency Dollars ($). You may format these later, as you may desire.

AutoNumber This field is an "automatic" counter that assigns a number

each time you put data into a new field.

Yes/No This is a "True/False" or "Yes/No" type of field.

OLE Object This means "Object Link Embedding" which indicates you can insert a
graphic, picture, sound, etc. Pretty neat to put a photograph in a
personnel record or a picture of an inventory item in the stock record
(advanced stuff).

We'll leave Last Name as a Text Data Type. To the right under Description you
may make any remarks you feel are appropriate to someone who may want to
know how/why you designed the field as you did.

Now notice in the lower part of the screen, under Field Properties, that a box
appeared when you selected the Text Data Type. This box is "tailored" to the
Text Data Type that you selected above. Your Field Properties should look like
the one below when you finish doing the steps indicated below.

Field Properties
Field Size Is currently set to 50 characters. That's pretty large for a name.
So, click-

in this area and change the number to 25 (you can make this larger

175
 or smaller later if you have to).

Format Now click-in the Format Area. Next tap the F1 function key to
activate Help.

Since you are in the Format area, Help will be "tailored to" this
area. When the Help Window appears, click-on Text and Memo
Data Types (Notice that you click-on different Data Types, depending
on the Data Type you select). This gives you an idea of some formats.
We'll use one later. Now click-on the ―X‖ in the upper right corner
of the Microsoft Access Help – Format Property Window to close
it.

Input Mask We'll come back to this feature later.

Caption Look at the Gray Help area to the right. It explains about
Caption.

Default Value We'll come back to this feature later.

Validation Rule We'll come back to this feature later.

Validation Text We'll come back to this feature later.

Required Look at the Gray Help area to the right.

Allow Zero Length Look at the Gray Help area to the right.

Indexed Look at the Gray Help area to the right and tap F1 (Help)

Unicode Compression Look at the Gray Help area to the right.

IME Mode Look at the Gray Help area to the right and tap F1 (Help)

IME Sentence Mode Look at the Gray Help area to the right and tap F1 (Help)

Smart Tags Look at the Gray Help area to the right and tap F1 (Help)

Now we’ll repeat this process and create different Field Names and Data
Types (as necessary). Type-in the Field Names as indicated below and set
them to the Data Types and Sizes indicated.

Field Name Data Type Size

Last name Text 25 (Already Completed)

First name Text 20

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Social Security # Text 15

We'll use an Input Mask for our Social Security Number. Click-in the
Input Mask area in the Field Properties area at the bottom of the screen
(see left arrow below).

Notice there are three "dots" (...) in a box on the right. Click-on the
three dots (see right arrow above). An Input Mask Wizard will appear:
"Must Save Table First. Save
Now?".

Click-on Yes.

A Save As Window will now

appear. We'll save our Table
as Personnel, so type-in
Personnel in the area under
Table Name:, and click-on
OK.

Next, a Microsoft Access menu box will appear indicating There is No Primary

177
Key defined.

Click NO. (Keying, or indexing, is somewhat advanced. You can get a good
description by searching in Help for Keying.)

The Input Mask Wizard will show you some Sample Masks (you may scroll
up/down to view them). We'll use Social Security Number, so click-on it. Your
screen should look like the one below.

Now click-on
Next at the bottom of the Input Mask Wizard screen.

You will now see a default number of 000-00-0000 using dashes (-) between
the numbers. You can use anything you want.

178
We'll leave it as is, so click-on Next> again (at the bottom of the Input Mask
Wizard screen).

On this Input Mask Wizard screen you’ll see two choices. Click-in the little
circle to the left of With symbols in the mask, like this:. Sometimes, when we
use Access data as a part of mail merges or in labels, if we don’t save the dashes,
they won’t appear in our document. So, it always a good idea to save dashes.

Click-on Next> again.

Now click-on Finish. You will see some ―special‖ numbers written in the Input
Mask area for Social Security #. When you begin to enter data in this field,
you’ll see how this works. Your Field Properties area should look like the one
below.

Now continue entering the following information in the Field Name and Data
Type areas as we did above.

Street address Text 25

City Text 20

State Text 2

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Here we'll use a Format. First make the Field Size 2 then click-in the area
to the right of Format.

A down pointing arrow, like the one above (see arrow), will appear on
the right side of the Format area. If you click-on the arrow, the area will
appear blank (that's because we haven't entered a Format). Tap the F1 key
in the row of Function Keys at the top of the keyboard. A Help menu
screen ―tailored‖ to Format will appear )like the one below).

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Since we are working with a Text Data Type, click-on Text and Memo Data
Types (see arrow above).

Notice that a > will change any alphabetic character you type into all upper
case letters. Now point and click the ―X‖ in the upper right hand corner of
the Format Help Screen (notice that the Help Window closes "automatically").

Now type a > in the Format area. Your Field Properties area should look like
the one below.

Continue entering the following information in the Field Name and Data Type
areas as we did above.

Zip Text 5

Gender Text 1

Insert a > in the Format area to make all gender entries become
capitals (like you just did for State).

Favorite Number Number (Note: this is the first Number field)

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 Here we'll learn about Numbers, the Validation Rule and Validation Text.
We'll limit the person's favorite number to a number between 1 and 999.
Leave the Field Size set to Long Integer (Tap the F1 Function Key [Help]
to view the different Number Field Size descriptions). After you have
viewed the Number Help screens, click the small ―X‖ in the upper right
hand corner of the Help screen to close the Help screen.

Now click-in the area to the right of Decimal Places. It currently indicates
Auto. When you click there you will see a little down arrow on the right side of
the area. Click-on the little arrow. Select ―0.‖ This indicates that decimal places
are not allowed in the Favorite Number.

Next, click-in the Validation Rule area. We'll "build" a mathematical

expression that will only allow numbers from 1 to 999. Type in the following
expression (in the area to the right of Validation Rule):

> 0 and < 1000

This tells Access that the number entered must be between 1 and 999.

You’ll notice that when you click-in the Validation Rule area that three periods
(…) appear just like they did in Input Mask. If you want to click-on the three
periods they will bring up an Expression Builder which you can use to create the
mathematical formula above. Please note that frequently, if you are really not
great at math, the Expression Builder can cause problems. Sometimes, the
Expression Builder will ―insert‖ an <<expr>> in the formula. If it does this, delete

182
the <<expr>>. This will confuse Access, and will frequently cause the program to
―stop‖ until you remove <<expr>>. So, if you want to look at Expression Builder,
please do so. But – be careful.

If someone does not enter a number correctly, an error message will appear.
Now we'll create an appropriate error message. Click-in the Validation Text
area and type-in:

Favorite Number must be between 1 and 999.

When you finish all of the above, your Field Properties should look like the
one below.

Continue entering the following information in the Field Name and Data Type
areas as we did above.
Date hired Date/Time

In Format click-on the small down arrow on the right side of

the Format area and choose Short Date. In the Input Mask area
click-on the three dots (...), save the table, and again choose Short
Date, click Next>, click Next> again, then click Finish. (This will insert
a / between the day, month, year).

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Your Field Properties should look like the image below.

Salary Currency

In the Decimal Places Field Properties area click-on the small down
arrow on the right side and select 0 (zero) – this indicates ―no cents.‖
Notice the Default Value of 0 income will be inserted if no Salary figure is
entered. We'll leave it at zero. Your Field Properties screen should look like
the one below.

Application Received Yes/No

We‟ll make this a “Yes/No” or “check box” field. When we begin entering
data in the database, you‟ll see how this “box” works.

Point to and click on File in the Menu Bar then click on Save As. The Save As
Window will appear and Personnel should appear under Table Name: Click-on OK.
You could also click-on the small diskette Save Button if you desire.

Entering data in the database

At this point you will still be in the design

window. You have two choices. If you look at the
Button Bar just below the Menu Bar Area
(File, Edit, View, etc.) you will see that the
first button on the left that has a small
sheet of paper with some data on it (see
arrow on the right). Point to this button with the mouse and pause, you will see
a "Tool Tip" that indicates that this button is the View Button. This is logical

184
because you have been designing your table and now want to view the data that
you have placed in the database (table). If you are familiar with spreadsheets it
looks like a tiny version spreadsheet. You can click-on the View Button and go
right into entering data in your table. However, it might be good to see how to
enter data when we first open Access.

So, point and click-on File in the Menu Bar, then click-on Close. You will return
to the main database window where we started (PERSON: Database).

You should
see the
Tables
choice highlighted and
Personnel Table highlighted.
Notice that there are three
Buttons at the top portion of
the window which indicate:
Open, Design, New. If you
click-on New you can add
another table to the Person database. If you click-on the Personnel Table (make
sure that it is ―blue‖) and then click-on Open you will open the table you created.
You can now enter data. If you click-on Design, you will be back in the design
window and can alter your design. Note: if you find, as you’re entering data, that
if you made a field too small, you can go to Design View and make the field a larger
width at any time you desire. let's click-on Open. The Personnel Table will
appear on the screen. If the window does not fill the screen, point to the
Expansion “square” in the upper-right corner directly to the right of
Personnel: Table in the blue bar. This will expand your Table to fill the desktop.

Move the cursor arrow over the buttons below menu bar. As you do, notice
that the "Tool Tips" will tell you what each button does.

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Notice, below the Button Bar, that the fields you created in your
Personnel Table are displayed in what is called Datasheet View
(see above). Notice the small ―button‖ under File in the menu
bar. It shows a small blue triangle, pencil, and a ruler (like the
one on the right). This is a ―toggle‖ which will take you back to Design View - if
you need to make design changes while you are in Datasheet view. If you go
back to Design View, you can then ―toggle‖ back to Datasheet view when you have
made your corrections. Under Last Name you will see a flashing cursor; this
means that you are ready to begin entering data. You may type the data and
tap Enter, or click with the mouse in each field. If you make a mistake you
may retype the data. If you see a mistake later you can come back at any time
and correct it.Under each field, type the following in the area below the Field
Name:

Field Name To be typed

1. Last Name Butler

2. First Name Greg

3. Social Security # 123-45-6789

4. Street address 100 Main Street

5. City Lynchburg

6. State va

7. Zip 24501

8. Gender m or f (your choice)

9. Favorite Number 2003

10. Date Hired 7/01/1993

11. Salary 40000

As you are entering this data you will notice several things.

Social Security Number and Date Hired – You’ll ―see‖ your Input Mask
work.

State and Gender – you typed in small letters – notice how the Format ( > )
forced the letter(s) to be capitals.
Favorite Number – since the Favorite Number is ―too big‖ you will see
your error message appear. Click-on OK in the message

186
 screen and then create a Favorite number that will work.
Salary - notice how your Currency formatting created a $, commas and
periods.

When you have completed typing the information, tap Enter so the cursor will
move down to the next record. You are now ready to insert your second entry.

Note: When you tapped Enter, Access automatically saved your first record.
This can be confirmed by the display of the hourglass.

Also note: As you began typing your first record a small pencil appeared in the
left margin. This indicates that you are "writing to" this record (editing). Below the
pencil an * (asterisk) also appeared. This indicates that your next record will go
below the first.

There are (2) methods for entering data into the database:

1. The method you just used is called Datasheet View method.

or

2. You can use the Form View method (we’ll create a Form in a bit later in
the tutorial).

Exiting and Saving

Note: Anytime you want to take a break and exit Access, simply point to
File in the Menu Bar, and click-on Exit. If it asks Do you want to save?, click-
on Yes. If it gives you a save file screen, give it a name of your choice and click
on OK. You should then exit to the Windows Screen with no problems. Since you
have already named everything for this exercise, you should not have to name any
files as you exit.

Opening Access Database

If you decide to Exit Access 2003, and then return to continue the tutorial, refer to
the instructions at the beginning of this tutorial (Page 1).

A neat thing about Access 2003 is the Task

Pane on the right side of the screen. We used
the Task Pane at the beginning of the tutorial
(Page 1) to create a new database. Once you
have created a database, you will see your
database in the Open portion of the Task Pane

187
(see arrow and image to the right). You can simply click-on the file, in this
tutorial Person, and it will open.

Or, you can open the database the way you

open many files. When Access 2003 opens,
click-on File in the Menu Bar, and click-on
Open.

When the Open menu screen

appears, click-on the small down
arrow to the right of the Look in
area and choose the drive on
which you saved your database
(A: 3 ½ Floppy or your C: Hard Disk
Drive). Then click-on the name of
your database (e.g. person.mdb)
and then click Open (at the bottom of the menu screen).

Now follow the instructions at the bottom of Page 14 to open your personnel
table and to continue entering data.

Form View and Datasheet View

In the Button Bar (just below the Menu Bar, to the right of Help, is a button with
a lightening bolt and a small form. This is the New Object: AutoForm
Button. Point to it - make sure you have the correct button - then click-on it
(see image below). A New Data Entry Form will automatically be created and
appear.

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 The Personnel Form should
look something like the one on
the left.

Since you are in the Personnel

Table, the form will
―automatically‖ be created,
just like the Personnel
Datasheet. You will now see a
data entry form window. If the form does not fill the screen, click-on the
expansion square (see arrow above) to increase the size. Notice your first
record appears.

You may enter data in Form

View the same as in
Datasheet View. To save
this form click-on File in the
Menu Bar, then on Save As.
The Save As screen will appear
with Personnel already in the
Save Form „Form1 To: area (see image to the left). Click-on OK.

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The data entry form is now saved as Personnel, just like the Table. Notice, at the
bottom of the Form screen, that there is a status area (see below) that tells
you what record you are on. You can use the arrows to ―move‖ from one record to
another, or select a new record in which to enter data. Click-on each of the arrows
to see how they work. Some will take you forward are back to the next or previous
record, and some will take you to the beginning or end of your records. The arrow
with an asterisk will take you to a new blank record. Enter a few records to see
how the Form View works.

When you first “open” your Person Database, you may

choose your favorite screen to enter data: The data Form or
Datasheet. Click-on either the Tables selection or Forms
selection on the left of the window. Then, click-on
Personnel, and then click Open to begin entering data in your choice. You can
switch back and forth from the Datasheet entry to the Form entry by clicking
on Window in the Menu Bar.

At the lower left corner of the menu screen, you will see some text that
indicates that you are either using Form or Datasheet View to enter your
data.

This text indicates that you are currently in Form View (or
Datasheet View) using the Personnel database. You can

190
“shift” back and forth between Datasheet View and form View by using the
View button in the upper left corner of the Access screen.

The View button on the right indicates what ―view‖ you are using: Design
View, Form View, or Datasheet View. You can move back-and-forth
between views by clicking-on the down triangle to the right of the button (see
arrow and image to the right) and then choosing either Form or Datasheet to
enter your data.

Note: When you are finished entering data and preparing to exit Microsoft Access,
or Close the form, if you did not save before exiting, the program will ask if
you want to Save the Form. This is up to you. You may save it with your
choice of names and it will then show-up as a form when the Person
Database Main Window appears. Or, you can indicate No, and re-create the
form again with the Wizard.

Important
To record enough information so that you can see what a database does
enter 24 or more records now. You may use either Form View or Datasheet
View.

191
Querying the Database

This is what a database is designed for: finding specific information about

some of the data in the table(s) very quickly. A query is a search for general
or specific data in a field or fields in your database (e.g. the first and last names
and birth dates of all employees, just the Jones’s, the people from CA, salaries >
$10,000, etc.). In order to do this, we need to click on the fields we want to
query. So, let’s start by finding just Last Names in our table.

If you are not in the Database: PERSON screen which shows the Tables,
Queries, etc., go there by clicking-on Window in the Menu Bar and then on
PERSON: Database. Also, if you have the Personnel Datasheet or Personnel
Form open (to add data), close them before you begin your queries. The Access
program sometimes becomes logically confused when you try to do queries when
it ―thinks‖ you also want to add data. You may see ―error‖ messages if you leave
the Form or Datasheet open.

Notice, at the left of the Person:

Database screen there is a selection
that indicates Queries. Click-on it.
Since we have not done a query before,
double-click quickly on Create query
in Design view or click-on Create a
query in Design view and then click-on the Design button.

Two new windows will now appear: Query 1: Select Query and Show Table.
You will first have to select the table(s) you desire to query. The Show Table
screen should look like the
one below.

Click Add First

192
Make sure the blue highlights are on Show Table and Personnel. Click-on Add
(we'll talk about Wizards later).

Then click-on Close.

The Show Table window will disappear, and the Query 1: Select Query window,
behind the Show Table window, will appear by itself.

Click-on the expansion square in the upper right corner

to enlarge the Query 1: Select Query window.

Your screen should now look similar to the one below.

These areas
are
magnified
below

Notice, in the upper half of the window, a small box on the left indicates:
Personnel. At the top is an asterisk (* ) and below, in an elevator box, are the
fields from the Personnel Table (you can move up-and-down the list as you
desire).

What we need to do next is place the Fields we want to query in the lower area
of the screen. Notice the lower area on the left
border. The first row indicates Field:, followed by
Table, Sort:, Show:, Criteria:, and or:.

In the lower half of the screen click-in the first cell

to the right of Field:. We'll start with a query on

193
Last Name, State, Favorite Number and Salary. Now click-on the down
arrow and then click-on Last Name. Notice how Last Name now appears to
the right of Field: and a (check) is seen in the Show: cell (The
means that you will see Last Names in your query.). Notice also that, to the
right of Table:, that Personnel (the Table from which we queried) is showing.

Your query screen should now look like the

one on the right.

Now move to the next Field cell on the right and, using the down arrow click-
on State. In the next two fields to the right, insert Favorite Number and
Salary. Your Query1: Select Query screen should look like this:

Now, look in the Button Bar at the top of the screen. In the
middle of the bar you will see an exclamation mark ( ! ) like the
one on the right. If you move the cursor over it, the help text box
will indicate "Run." Click-on the ( ! ). This click executes
your query.

194
 Your query screen should
look similar to the one on
the left.

Notice, the screen

ONLY shows the four
fields that you queried.

You can add or remove fields, as you desire. To do this we need to

return to the Design View where we created this query. To return
to Design View click-on the small button in the upper left
corner of the screen that has the blue triangle, pencil, and ruler
(like the one on the right). Then, simply click-in the Field area and select a
new field and it will replace the old one. Or, click-on the field you want to
remove and tap the Delete key. Sometimes you may have a lot of fields and it
will be too large for a single sheet of paper.

195
 To see how your query would look, if you print it, click
on the button that has a piece of paper and
magnifying glass (Print Preview - like the one to the
left). While you’re in the Print Preview you’ll see a little

magnifying glass that you can move over your query. If you click the
left mouse button once the magnifying glass will ―zoom‖ in and enlarge
the view. If you click the left mouse button again it will zoom out. To
return to your query, click-on the Close button just above the
print preview piece of paper. This will take you back to the Normal View of
your query.

Sorting the Database

If you are not in the Query Design Screen, you’ll

need to be in that view. So, go to the Design
Screen. Notice that the third row, in the lower
half of the screen, indicates Sort: (like the image at the right). Click-in the
Sort: area under Last Name. A down arrow box appears; click-on the down
arrow. Let's sort the Last Names in Ascending order. Click-on Ascending.
Notice that Ascending now appears in the Sort: area. Click-on the ( ! ) to see
the new query. Notice that the names you entered are alphabetized. Click-on
the Design View button (triangle-ruler-pencil). Now change the Ascending
under Last Name to (not sorted). On your own, try sorting some of the other
fields. When you are finished remember to set the fields to (not sorted) unless
you do want to sort on those fields.

You may also sort various fields in your database whenever you are in the
Datasheet View, whether you are viewing the entire Table, or a Query from the
Table. Notice that the Field Names are shown at the top of each column in
gray cells.

196
If you click-on one of the gray area field names (like State), the entire
column (Field) turns ―black‖ (like the image above). This indicates that you
have ―marked‖ the entire column (Field).

In the button bar that appears, when you are editing the
Datasheet View, you will see two buttons with “down”
arrows (like the image on the right). When you move the
cursor over these two buttons a text help box will indicate:
Sort Ascending or Sort Descending. If you click-on one of
the buttons, the Field which you selected (highlighted) will be sorted in the
order selected. Give this a try and see how it works.

So, there are several ―ways‖ you can sort your Tables and Queries.

Specific Queries

So far we have listed everything under each Field Name that we selected.
However, many times you will probably want to find something specific in your
Table (database - e.g. people from a certain state or city, people whose
favorite number is 7 or salaries between $ 20,000 and $ 50,000). This is
fairly common sense, but it can get tricky.

To get an idea of various criteria, you

might want to use, click-on Help in the
menu bar. Then, click-on Microsoft

197
Office Access Help.

The Access Help Task Pane will appear on

the right side of your screen. When your
screen appears, click-in the Search for: area
in the Assistance portion of the Task Pane.
Type-in ―query criteria.‖ Then click-on the
Green Arrow to the right of the Search for:
box. Your screen should look similar to the
one on the right.

A Search Results Task Pane will now appear on

the right side of your screen (like the one on the
right).

Click-on the Enter criteria to retrieve certain

records (MDB).

A Microsoft Office Access Help Menu Screen will appear similar to the one at
the top of the next page.

When the Microsoft Access

Help screen for Enter
criteria to retrieve certain
records (MDB) appears,
use the elevator bar on

198
 the right side of the
screen to move to the
bottom of the screen.

When you get to the

bottom of the screen,
click-on See Also.

A number of bulleted
choices will appear.
Click-on Examples of
expressions

When the Examples of expressions

screen appears, click-on Examples of
expressions used in queries and
filters.

Your screen will ―expand‖ to a reveal

a number of additional choices (see
image at top of next page)

199
 One of the new choices will
be Examples of criteria to
retrieve records. Click-on
this selection. Your screen
will expand some more, like
the image on the left.

We’ll be using several of

these choices in a few minutes. If you would like to see what some of the choices
―do,‖ click on them.

Choices that we use a lot are:

 Ranges of values
 Text, partial , and matching values
 Dates
 A blank field‟s value.

When you are finished, click-on the ―X‖ in the upper right
corner of the Microsoft Access Help Topics menu screen to close the screen.

Also, click-on the ―X‖ in the right hand corner

of the Search Results Task Pane.

You may return and explore more of these help screens as you become more
accomplished with Access 2003 database. These help screens are like having a

200
complete Access 2003 manual on your computer.

Now we'll try a few specific queries. First let's find a specific state.

You should now be back in the Query1: Select Query menu Design
window. It should look like the one at the top of the next page.
If you‟re not then click the Design button in the upper left
corner of the screen (like the one on the right).

Click-in the cell to the right of Criteria: in the State column. You will see a
flashing cursor (Make sure you are in the State column.). Type-in the
abbreviation for one of the states you entered in your Personnel Table. Your
Query should look like the image below.

Now click-on ( ! ). A
new query window will
appear. Only persons
from the state you
selected should
show.

This is a SPECIFIC query for that state.

Click-on Design View Button (triangle-ruler-pencil) to

return to Design View. Now delete the state you entered.

Now we'll look for Favorite Numbers larger than 600. Type-in >600 in the
Criteria cell under the Favorite Number Column. Click-on ( ! ). Everyone with
a favorite number larger than 600 should show. If no one is indicated you don't

201
have a person with a number larger than 600, or you might have typed the
>600 incorrectly. Return to the Design View. Delete the >600 and run the
query with no criteria. You should ―see‖ all the fields again. Return to the
Design View again.

Make sure all the Criteria: cells are empty.

Next we'll look for persons with salaries equal to or larger than $ 20,000 and
equal to or less than $ 50,000. In the Salary field column, in the Criteria: cell
type-in:

>= 20000 and <= 50000

Click-on the ( ! ). You should now see a specific query that indicates those
persons in the range we chose. Go back to Design View. Delete the criteria
you entered under Salary. Now, on your own, if you desire, add or delete some
fields to your query and experiment. Don't get frustrated if no specific items
appear. Frequently you might query for something that can't exist (e.g. states of
VA and CA – a person can't be from both states at the same time) or there just
isn't anything that matches. For fun, notice the or: just below Criteria to the left of
the Design View. Try one state in the Criteria: cell under State and another
in the or: cell. When you have a good feel for queries you’re ready to end your
query session. First, click-on File in the Menu Bar, and then click-on Close. A
Microsoft Office Access Window will appear and ask: "Do you want to save
changes to the design of query 'Query1'?‖

Click-on Yes and a Save As window will appear. Name the Query anything you
like, we’re going to name our query ―Test Query 2003.‖ Click-on OK. When the
Query1: Select Query view closes you will return to the person: Database
screen. Notice that the Query Selection is active and your new query is available
to use again, as you desire. You can activate this query and change things just like
you did in the tutorial. If you want a printout of your query (at anytime), simply
click-on the Printer Button in the button bar or on File in the Menu Bar and
Print.

Reports

202
Reports can be very complex. In this tutorial we'll learn the basics. A good
manual or will be essential to mastering reports.

There are several types of reports. We'll use the Wizards to design some.

If you are not in the Person: Database

main window screen with the Table,
Queries, Forms, Reports, etc., click-on
Window in the Menu Bar and then on
Person: Database at the bottom of the
menu. Also, make sure that you have
closed any Tables, Forms, or Queries on which you are working.

In the Person: Database widow

click-on the Reports button. Then,
click-on the New Button. See the
arrows on the image at the right.

The following New Report

menu window will appear.

First, click-on Report Wizard

in the New Report menu screen.
Then, in the area to the right
of: Choose the table or query
where the object‟s data

203
comes from:, click-on the down arrow and select Personnel. Then click-on
OK.

The following
Report Wizard
Menu screen
should appear:

Read all the

information in the Report Wizard screen. Only the fields you select from
your table will show-in the report. To bring fields into the report individually
you click-on the name of the field (in the list of fields in the area under
Available Fields:) and then click-on the >. The order which you click-on the
fields will be their order in the report. The >> brings over all of the fields.
The < brings back one of the fields which you have selected and << brings
back all of the fields. If you make a mistake, or want to start over, click the <<
selection to bring back all of the fields and try again.

So let's begin. Click-on First Name, then click-on > (notice how the First Name
field went from the Available Fields: to Selected Fields:). Now do the same
with the Last Name, State, Gender and Salary fields. These are the fields that
will appear in our first report.

204
Your Report Wizard screen should look like the one below.

If it does, click-on the Next> Button.

Grouping in Reports
This Report Wizard menu screen asks if you want to add Grouping. Grouping
simply ―groups‖ records by an item in the report you are designing. We’ll group by
state. This means that ―records‖ from a state will be in a ―group‖ (e.g. people
from Virginia will be in one group, the folks from Washington in another, and so
on). This will be easy to see when we look at the report. So, click-on State, then
click-on >. If you make a mistake, no problem, just use the <. Your screen should
now look like the one below.

205
Click-on Next> again. Another Report Wizard menu screen will follow.

206
First, the above screen requests that you indicate a Sort Order. This simply
means that within each ―group, the alphabetic order in which you want the fields
sorted. We’ll sort by Last Name and then First Name. This way you’ll have the
names, grouped by state, in Last Name order and, where you have several people
with the same Last Name, they’ll be sub-sorted in First Name order. Notice the
Ascending button to the right of the Sort box. This indicates that the Field that
you select is in A to Z or ascending order. If you click-on this button, it will reverse
the order from Z to A, or descending order. So, click-on the small down arrow
to the right of the first box and select Last Name. Leave the order as
Ascending. Now, select First Name in the second box. When you are finished,
your Report Wizard menu screen should look like the one above.

Notice a Summary Options button below the sort fields you have selected.
Access 2003 is ―really smart.‖ Whenever you see the Summary Options box it is
because Access 2003 knows that you selected a number field for your report. The
Summary Options box ONLY appears when a number field is selected! Click-on the
Summary Options… button.

The Summary Options menu box allows you to enter calculations for
numerical and currency fields if you have selected any. It will summarize
these calculations by each group, and in total. So, since Salary is a currency
field, we can obtain calculations. Click-in the boxes under Sum and Avg; this will
furnish these calculations, as you will see in the report. If you want percentages as
well, click-in the box next to Calculate percent of total for sums.

Click-on OK. This will return you to the previous Wizard screen. Click-on Next>
again.

207
This Report Wizard screen allows you to select a layout for your report. Click-in
the small circles to the left of each choice in the layout area and observe the
results. For the moment, we‟ll stay with the default: Stepped. So click-again
it that circle. Leave the report in Portrait Orientation.

Note: At the bottom of the last Report Wizard menu screen there is a check in
the small box to the left of Adjust the field width so all fields fit on a page. This
is a very important check. This means that no matter how many fields you
place in your report, they will all fit on one page. With a few fields in the
report, this is no big deal. However, if you have a lot of fields, they will be
all “scrunched” up and you‟ll notice that sometimes the Field Names and
data for these fields are “cut-off” a bit. As mentioned at the beginning of
the Reports section of the tutorial, this is where an advanced course or manual
are almost essential.

Click-on Next> again.

The next Report Wizard will appear.

208
This menu screen allows you to select the Style that you would like for your report.
Click-on the choices (Bold, Casual, etc.) and see what each ―looks like‖. Choose
whichever style you desire and click-on Next> again.

209
The next Report Wizard screen is the last screen in the sequence. It allows you
to select a title different from the name of your database - if you so choose.
Note that the small circle in front of Preview the Report is ―dotted‖. When
we click-on the Finish button Access 2003 will go to a preview copy of your
report. We’ll title this report State Report. Use this name, or any name you
desire, and click-on Finish.

This is a report in Tabular (Columnar) format. Your screen should look

something like the one below.

©2011 Compiled by ICT Department KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC

Notice in the lower left corner of the report screen that you are on Page 1 of
the report.

Notice the ―triangle arrow” buttons to the left and right of Page 1. These
take you to the first page of the report, the previous page, the next page, and
the last page. Try clicking-on them.

Notice that your cursor – in this Preview Report screen is a magnifying glass.
This shows you how a page of your report will appear when you print it. Each
time you click the magnifying glass you will ―zoom in‖ or ―zoom out‖ making
your report appear larger or smaller. You will zoom to the ―place‖ where you
place your magnifying glass – just like if you were using a real magnifying glass
and a real piece of paper. You’ll magnify the place where you are ―holding‖ the
magnifying glass. So, give this a try.

Notice, in the upper-left corner a button that has a small triangle,

ruler and pencil. Click-on it. This takes you to Design View. This
time, however, the Design View is for Reports instead of Tables or
Queries. This is where the Wizard created the Tabular report design. Click-on
the Design View button. Look at this screen for a few minutes – it should
look similar to the image below.

©2011 Compiled by ICT Department KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC

We’ll explain about what you see on the image above on the next page.

©2011 Compiled by ICT Department KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC

First: The Button Bar. Run the cursor arrow over the buttons to get an
idea of each

button function. Just like queries, we'll be going back and forth
between Design

(triangle-pencil-ruler) and Print Preview (magnifying glass).

Second: Notice, to the left, in the gray part of the screen, it indicates:
Report Header, Page Header, State Header, Detail, State
Footer, Page Footer and Report Footer (see arrows on the last
page).

Report Header: If something shows here, it will only be shown on the first
page of the report.

Page Header: If something shows here, it will show on each page of

the report at the top of each column.

State Header This ―sets-off‖ the State Grouping.

State Footer This ―ends‖ the State Grouping.

©2011 Compiled by ICT Department KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC

Detail: These are the field names from our database.
Access will ―pull‖ the data for the individual fields from our
database records.

These are the database fields themselves. The fields print each time
there is a person in the database. This field information is drawn from the
database. As you enter more people in the database and run the report
again, more people will be shown. The "size" of the box you see on the
screen was created when we created the field sizes.

Page Footer: This is what shows at the bottom of each page.

Report Footer: This is what shows only on the last page of the report.

©2011 Compiled by ICT Department KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC

Also note, the lower right corners of the State

and Report Footer area boxes indicate:

= SUM([Salary]). This is a calculation box the

Wizard created. This is what gave you the
calculations for your average and the sum of the
salaries in the State area and the grand total of all
salaries in the Footer area.

You can either click-on File (in the Menu Bar) and then Save, or Save As, or
click-on the small diskette button in the button bar. A menu window will
open which says Save As.

In the area under Save Report „State Report‟ To: type-in State Report
then click-on OK. Now click-on the File in the Menu Bar and then click-on
Close. You could also click-on the ―lower X‖ in the upper right corner of the
screen. Be careful here. The lower ―X‖ closes whatever you are working on
(report, query table, etc.). The upper ―X‖ closes the Access 2003 database.

You should now return to the main Access 2003 Person: Database screen.
The Person: Database window should appear on the screen. If it does not,
then click-on File, then Open Database. When the Open Database Window
appears, click-on Person.mdb in the File Name area, then click-on OK. In
the person: Database window click-on the Report area. A report named
State Report will be there. Click-on it, then click on the Design button. You
are now in your report design screen. Close this report again as you did
previously.

©2011 Compiled by ICT Department KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC

Some more New Reports:

Now we'll create some other reports. This is similar, in process, to the report
you just completed. In the person: Database window – make sure you have
clicked-in the Reports area - click-on the New button. When the New
Report Window appears, click on ―down triangle‖ in the area to the right of
Choose the table or query where the object‟s data comes from:, then
click-on Personnel.

Now click-on some of the different Wizard‟s choices. Try Auto Report:
Columnar and Tabular, or go back to the Design Wizard again. Experiment
with the different types.

As you create reports you may save or not save, as you desire.

Reports can become very complex, very quickly. This is only an introductory
tutorial, which furnishes a simple guide to report design. You might want to
purchase a book on Access or try a separate tutorial on reports. Our favorite
book is Microsoft Access 2003 – Inside Out from Microsoft Press

Now File, Exit.

Now that you have the basics, you might want to try some things on your own.
Try using the Wizards in Table, Query and Reports.

©2011 Compiled by ICT Department KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC

We'll, that about does it for now. If you have comments on this tutorial, simply
send e-mail to the Internet address below.

©2011 Compiled by ICT Department KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC