MA8551- ALGEBRA & NUMBER THEORY (III CSE, IT)

CLASS NOTES
UNIT-III DIVISIBILITY THEORY AND CANONICAL DECOMPOSITIONS
Division algorithm – Base – b representations – Number patterns – Prime and composite
numbers – GCD – Euclidean algorithm – Fundamental theorem of arithmetic – LCM.
DIVISIBILITY:
An integer b is divisible by an integer ‘a’ (a  0) if there is an integer x such that b=ax and we
write it as a|b. If b is not divisible by a, then we write it as a | b.

Theorem:
1. Prove the following:
(1). a|b implies a|bc for any integer

Proof:
Given a|b by definition b=ax …..(1) for some integer x

Multiply (1) by c
 bc = acx
 bc = a(cx), where z = cx an integer
bc=az  a|bc

(2). a|b and b|c  a|c for any integer

Proof:
Assume that a / b and b / c

a|b  b=ax  (1)for some integer x

b|c  c = by  (2)for someinteger y
Substitute (1) in (2),

c = (ax) y = a( xy) = az, where z = xy is an integer

 a|c

(3). a|b and a | c  a| ( bx + cy ) for any integer x & y

Proof:

1
By definition, b=ax1, where x1 is an integer.
Multiply both side by x, bx =a x x1….(1)
Assume that a|c then c = ay1 , for someinteger y1
cy = ayy1  (2)

Adding (1) and (2)

bx+cy = axx1 + ayy1 = a(xx1 + yy1 ) = az, where z = xx1 + yy1 is an integer
 a| ( bx+cy )

(4). a|b and b | a  a =  b

Proof:
Given a|b by definition b=ax …..(1) for some integer x
b|a  a=by  (2) for some integer y

Multiply (1) and (2),

ab = ( ax )( by )
 1 = xy
 x=1 & y=1 or x=-1 y=-1
 a=  b

(5). If m  0, a|b  ma | m b

Proof:
Given a|b by definition b=ax …..(1) for some integer x.

Multiply (1) both sides by m , m  0

mb=max  ma|mb
Assume that ma|mb
by definition, mb=max for some integer x
b=ax
 a|b

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THE DIVISION ALGORITHM:
Let a be any integer and b be a positive integer. Then there exist unique q and r such that
a = b  q + r , where 0  r < b , and where a is dividend, b is divisor, q is quotient and r is remainder.

Proof:
Existence Part
Let S = a − bn : n  Z and a − bn  0

Then, first we prove that S is non-empty.

Case(i): Let a  0 Then a − b(0) = a  0 with 0  Z. By the definition S, a  S. Hence S is non-empty.
Case(ii):
Let a  0 sin ce b is a positive integer b  1
Hence ab  a, sin ce a  0
 a − b  a  0, with a  Z .
By the definition of S , a − b  a  S .
Thus in both cases Scontains atleast one element. So Sis a non − empty subset of W.
Therefore, by the well ordering principle, S contains a least element r.
Since r  S, an integer q exists such that r = bq, where r  0

To show that r  b :
We will prove by contradiction .
Assume r  b. Then r − b  0. But r − b = ( a − bq ) − b = a − b ( q + 1) .

Since a − b ( q + 1) is of the form a − bn and is  0, a − b ( q + 1)  S

 r − b  S . Since b  0, r − b  r. Thus r − b is smaller than r and is in S.
This contradicts our assumption of r , So r  b.
Thus, there are integers q and r such that a = b  q + r , where 0  r  b.

Uniqueness Proof:
Let there be two sets of integers q, r and q ', r ' such that
a = bq + r − − − − − (1)
and a = bq '+ r ' − − − − − (2)

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Assume that q  q ', from (1) and (2)
bq + r = bq '+ r '  b ( q − q ') = r '− r − − − − − (3)
with r '− r  b − − − − − (4)
sin ce r '  b and r  b

Assume that q  q '. Then q − q '  1. Since b  0. b(q − q ')  b.

Hence from (3) r '− r  b, contradicts (4).
 q  q '. hence q = q' , Therefore, from (3) 0 = r'− r  r = r'
Thus, the integers q and r are unique.

i.e., There exist unique integers q and r such that

a = b  q + r , where 0  r < b

Examples:
Find the quotient and the remainder
1. when 207 is divided be 15 : 207 = 15 13 + 12, q = 13 and r = 12

2. when -23 is divided by 5 :

−23 = 5  ( −4 ) + ( −3) , the remainder however, can never be negative.
so − 23 written as − 23 = 5  (−5) + 2, where 0  r  5 ( r = 2). Thus q = −5, r = 2

The Pigenhole Principle.

If m pigeons are assigned to n pigenholes where m>n, then atleast two pigeons must occupy the
same pigenhole.
Proof:
Suppose the given conclusion is false. That is no two pigeons occupy the same pigeonhole. Then
every pigeon must occupy a distinct pigeonhole, so n  m , which is a contradiction. Thus, two or
more pigeons must occupy some pigeonhole.
1. Let b be an integer  2 . Suppose b+1 integer is randomly selected. Prove that difference of
two of them is divisible by b.
Proof:
When an integer is divisible by b, the possible remainder is one of 0, 1, 2… b-1. They are totally b.
Therefore, when b+1 integer is divisible by b, by the Pigeonhole principle at least 2 of these b+1
integers, say x and y, leave the same remainder.

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i.e., x = bq1 + r and y = bq2 + r
 x − y = b(q1 − q2 )  b ( x − y ) .

Hence difference of two of them is divisible by b.

Inclusion-Exclusion Principle:
Let A and B be finite sets. Then
A B = A + B − A B

If A1,A2,…An are finite sets, then

n n

i =1
Ai = 
1i  n
Ai − 
1 i  j  n
Ai  Aj + 
1i  j  k  n
Ai  Aj  Ak − ...... + (−1)n +1
i =1
Ai

Problem:
1. Find the number of positive integer  2076 and divisible by neither 4 or 5.

Soln:
Let A =  x  N / x  2076 and divisible by 4 , B =  x  N / x  2076 and divisible by 5
then A  B = A + B − A  B
=  2076 / 4  +  2076 / 5 −  2076 / 20 
= 519 + 415 − 103 = 831

Thus, among the first 2076 positive integer, there are 2076-831=1245 integers not divisible by 4 or 5.
2. Find the number of positive integers in the range 1976 through 3776 that are divisible by13.
Soln:
1976 
The number of positiveintegers  1976 that are divisible by 13 =  = 152 = 152
 13 
 3776 
The number of positiveintegers  3776 that are divisible by 13 =  =  290.46 = 290
 13 
 The number of positiveintegers1976 to 3776 that are divisible by 13
= 290 − 152 + 1
= 139 [ 1976 is included in the list of numbers divisible by 13]

3. Find the number of positive integer’s ≤ 3000 and divisible by 3, 5, or 7.

Soln:
Let A,B,C be the set of numbers ≤ 3000 and divisible by 3, 5,7 respectively.
Required A  B C
By inclusion and exclusion principle, we get

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A  B C = S1 − S2 + S3
Now
 3000 
A = = 1000 = 1000
 3 
 3000 
B =  =  600 = 600
 5 
 3000 
C = =  428.57  = 428
 7 
S1 = A + B + C = 1000 + 600 + 428 = 2028
 3000 
AB =  =  200 = 200
 3  5 
 3000 
A C =  = 142.85 = 142
 3  7 
 3000 
B C =  = 85.71 = 85
 5  7 
S2 = A  B + A  C + B  C = 200 + 142 + 85 = 427
 3000 
Now S3 = A  B  C =  =  28.57 = 28
 3  5  7 
A  B C = S1 − S2 + S3 = 2028 − 427 + 28 = 1629

4. Prove that n 2 + n is an even integer, where n is arbitrary integer.

To prove:
p(n) = n2 + n is an even integer
p(1) = 12 + 1= 2is an even number
We assume that the result is true for all k, k be the arbitrary number.  p(k) = k 2 + k is an even integer
consider p(k+1) = ( k + 1) + ( k + 1)
2

= k 2 + 2k + 1 + k + 1 = ( k 2 + k ) + ( 2k + 2 ) = Even number
hence p(n)=n 2 + n is even integer  n.

5. Show that for any integer n, n 2 - n is divisible by 2 and n 5 -n is divisible by 6

Soln:
n 2 - n = n (n -1) It is two consecutive number. So it is divisible by 2
To Prove : n 5 - n is divisible by 6
n5 -n = n (n4 −1) = n (n2 −1)(n2 + 1) = n(n −1)(n + 1)(n2 + 1) = (n −1)n(n + 1)(n2 + 1)
Now, as we know that product of 3consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by3and that of 2
consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by2 so this expression is always divisible by6.

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6. Show that 30|n5 -n, where n is an arbitrary integer
Soln:
First we prove n 5 - n is divisible by 6
n5 -n = n (n4 −1) = n (n2 −1)(n2 + 1) = n(n −1)(n + 1)(n2 + 1) = (n −1)n(n + 1)(n2 + 1)
Now, as we know that product of 3consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by3 and that of 2
consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by 2 so this expression is always divisible by6.
Now to prove divisibility by5, first we write the factorization as under

(
n (n − 1) (n + 1) (n 2 + 1) = n (n − 1) (n + 1) ( n 2 − 4 ) + 5 )
= n (n − 1) (n + 1) ( ( n − 2 )( n + 2 ) + 5 )
= n (n − 1) (n + 1)(n − 2)( n + 2) + 5n (n − 1) (n + 1)

We see that second term is divisible by 5and first term is also divisible by5 as it is product of 5
consecutive natural numbers. Hence, the given expression is divisible by 5×6=30.

Hence the proof.

7. If the sum of the cubes of three consecutive integers is a cube k 3 , prove that 3|k

Soln:
Let n, n+1, n+2 be the three consecutive integers.

Given n 3 + ( n + 1) + ( n + 2 ) is a cube k 3
3 3

 n 3 + n3 + 3n 2 + 3n + 1 + n 3 + 3n 2  2 + 3n  22 + 23 = k 3
 3n 3 + 9n 2 + 15n + 9 = k 3

 3 ( n 3 + 3n 2 + 5n + 3) = k 3
 3 | k3  3 | k  k  k
Since 3 is a prime,3 | k

Base-b representation:
The expression ak b k + ak −1b k −1 + ..... + a1b + a0 is the base-b representation of theinteger N.
Accordingly, we write N = ( ak ak −1.....a1a0 )b in base b.

For example, ( 345)10 = 3 (10 ) + 4 (10 ) + 5 (10 )

2 1

( 345) = 3 (8) + 4 (8) + 5 (8) = 165

2 1

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Hexadecimal Expansion:
The base 16 expansion of an integer is called its hexadecimal expansion. Hexadecimal Expansion
uses the sixteen digits 0,1,2,3,…9,A,B,C,D,E,and F. Where the letters A to F represent the digits 10
to 15 respectively (in decimal notation).
Problem:
1. Express ( 101011111) 2 in base 10.

Soln:
(101011111) 2
= 1(28 ) + 0(27 ) + 1(2 6 ) + 0(25 ) + 1(2 4 ) + 1(2 3 ) + 1(2 2 ) + 1(21 ) + 1(20 )
= 256 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 351

2. Express ( 3AB0E )16 in base ten.

Soln:
We know A=10,B=11,E=14
( 3AB0E ) 16
= 3(164 ) + A(163 ) + B(162 ) + 0(161 ) + E (160 )
= 3(164 ) + 10(163 ) + 11(162 ) + 0(161 ) + 14(160 )
= 196608 + 40960 + 2816 + 14 = 240398

3. Express 1776 in the octal system.

Soln:
1776=222(8)+0
222=27(8)+6
27=3(8)+3
3=0(8)+3
1776 = ( 3360 )8

4. Find the value of the base b so that 144b=49.

Soln:
144b=49  1 b2 + 4  b1 + 4  b0 = 49

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 b 2 + 4b + 4 = 49
 b 2 + 4b − 45 = 0
 ( b + 9 )( b − 5 ) = 0
sin ce b  −9,
b = 5

Number Patterns:
Consider the following number patter,
1 9 + 2 = 11
12  9 + 3 = 111
123  9 + 4 = 1111
1234  9 + 5 = 11111

In general,

123(n)  9 + ( n + 1) = 11111
n +1 ones

1. Add two more rows to the following pattern, and write conjecture formula for the nthrow:
9  9 + 7 = 88
98  9 + 6 = 888
987  9 + 5 = 8888
9876  9 + 4 = 88888
98765  9 + 3 = 888888
Soln:
The next two rows of the given patterns are,
987654  9 + 2 = 8888888
9876543  9 + 1 = 88888888
The general pattern is
98765.....(10 − n)  9 + (8 − n) = 888.....88
( n +1) Eights

2. Consider the number pattern

102 − 10 + 1 = 91
104 − 102 + 1 = 9901
106 − 103 + 1 = 999001
108 − 104 + 1 = 99990001
Conjecture a formula for then th row of this pattern and establish the validity of the formula.

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Soln:
nth row is : 102 n − 10n + 1 = 999  9 000  0 1
n times (n-1) times

LHS : 102 n − 10n + 1 = 10n (10n − 1) + 1

= 10n (999  9) + 1
n times

= 999  9 000  0 + 1

n times n zeros

= 999  9 000  0 1

n times (n −1) zeros

Prime and Composite Numbers:

A positive integer p>1 is called a prime number if its only positive factors are a and p. If P>1 is
not a prime, then it is called a composite number.
1. Theorem (Euclid): There are infinitely many primes.
Proof:
We prove by contradiction method.
Assume that there are only n primes p1 , p2 ,..., pn where n is prime.
Now consider the integer
m = p1  p2  p3 ..., pn
Since m  1, by theorem, everyinteger n  2 has a prime factor. m has a prime factor p.
But none of the primes p1 , p2 , p3 ,..., pn divide m

For,if pi |m and since pi | p1  p2  p3 ..., pn

we get pi | m− p1  p2  p3 ..., pn  pi |1, which is not true and hence a contradiction.
 pi | m

So, we have a prime p which is not in the list of n primes. Thus, we have n+1 primes p1 , p2 , p 3 ,..., pn , pn +1
Which contradicts the assumption there are only n primes.
So, our assumption of finiteness is wrong. Hence the number of primes is infinite.

2. Theorem: Every integer n  2 has a prime factor.

Proof:
We prove the theorem by strong principle of induction on n.
If n=2, then the statement is true. Since 2 is a prime and 2 is a factor of 2.
Assume the statement is true for all integers upto k, k>2.

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To prove it is true for k+1:
If k+1 is a prime, then k+1 is a prime factor of k+1.
If k+1 is not a prime, then k+1 must be a composite number.
So, it must have factor d, where d  k . Then by the induction hypothesis, d has a prime factor p.
Since p | d and d | k+1, we have p | k+1. So p is a factor of k+1.
Hence by second principle of induction the statement is true for every integer >1
Every integer n  2 has a prime factor.

3. Every composite number n has a prime factor   n  .

Proof:
Given n is a composite number.
Then there exist positive integer a and b such that n=ab, where 1<a<n, 1<b<n.
We will prove a  n or b  n.

Suppose a  n and b  n
Then a  b  n  n = n
 a b  n

which is impossible, either a   n  . or b   n  .

we know that every positive integer  2 has a prime factor.

Any such a factor a or b is also a factor of a  b=n

So 'n' must have a prime factor   n  .

Theorem:

Let p1 ,p2 ,....,p r be the primes   n  .Then the number of prime  n is

n  n   n   
( )
 ( n ) = n −1+  n −    +   −  
i  j  pi p j 
 + ... + ( −1)  
n n

i  pi 
  i  j  k  pi p j p k  i  j  k ... r  p i p j p k ....p r 
 

Problem:
1. Show that 101 is a prime.
Soln:

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Given number is 101. First we find all prime  101 = 10.

The primes are 2,3,5,7. Since none of these are a factor of 101.So 101 is prime number.
2. Determine if 1601 is a prime number.
Soln:
We know that if n has no prime factors   n  , then n is a prime consider prime number   1601
 prime number ≤ 40 (approx.)
 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31 and 37 and which are not factors of 1601
Therefore, 1601 is a prime
3. Find the number of primes  100
Soln:

Here n=100, and 100 = 10

Primes which are less than or equal to 10 are:2,3,5,7.
Then the number of prime  100 is
   n   
 (n ) = n −1+  ( n ) −   pn  +   p np  −  
i  j k 
 + ... + ( −1)
n
 
n

i i ij  i j  pi p j p k  i  j  k ... r 
 pi p j p k ....p r 

 100  100  100  100  

 (100 ) = 100 − 1 +  ( )
100 −   + + +
 2   3   5   7  


  100   100   100   100   100   100  

+  + + + + + 
 2  3   2  5   2  7   3  5   3  7   5  7  
  100   100   100   100    100 
−   +  +  +  +  
 2  3  5   2  3  7   2  5  7   3  5  7    2  3  5  7 

= 99 + 4 − 50 + 33 + 20 + 14 + 16 + 10 + 7 + 6 + 4 + 2 − 3 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 0

= 103 − 117 + 45 − 6 = 25
4. Find the smallest prime factor of 129.
Solution:

Here n=129, and  129  = 11

Primes which are less than or equal to 11 are:2,3,5,7,11.

2 | 129 and 3 |129 Hence the smallest prime factor of 129 is 3.

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1. Theorem:
For every positive integer n, there are n consecutive integers that are composite numbers.
Proof:
Consider the n consecutive integers
( n + 1)!+ 2, ( n + 1)!+ 3,....., ( n + 1)!+ ( n + 1) Where n  1.
Let 2  k  n + 1

Then k | ( n + 1)! and always k | k

 k | ( n + 1)!+ k  , for every k = 2,3,...(n + 1)

 2| ( n + 1)!+ 2  ,3| ( n + 1)!+ 3 ,....., ( n + 1) | ( n + 1)!+ ( n + 1)
 ( n + 1)!+ 2, ( n + 1)!+ 3,....., ( n + 1)!+ ( n + 1) are n consecutive integer which
are composite numbers.

2. Obtain six consecutive integers that are composite.

Soln:
By theorem, for every integer n, there are n consecutive integers that are composite numbers. Then
the six consecutive composite numbers are
( n + 1)!+ 2, ( n + 1)!+ 3, ( n + 1)!+ 4, ( n + 1)!+ 5, ( n + 1)!+ 6, ( n + 1)!+ 7
put n = 6
 The six consecutive composite numbers are5042, 5043,5044,5045,5046, and 5047

3. Prove that any prime of the form 3k+1 is of the form 6k+1.

Soln.:
Let the prime p=3k+1, then k must be even.
[if k is odd, then 3k is odd 3k+1 is even  3k+1 is not prime]
 k=2k, then p=3(2k)+1=6k+1.
Hence any prime of the form 3k+1 is of the form 6k+1.
4. Show that product of k consecutive integers is divisible by k!

Proof:
Let ( n + 1) , ( n + 2 ) , , ( n + k ) be the 'k' consecutive integer.

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Product of 'k' consecutive integer = ( n + 1)( n + 2 )  ( n + k )
n!
= ( n + 1)( n + 2 )  ( n + k )
n!

=
( n + k )!
n!
k!( n + k )!
Product of 'k' consecutive integer= = k! n + rCr = Integer
k! n!
Hence the product of k consecutive integers is divisible by k!
Greatest Common Divisor(GCD)
Definition:
The greatest common divisor of two integer a and b, not both zero, is the largest positive integer
that divides both a and b. It is denoted by gcd (a,b) or (a,b).
For example, (3,15)=3,(12,18)=6,(-15,20)=5
Since (a,-b)=(-a,b)=(-a,-b)=(a,b)we confine our discussion of gcd to positive integers.
Definition:
A positive integer d is the gcd of integers a and b if
(i). d | a and d | b
(ii).If c | a and c | b, then c | d , where c is a positive integer.

Relatively Prime:
If ( a, b ) = 1 , then the integers a and b are said to be relatively prime.

1. (Euler) Prove that the GCD of the positive integers a and b is linear combination of a &b.
Proof:
LetS be the set of positive linear combination of a and b; that is S = ma + nb / ma + nb  0, m, n  Z 
To show that S has a least element:
Since a  0, a = 1 a + 0  bS , S is non empty. So, by the well-ordering principle,
S has a least positive element d.
To show that d = ( a, b ) :
Since d belongs to S, d =  a +  b for some integer  and  .
(1).First we will show that d / a and d / b :
By the division algorithm, there exist integers q and r such that a = dq + r ,
where 0  r  d . Substituting for d.

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r = a − dq
= a − ( a +  b ) q
= (1 −  q ) a + ( −  q ) b
This shows r is a linear combination of a and b.
If r  0, then r  S . Since r  d , r is less than the smallest element in S.
Which is a contrdiction . So r = 0; thus, a = dq, so d|a.
Similarly, d|b. Thus d is common divisor of a and b.
(2).To show that any positive common divisior d ' of a and b is  d :
Since d ' | a, and d ' | b  d ' | ( a +  b )
that is d ' | d . So d '  d .
Thus, by parts (1) and (2), d = ( a, b )

2.Two positive integer a and b are relatively prime if and only iff there are integers
α and β such that  a +  b =1.

Proof:
Assume that a and b are relatively prime, then (a,b)=1
We know that, there exist integer α and β such that
(a, b) =  a+ b
 1= a+ b

Conversely, assume that there exist integers α and β such that  a+ b=1.
Let d=(a,b). Then d|a and d|b.
 d | ( a+ b)  d|1  d=1
 (a,b)=1  a and b are relatively prime.

3. Euclid’s Lemma If p is a prime and p | ab then p | a or p | b.

Proof:
Given p is a prime and p | ab.
If p | a there is nothing to prove.
If p | a ,then we have to prove p | b.
Since p is a prime and p | a , then (p,a)=1   p +  a = 1 for some integers  and 
Multiply by b, then  pb +  ab = b
Since p | ab and p | pb,

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we have p |  pb +  ab  p | b ( p +  a )  p | b 1  p | b

a b
4. If d=(a,b), then  ,  = 1
d d
Proof:
Since d is gcd of a and b  d is positive integer
d=(a,b)  there exist integers α and β such that d= a+ b

a b
 1=   +  
d  d
a b
 by the above theorem and are relatively prime
d d
a b
  ,  =1
d d 
5. If (a,b)=1=(a,c) then (a,bc)=1
Proof:
(a,b)=1 there exist integers α and β such that  a+ b=1-----(1)
(a,c)=1  there exist integers  and  such that  a+ c=1 − − − − − (2)
Using (2) in (1),
 a +  b(1) = 1
 a +  b( a+ c) = 1
 a +  ab+ bc=1

( +  b ) a+ (  ) bc=1  (a,bc)=1
6. Prove that (a, a − b) = 1 if and only if (a, b) = 1
Proof:
Let ( a, b ) = 1
Then there exist integer l and m such that
la + mb = 1
la + ma + mb − ma = 1
(l + m)a − m(a − b) = 1
(l + m)a + (−m)(a − b) = 1  ( a, a − b ) = 1

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Conversely, let ( a, a − b ) = 1. To prove : ( a, b ) = 1
Then there exist integer  and  such that
 a +  ( a − b) = 1
a +  a − b = 1
( +  ) a + (−  )b = 1  ( a, b ) = 1
Hence the proof.
7. If d = ( a, b ) and d' is any common divisor of a and b, then d'|d.
Proof:
Since d = ( a, b ) , , α and β such that d =  a +  b.
also since d' is common divisor of a &b.  d' | a &d' | b
 d' | ( αa+βb ) ; so d'|d.

The Euclidean Algorithm

Suppose a and b are positive integer with a  b.
If a=b, then ( a, b ) = ( a, a ) = a
So, assume a  b

Then by successive application of division algorithm. We get

a = q1b + r1 , 0  r1  b
b = q2 r1 + r2 , 0  r2  r1
r1 = q3r2 + r3 , 0  r3  r2
.
.
.
rn−2 = qn rn−1 + rn , 0  rn  rn−1
and rn−1 = qn+1rn + 0
where b  r1  r2  .....  0. The sequence of remainders terminate with remainder 0.

 gcd ( a, b ) = gcd ( b, r1 ) = gcd ( r1 , r2 ) = ...... = gcd ( rn−1 , rn ) = rn

Thus ( a, b ) = rn , where rn is the last non-zero remainder in the sequence of divisions.

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Problem:
1. Find the GCD of 1819 & 3587.
Soln:
(3587,1819) = 11819 + 1768
(1819,1768) = 11768 + 51
(1768,51) = 34  51 + 34
(51,34) = 1 34 + 17
(34,17) = 2 17 + 0
 gcd of 1819,3587 is 17

2. Find the GCD of a + b, a 2 − b2 .

GCD ( a + b, a 2 − b2 ) = GCD ( a + b, ( a − b )( a + b ) ) = a + b

3. If ( a, 4 ) = 2 & ( b, 4 ) = 2 show that ( a + b, 4 ) = 2

Soln.:
( a, 4) = 2  gcd of ( a, 4 ) = 2  2 / a but 4 / a  a = 2k , and k is odd
( b, 4) = 2  gcd of ( b, 4 ) = 2  2 / b but 4 / b b = 2l, and l is odd
a + b = 2k + 2l = 2 ( k + l ) = 2(even) = 2 ( 2m ) = 4m
 4 / a + b  gcd ( a + b, 4 ) = 4

3. Evaluate by apply Euclidean Algorithm(2076,1776)

Solu.:
By successive application of division algorithm, we get:
2076 = 11776 + 300
1776 = 5  300 + 276
300 = 1 276 + 24
276 = 11 24 + 12
24 = 2 12 + 0
Since the last nonzero remainder is ( 2076,1776 ) = 12
4. Apply Euclidean Algorithm and express (4076, 1024) as a linear combination of 4076, 1024.
Soln.:
By successive application of division algorithm, we get:
4076 = 3 1024 + 1004
1024 = 11004 + 20
1004 = 50  20 + 4
20 = 5  4 + 0
Since the last nonzero remainder is ( 4076,1024 ) = 4

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( 4076,1024 ) = 4 = 1004 − 50  20
=1004 − 50 (1024 − 11004 )
= 511004 − 50 1024
= 51( 4076 − 3 1024 ) − 50 1024
= 51 4076 + ( −203) 1024

5. Apply Euclidean Algorithm to express the gcd of (1976, 1776) as a linear combination of
1976, 1776.
Soln.:
By successive application of division algorithm, we get:
1976 = 11776 + 200
1776 = 8  200 + 176
200 = 1176 + 24
176 = 7.24 + 8
24 = 3  8 + 0
Since the last nonzero remainder is (1976,1776 ) = 8

(1976,1776 ) = 8 = 176 − 7  24
=176 − 7 ( 200 − 1 176 )
= 8 176 − 7  200
= 8 (1776 − 8  200 ) − 7  200
= 8 1776 − 71 200

= 8 1776 − 71(1976 − 1.1776 )

= 79.1776 − 71.1976
= 79.1776 + ( −71) .1976

Hence the gcd is a linear combination of numbers 1976,1776.

6. Using recursion, evaluate (15,28,50).

Soln.:

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(15, 28,50 ) = (15,50, 28 )
= ( (15,50 ) , 28 )
= ( 5, 28 ) = 1
1 is the GCD (15, 28,50 )

7. Using recursion, evaluate (18, 30, 60, 75, 132).

Soln:
(18,30, 60, 75,132 ) = ( (18,30, 60, 75) ,132 )
= ( ( (18,30, 60 ) , 75 ) ,132 )

= ((((18,30) , 60) , 75) ,132)

= ( ( ( 6, 60 ) , 75) ,132 )
= ( ( 6, 75 ) ,132 ) = ( 3,132 ) = 3

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:

Statement:
Every integer n  2 either is a prime or can be expressed as a product of primes. The factorization
into primes is unique except for the order of the factors.

Proof:
First, we will show by strong induction that n either is a prime or can be expressed as a product of
primes.

Then we will establish the uniqueness of such a factorization.

Let P(n) denote the statement that n is a prime or can be expressed as a product of primes.

(i) To show that P(n) is true for every integer n  2:

Since 2 is a prime, clearly P(2) is true.
Now assume P(2), P(3),…..P(k) are true; that is every integer 2 through k either is a prime or can be
expressed as a product of primes.
If k+1 is a prime, then P(k+1) is true. So suppose k+1 is composite. Then k+1 = ab for some integers
a and b, where 1 < a, b < k+1. By the inductive hypothesis, a and b either are primes or can be
expressed as products of primes; in any event, k+1=ab can be expressed as products of primes. Thus,
P(k+1) is also true.

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Thus by strong induction, the result holds for every integer n  2
(ii) To Establish the Uniqueness of the Factorization:
Let n be a composite number with two factorization into primes; n = p1 p2  pr = q1q2  qs
we will show that r = s and every p i equals some q j ,where 1  i, j  r ; that is, the primes q1 , q2 ,.....qs
are a permutation of the primes p1 p2  pr
Assume, for convenience that r  s. since
p1 p2  pr = q1q2  qs , p1 / q1q2  qs ,  p1 = qi for some i. Dividing both sides p1 , we get:
p2 ..... pr = q1q2 ...qi −1q i qi +1 ...q s
Now, p2 divides the RHS , so p2 = q j for some j. cancel p2 form both sides :
p3 .....p r = q1q2 ...qi −1q i qi +1...q j −1q j q j +1qs

Since r  s, continuing like this, we can cancel pt with some qk . This yields a 1 on the LHS at the end.
Then the RHS cannot be left with any primes, since a product of primes can never yield a 1; thus, we
must have exhausted all qk ' s by now. therefore, r = s and hence the primes q1 , q2 ,.....qs are the same as
the primes p1 p2  pr in some order. Thus, the factorization on n is unique, except for the order in
which the primes as written.
Note:
(i). Every composite number n can be factored into primes. Such a product is the prime power
decomposition of n.
(ii). If the primes occur in increasing order, then it is called a Canonical decomposition.
Problem:
1. Using canonical decomposition of 168 and 180 find their GCD.
168 = 23  3  7 180 = 22  32  5
GCD = (168, 280 ) = 22  3 = 12

2. Find the canonical decomposition of 29 − 1

29 − 1 = ( 23 ) − 13 = ( 23 − 1)( 26 + 23 + 1) a3 − b3 = ( a − b ) ( a 2 + ab + b 2 )
3

= ( 7 )( 73)

Least Common Multiple (LCM):

The least common multiple of two positive integers a and b is the least positive integer divisible
by both a and b; it is denoted by [a,b].

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Problem:
1. Using canonical decomposition of 1050 and 2574.
Soln.:
1050 = 2  3  5  7
2574 = 2  32 1113
1050, 2574 = 2  3 2
 52  7 1113 = 450450

2. Using canonical decomposition of 168 and 180 find their GCD and LCM.
Soln.:
168 = 23  3  7 180 = 22  32  5
GCD = (168, 280 ) = 22  3 = 12
LCM = 168, 280 = 23  32  5  7 = 2520

3. Find the canonical decomposition of 23!

Soln.:
The prime dividing 23! are 2,3,5.7,11,17,19,23
 23   23   23   23 
The power of 2 dividing 23! are =   +  2  +  3  +  4  = 11 + 5 + 2 + 1 = 19
 2  2  2  2 
 23   23 
The power of 3 dividing 23! are =   +  2  = 7 + 2 = 9
 3  3 
 23   23 
The power of 5 dividing 23! are =   +  2  = 4 + 0 = 4
 5  5 
 23 
The power of 7 dividing 23! are =   = 3
7
 23 
The power of 11 dividing 23! are =   = 2
 11 
 23 
The power of 13 dividing 23! are =   = 1
 13 
 23 
The power of 17 dividing 23! are =   = 1
 17 
 23 
The power of 19 dividing 23! are =   = 1
 19 
 23 
The power of 23 dividing 23! are =   = 1
 23 
 The canonical form of 23! = 2  39  54  73 112 13 17 19  23
19

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Relation between GCD and LCM:
Theorem:
ab
a,b =
Let a and b be positive integers. Then
( a,b )
(or)
Prove that the product of gcd and lcm of any two positive integers a and b is equal to their
products.
Proof:

Let a = p1a1p2a2 .....pnan , b=p1b1pb22 .....pbnn be the canonical decomposition of a and b. Then

 a, b = p1maxa1,b1pmax a2 ,b2 

.....pn  n n
max a ,b
2

( a, b ) = p1mina1,b1pmina2 ,b2 
.....p n  n n
min a ,b
2

  a, b  ( a, b ) = p1  1 1  1 1p 2  2 2  2 2.....p n  n n  n n
max a ,b + min a ,b max a ,b + min a ,b max a ,b + min a ,b

= p1a1+b1 p a22 +b2 .....p nan +bn

(
= p1a1 p 2a2 .....p nan )( p b1 b2 bn
1 p 2 .....p n )
= ab
ab
Hence  a,b =
( a,b )
Problem:
1. Using (252, 360) compute [252, 360].
Since GCD of (252,360) = 36
ab
 a, b  =
( a, b )
252  360
  252, 360 = = 2520
36

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2. For positive integer n, find (n, n+1) and [n, n+1]
Soln.:
Since n and n+1 are the two consecutive integer. For any two consecutive integers are relatively
primes. So (n, n+1)=1.

By formula,  a, b  = ab = n(n+1) = n +n 2

( a, b ) 1

3. Find a positive integer a, if [a, a+1] =132.

Soln.:
We know that a, b =
ab
− − − − − (1)
(a, b)
Since LCM of  a, a + 1 =132 & GCD of ( a, a + 1) = 1
a  a +1
(1)  132 =
1
 a + a − 132 = 0
2

 a = −12,11
Since a is positive integer, a = 11

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