Special Relativity

CHAPTER 28
Outline
I. Events and Inertial Reference Frames
II. Postulates of Special Relativity
III. Time Dilation
IV. Length Contraction
V. Relativistic Momentum
VI. Equivalence of Mass and Energy
VII. Relativistic Addition of Velocities
Special Relativity
- theory governing physical phenomena when an observer or reference frame has a
relative motion with respect to another observer or reference frame, with speeds
comparable to the speed of light: 𝒄 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬

Classical Physics vs Special Relativity

- At very high speeds, Classical Physics fails to predict and explain observations unlike
Special Relativity. At low speeds, Special Relativity agrees with Classical Physics,
therefore, Classical Physics is the special case.
Events and Inertial Reference Frames
An EVENT is a physical “happening” that
occurs at a certain place and time.

To record the event, each observer uses a

REFERENCE FRAME that consists of a
coordinate system and a clock.

An INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAME is one in Each observer is at rest relative to

which Newton’s law of inertia is valid. his/her own reference frame.
 Events and Inertial Reference Frames

https://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-physics/mechanics/inertial-
and-non-inertial-frame-of-reference.aspx

Each observer has his/her In this example, the event is the space shuttle lift off.
own reference frame

Each observer has his/her own set

of measurements for an event
Events and Inertial Reference Frames - Example

Which of the following is an example of an Inertial Reference Frame?

A. A person inside a car traveling in a circular curve at constant speed.

B. A person inside an elevator accelerating upwards.
C. A train slowing down as it reaches the station.
D. A skier sliding down a slope at constant speed.

ANS: Choice D
The Postulates of Special Relativity
THE POSTULATES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

1. THE RELATIVITY POSTULATE. The laws of physics are the same in

every inertial reference frame.

2. THE SPEED OF LIGHT POSTULATE. The speed of light in a vacuum,

measured in any inertial reference frame, always has the same value of
𝒄 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬, no matter how fast the source of light and the
observer are moving relative to one another.
The Postulates of Special Relativity
The speed of the ball measured by
each observer is different
𝒗𝑩𝑻 = 𝟖 𝐦/𝐬
𝒗𝑩𝑮 = 𝟐𝟑 𝐦/𝐬

The speed of light measured by

each observer is equal to

𝒄 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬
The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation

An observer on the earth sees the light pulse travel a

greater distance between ticks.
A light clock
The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation

𝜟𝒕𝒐
𝜟𝒕 =
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ 𝒄 𝟐

𝜟𝒕 > 𝜟𝒕𝒐

An observer on the earth sees the light pulse travel a

greater distance between ticks.
The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation
Proper Time Interval

𝜟𝒕𝒐
𝜟𝒕 =
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ 𝒄 𝟐

The time interval measured at rest with respect to the clock is called the PROPER
TIME INTERVAL, 𝜟𝒕𝒐 .

In general, the proper time interval between events is the time interval measured by
an observer who is at rest relative to the events.
The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation – Example

Proper Time
On a highway there is a flashing light to mark the start of a section of road where work is being
done. Who measures the proper time between the two flashes of light?

A. A worker standing still on the road

B. A driver in a car approaching at a constant velocity
C. Both the worker and the driver
D. Neither the worker nor the driver

ANS: Choice A
The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation – Example

Time Dilation
The spacecraft is moving past the earth at a constant speed of 0.92 times the speed of light. the
astronaut measures the time interval between ticks of the spacecraft clock to be 1.0 s. What is
the time interval that an earth observer measures?

𝜟𝒕𝒐
𝜟𝒕 =
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐

𝟏. 𝟎 s
𝜟𝒕 =
𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝒄Τ𝒄 𝟐

𝜟𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟔 s
The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation – Exercise

Relativity is not an excuse

You are scheduled for a date at 6:00 PM. To reach your location you can ride the MRT which goes to
a speed of 14 m/s. If you left at 5:30 PM and according to your watch you travelled at exactly 30
minutes, at what time did you arrive according to your date’s watch (assume he/she is stationary
since you left and the train goes at constant speed)?

𝜟𝒕𝒐
𝜟𝒕 =
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐
Note:

𝟔𝟎 𝐬 𝟏𝟒Τ𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ≈ 10−8

30 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐬 ×
𝜟𝒕 = 𝟏 𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝟏 − 𝟏𝟒Τ𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟐
1 − 𝟏𝟒Τ𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟐 ≈ 1.00

𝜟𝒕 = 1800 s = 30 mins

ANS: 6:00 PM
The Relativity of Time: Time Dilation – Example

Fast Rockets
How fast must a rocket travel relative to the earth so that time in the rocket “slows down” to half
its rate as measured by earth-based observers?

𝜟𝒕𝒐 𝟏 𝚫𝒕𝒐 𝟏
𝜟𝒕 = Solve for the speed 𝒗, so that 𝚫𝒕𝒐 = 𝟐 𝚫𝒕 =
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐 𝚫𝒕 𝟐

𝜟𝒕𝒐 𝟏 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 − 𝒗 Τ𝒄 = 𝟏 − = 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐 𝒗= 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬 𝟐
𝜟𝒕 𝟒 𝟒

𝟑 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝒄 = 𝒗𝟐 𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬
𝟏 − 𝒗 Τ𝒄 = 𝟒
𝟐
or
𝟐
𝟏 𝟑 𝟐
𝟏− 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐 = 𝒗= 𝒄 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝒄
𝟐 𝟒
The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction
The shortening of the distance between two points is one example of a
phenomenon known as LENGTH CONTRACTION.

𝒗𝟐
𝑳 = 𝑳𝒐 𝟏− 𝟐 𝑳 < 𝑳𝒐
𝒄
The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction
Proper Length

𝒗𝟐
𝑳 = 𝑳𝒐 𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄

The length (or distance) between two points as measured by an observer at rest
with respect to them is called the PROPER LENGTH, 𝑳𝒐 .

Since 𝒗 < 𝒄, then 𝑳 < 𝑳𝒐

 The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction

Spaceship at 10% speed of light Spaceship at 86.5% speed of light

Spaceship at 99% speed of light Spaceship at 99.99% speed of light

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/specrel/lc.cfm
The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction - Example

Suppose that you are standing at a railroad crossing, watching a train go by. Both you and a
passenger in the train are looking at a clock on the train. Who measures the proper time interval,
and who measures the proper length of a train car?

A You measure the proper time interval, and the passenger measures the proper length.
B You measure both the proper time interval and the proper length.
C The passenger measures both the proper time interval and the proper length.
D You measure the proper length, and the passenger measures the proper time interval.

Note:
• The time interval measured at rest with respect to the clock is called the PROPER TIME INTERVAL.
• The length (or distance) between two points as measured by an observer at rest with respect to them is
called the PROPER LENGTH.

ANS: Choice C
The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction - Exercise

The Contraction of a Spacecraft

An astronaut, using a meter stick that is at rest relative to a cylindrical spacecraft, measures the
length and diameter to be 82 m and 21 m respectively. The spacecraft moves with a constant
speed of 0.95c relative to the earth. What are the dimensions of the spacecraft (length and
diameter), as measured by an observer on earth.

𝒗𝟐 𝟐
𝑳 = 𝑳𝒐 𝟏− 𝟐 𝑳 = 82 m 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝒄Τ𝒄 𝑳 = 𝟐𝟔 m
𝒄

Diameter stays the same.

The Relativity of Length: Length Contraction - Example

Which one or more of the following quantities will two observers always measure to be the same,
regardless of the relative velocity between the observers?

A The time interval between two events

B The length of an object
C The speed of light in a vacuum
D The relative speed between the observers

ANS: Choice C and D

Relativistic Momentum
THE RELATIVITY POSTULATE. The laws of physics are the 𝒑′ = 𝟎
same in every inertial reference frame.

Law of Physics: Conservation of Total Momentum

RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM

𝒎𝒗 Different observers will measure different

𝒑= values for relativistic momentum, but will
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐 verify that they both will observe
Conservation of Total Momentum.
Relativistic Momentum - Example

Relativistic Rocket
A 200-kg rocket moves with speed close to the speed of light, 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝒄 relative to an Earth-
based observer. According to the observer, what is the rocket’s relativistic momentum?

𝒎𝒗
𝒑=
𝟏 − 𝒗 𝟐 Τ𝒄 𝟐

𝟖 𝐦
(𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐠)(𝟎. 𝟗𝟓)(𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 )
𝒑= 𝐬
𝟏 − (𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝒄Τ𝒄)𝟐

𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝐤𝐠 · 𝐦/𝐬
Relativistic Momentum
RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM

𝒎𝒗
𝒑=
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐

For an object to move with speed 𝒗 = 𝒄, it must

reach infinite relativistic momentum, requiring
an infinite amount of energy.

Therefore, objects cannot reach a speed of 𝒗 = 𝒄.

 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy
THE TOTAL ENERGY OF AN OBJECT

RELATIVISTIC
TOTAL ENERGY REST ENERGY
𝒗=𝟎
𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝑬= 𝑬𝒐 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 Any change in Energy, 𝚫𝑬 of
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐 an object is equivalent to a
change in Mass, 𝚫𝐦

𝚫𝑬𝒐 = 𝚫𝒎𝒄𝟐
KINETIC ENERGY = TOTAL ENERGY – REST ENERGY

KE = 𝑬 − 𝑬𝒐

Note: These formulas DO NOT apply to objects without mass (i.e. particles with 𝒎 = 𝟎, e.g. photon)
The Equivalence of Mass and Energy - Example

The Sun is Losing Mass

The sun radiates electromagnetic energy at a rate of 3.92x1026 W. What is the change in the sun’s
mass during each second that it is radiating energy? What fraction of the sun’s mass is lost
during a human lifetime of 75 years.

𝜟𝑬𝒐 𝟑. 𝟗𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝐉Τ𝐬 𝟏. 𝟎 s 𝟗 kg

𝜟𝒎 = 𝟐 = = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎
𝒄 3.00 × 10𝟖 𝐦Τ𝐬 𝟐

𝜟𝒎 𝟒. 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 kgΤ𝐬 𝟑. 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐬 −𝟏𝟐

= = 𝟓. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝒎sun 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟎 kg
 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy
PET SCANS

PET – Positron Emission Tomography

https://socratic.org/questions/5474eb28581e2a3e395d01fc
https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/health/2020/06/02/when-is-a-pet-scan-useful
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154877

PET Scans depend on the energy produced by Annihilation – conversion of mass to

electromagnetic waves produced by positron electromagnetic energy
annihilation.
The Relativistic Addition of Velocities

𝒗BT + 𝒗TG 𝒗BT - velocity of Ball relative to Truck

𝒗BG = 𝒗BT𝒗TG
𝟏+ 𝒗TG - velocity of Truck relative to Ground
𝒄𝟐
𝒗BG - velocity of Ball relative to Ground
The Relativistic Addition of Velocities – Conceptual Example

The Speed of a Laser Beam

The cruiser is approaching a hostile spacecraft. The velocity of the cruiser relative to the spacecraft
is +0.7c. Both vehicles are moving at constant velocity. The cruiser fires a beam of laser
light at the enemy. The velocity of the laser beam relative to the cruiser is +c.

(a) What is the velocity of the laser beam relative to the renegades aboard the spacecraft?
(b) At what velocity do the renegades aboard the spacecraft see the laser beam move away from
the cruiser?

ANS:
(a) +c
(b) According to the speed of light postulate, speed of light is c in all inertial reference frames.
Summary
TIME DILATION
• The time interval measured at rest with respect to the
𝜟𝒕𝒐 clock is called the PROPER TIME INTERVAL.
𝜟𝒕 =
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ 𝒄 𝟐 • Proper Time is measured in the frame where the
events occur in the SAME PLACE.

LENGTH CONTRACTION

• The length (or distance) between two points as

𝒗𝟐 measured by an observer at rest with respect to them
𝑳 = 𝑳𝒐 𝟏 − is called the PROPER LENGTH.
𝒄𝟐
Summary
RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM RELATIVISTIC TOTAL ENERGY REST ENERGY
𝒎𝒗 𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝒑= 𝑬= 𝑬𝒐 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐 𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 Τ𝒄𝟐

RELATIVISTIC ADDITION OF VELOCITIES Any change in Energy, 𝚫𝑬 of an object is equivalent

to a change in Mass, 𝚫𝐦 and vice versa.
𝒗BT + 𝒗TG
𝒗BG =
𝟏+
𝒗BT 𝒗TG 𝚫𝑬𝒐 = 𝚫𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝒄𝟐
Problem Set No.1
Special Relativity Problem (10 points)
Bob is 1.52 m tall and has a mass of 62 kg. He moves past Alice with the direction of
the motion parallel to his height. Alice measures his relativistic momentum to have a
magnitude of 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐠 · 𝐦/𝐬.

A. What is the Bob’s speed? (5 pts.)

B. Which person measures the proper length (height)? (2 pts.)
C. What does Alice measure for Bob’s height? (3 pts.)
References
Cutnell, J. D. (2019). Physics: Biomedical Applications of Introductory
Physics. 11th ed. Wiley.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2016) University Physics with Modern

Physics, 14th ed. Pearson.

Physics Group Lecture slides, Sir Oraa, Dr. Tibayan, Sir Apuyan, Sir
Abugao

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