MODULE 1

I. TITLE: CLASSIFICATIONS OF FLUID FLOW

II. TOPIC: Viscous & Inviscid flow, Internal & External flow, Compressible
& Incompressible flow, Laminar & Turbulent flow, Natural & Forced
flow, Steady & Unsteady flow.

III. TIME FRAME: 3 Hours

IV. INTRODUCTION: Fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest or in motion, and the interaction of fluids with solids or other
fluids at the boundaries. There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered in
practice, and it is usually convenient to classify them on the basis of some common
characteristics to make it feasible to study them in groups. There are many ways to
classify fluid flow problems, and here we present some general categories.

V. OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to;
1. substantially explain the mechanisms of fluid flow.
2. classify fluid flow through matrix completion.
3. relate fluid flow to real life events through an essay.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
You will recall from physics that a substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid,
and gas. (At very high temperatures, it also exists as plasma.) A substance in the liquid
or gas phase is referred to as a fluid.
When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops between
them and the slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer. This internal resistance to
flow is quantified by the fluid property viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness
of the fluid. Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids and
by molecular collisions in gases. There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid
flows involve viscous effects to some degree. Flows in which the frictional effects are
significant are called viscous flows. However, in many flows of practical interest, there
are regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces. Neglecting the viscous terms in
such inviscid flow regions greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in accuracy.
The development of viscous and inviscid regions of flow as a result of inserting a flat
plate parallel into a fluid stream of uniform velocity is shown in Figure 1 below. The fluid
sticks to the plate on both sides because of the no-slip condition, and the thin boundary
layer in which the viscous effects are significant near the plate surface is the viscous
flow region. The region of flow on both sides away from the plate and largely unaffected
by the presence of the plate is the inviscid flow region.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 1

FIGURE 1: Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

Internal versus external flow

A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the fluid
flows in a confined space or over a surface. The flow of an unbounded fluid over a
surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow. The flow in a pipe or duct is
internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces. Water flow in a pipe, for
example, is internal flow, and airflow over a ball or over an exposed pipe during a windy
day is external flow (Figure 2). The flow of liquids in a duct is called open-channel flow if
the duct is only partially filled with the liquid and there is a free surface. The flows of
water in rivers and irrigation ditches are examples of such flows. Internal flows are
dominated by the influence of viscosity throughout the flow field. In external flows the
viscous effects are limited to boundary layers near solid surfaces and to wake regions
downstream of bodies.

FIGURE 2: Internal versus External Flow

Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the level of
variation of density during flow. Incompressibility is an approximation, in which the flow
is said to be incompressible if the density remains nearly constant throughout.
Therefore, the volume of every portion of fluid remains unchanged over the course of its
motion when the flow is approximated as incompressible.
The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of liquids is
typically incompressible. Therefore, liquids are usually referred to as incompressible
substances. A pressure of 210 atm, for example, causes the density of liquid water at 1
atm to change by just 1 percent. Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible. A

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 2

pressure change of just 0.01 atm, for example, causes a change of 1 percent in the
density of atmospheric air.

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic. The highly ordered
fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar. The word laminar
comes from the movement of adjacent fluid particles together in “laminae.” The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically laminar. The highly
disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called turbulent (Figure 3). The flow of low-viscosity fluids such
as air at high velocities is typically turbulent. A flow that alternates between being
laminar and turbulent is called transitional. The experiments conducted by Osborne
Reynolds in the 1880s resulted in the establishment of the dimensionless Reynolds
number, Re, as the key parameter for the determination of the flow regime in pipes

FIGURE 3: Laminar versus turbulent flow

Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the fluid motion is initiated.
In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means
such as a pump or a fan. In natural flows, fluid motion is due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid (Figure 4). In solar hot-water systems, for
example, the thermo siphoning effect is commonly used to replace pumps by placing
the water tank sufficiently above the solar collectors .

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 3

FIGURE 4
In this image of the girl in a swimming suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air adjacent to her
body indicates that humans and warm blooded animals are sorrounded by thermal
plumes of rising warm air.

Steady versus Unsteady Flow

The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in engineering, and thus it is
important to have a clear understanding of their meanings. The term steady implies no
change of properties, velocity, temperature, etc., at a point with time. The opposite of
steady is unsteady. The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified
region.
Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers operate for long periods of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices. (Note that the flow field near the rotating blades of a
turbomachine is of course unsteady, but we consider the overall flow field rather than
the details at some localities when we classify devices.) During steady flow, the fluid
properties can change from point to point within a device, but at any fixed point they
remain constant. Therefore, the volume, the mass, and the total energy content of a
steady-flow device or flow section remain constant in steady operation. A simple
analogy is shown in Figure 5;

A B
FIGURE 5: Comparison of (A) instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady flow, (B) Long
exposure picture of the same flow.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 4

Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are intended for
continuous operation such as turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers of power plants or refrigeration systems. Some cyclic devices, such as
reciprocating engines or compressors, do not satisfy the steady-flow conditions since
the flow at the inlets and the exits is pulsating and not steady. However, the fluid
properties vary with time in a periodic manner, and the flow through these devices can
still be analyzed as a steady-flow process by using time-averaged values for the
properties.

VII. SELF EVALUATION:

1. Oil pump is a component of lubricating system of an internal combustion engine
for circulating oil from the crankcase to all moving mechanisms and back
to the crankcase. Is it natural flow or forced flow, why?
2. How do you classify the flow of air around the evaporator coils of an air
Conditioning unit as to internal or external flow, why?

VIII. REVEW OF CONCEPTS:

 Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows.
 Flows in which the frictional effects are not significant are called inviscid flows.
 The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is
external flow.
 The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by
solid surfaces.
 Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic. The highly
ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar.
 The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent.
 A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the
level of variation of density during flow. Incompressibility is an approximation, in
which the flow is said to be incompressible if the density remains nearly constant
throughout.
 In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external
means such as a pump or a fan.
 In natural flows, fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy
effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the
fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.
 The term steady implies no change of properties, velocity, temperature, etc., at a
point with time.
 The opposite of steady is unsteady. The term uniform implies no change with
location over a specified region.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 5

ACTIVITY 1: Complete the table below to show the classification of fluid flow

ACTIVITY 2:
Make an essay which relates fluid flow mechanism to real life situations.

IX. REFERENCES:
Yunus A. Cengel et al (2010)Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw-Hill co.,
New York, USA

T. Al Shemmeri (2012) Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill co., New York, USA

MODULE 2

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 6

I. TITLE: PROPERTIES OF FLUID

II. TOPIC: Density, Viscosity, Pressure

III. TIME FRAME: 12 Hours

IV. INTRODUCTION: Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar

properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be
extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus
of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and
elevation.

V. OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to be able to:
1. concretely explain fluid properties.
2. solve problems involving density, viscosity and pressure.
3. appreciate the value of understanding fluid properties.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. Distinction between a
solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied
shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape. A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence of
a shear stress, no matter how small. In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in
fluids, stress is proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear force is applied, a
solid eventually stops deforming at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops
deforming and approaches a constant rate of strain.

FIGURE 1: Deformation of a rubber block placed between two parallel plates under the
influence of a shear force. The shear stress shown is that on the rubber – an equal but
opposite shear stress acts on the upper plate.

A fluid is a substance, which deforms when subjected to a force. A fluid can offer no
permanent resistance to any force causing change of shape. Fluid flow under their own
Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 7
weight and take the shape of any solid body with which they are in contact. Fluids
maybe divided into liquids and gases. Liquids occupy definite volumes. Gases will
expand to occupy any containing vessel.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties

are those that are independent of the mass of the system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density. Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size
—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume V, and total momentum are some
examples of extensive properties. An easy way to determine whether a property is
intensive or extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary
partition, as shown in Fig. 2. Each part will have the same value of intensive properties
as the original system, but half the value of the extensive properties.

FIGURE 2: Criterion to differentiate intensive and extensive properties

Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some examples of
specific properties are specific volume (v = V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m)
The state of a system is described by its properties. But we know from experience
that we do not need to specify all the properties in order to fix a state. Once the values
of a sufficient number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume
certain values. That is, specifying a certain number of properties is sufficient to fix a
state. The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the state
postulate: The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.

Continuum
A fluid is composed of molecules which may be widely spaced apart, especially in the
gas phase. Yet it is convenient to disregard the atomic nature of the fluid and view it as
Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 8
continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a continuum. The continuum
idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions and to assume that the
properties vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities. idealization is valid as
long as the size of the system we deal with is large relative to the space between the
molecules (Fig. 3).

A B
FIGURE 3: (A) The length scale associated with most flows, such as seagulls in flight,
is orders of magnitudes larger than the mean free path of the air molecules. Therefore,
here, for all fluid flows the continuum idealization is appropriate. (B) Despite the
relatively large gaps between molecules, a gas can usually be treated as continuum
because of the very large number of molecules even in an extremely small volume.

DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density is defined as mass per unit volume (Fig. 4). That is, Density: r = m / V, kg/m3.
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume per unit
mass. That is, V = V/m = 1/r. For a differential volume element of mass dm and volume
dV, density can be expressed as r = dm/dV.

FIGURE 4: Density is mas per unit volume; specific volume is volume per unity mass.
The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and pressure. The
density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to
temperature. Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompressible
substances, and the variation of their density with pressure is usually negligible. At

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 9

20°C, for example, the density of water changes from 998 kg/m3 at 1 atm to 1003
kg/m3 at 100 atm, a change of just 0.5 percent. The density of liquids and solids
depends more strongly on temperature than it does on pressure. At 1 atm, for example,
the density of water changes from 998 kg/m3 at 20°C to 975 kg/m3 at 75°C, a change
of 2.3 percent, which can still be neglected in many engineering analyses.
Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-
known substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as
the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a
specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which rH2O = 1000 kg/m3). That is,
Specific gravity: SG = r / rH2O

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Determine the density, specific gravity, and mass of the air in the room whose
dimensions are 4m x 5m x 6m at 100KPa and 25degrees centigrade

Solution:

.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of fluid’s resistance to flow. The viscosity of a liquid is related
to the ease with which the molecules can move with respect to one another. Thus the
viscosity of a liquid depends on the:
 Strength of attractive forces between molecules, which depend on their
composition, size and shape.
 The kinetic energy of the molecules, which depend on the temperature.

Viscosity is not a strong function of pressure; hence the effects of pressure on

viscosity can be neglected. However, viscosity depends greatly on temperature. For

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 10

liquids, the viscosity decreases with temperature, whereas for gases, the viscosity
increases with temperature. For example, crude oil is often heated to a higher
temperature to reduce the viscosity for transport.

The rate of deformation dv ( or the magnitude of the velocity component) will increase
with distance above the fixed plate. Hence: shear stress = constant x ( dv / dy )
where the constant of proportionality is known as the dynamic viscosity of the
particular fluid separating the two plates. Shear Stress = Dynamic viscosity x ( V /
y ),,where V is the velocity of the moving plate, and y is the distance separating the two
plates. The units of dynamic viscosity are kg/m-s or Pa – s. A non SI unit in common
usage is the poise where 1 poise = 10,000 kg/m-s.

Kinematic Viscosity = is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 11

Viscosity of fluids at standard temperature and presure

Variation of the viscosity of some common fluids with temperature

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 12

Sample problem

Fluid Pressure
Fluid pressure is the force exerted by the fluid per unit area. Fluid pressure is
transmitted with equal intensity in all directions and acts normal to any plane. In the
same horizontal plane the pressure intensities in a liquid are equal. In the SI system the
units of fluid pressure are Newtons/m2 or Pascals, where 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa.

i.e.

Many other pressure units are commonly encountered and their conversions are
detailed below:

1 bar =105 N/m2

1 atmosphere = 101325 N/m2

1 psi (1bf/in2 – not SI unit) = 6895 N/m2

1 Torr = 133.3 N/m2

Terms commonly used in static pressure analysis include:

Pressure Head.  The pressure intensity at the base of a column of homogenous fluid of
a given height in meters.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 13

Vacuum. A perfect vacuum is a completely empty space in which, therefore the
pressure is zero.

Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure at the surface of the earth due to the head of air
above the surface. At sea level the atmospheric pressure is about 101.325 kN/m 2 (i.e.
one atmosphere = 101.325 kN/m2 is used as units of pressure).

Gauge Pressure. The pressure measured above or below atmospheric pressure.

Absolute Pressure. The pressure measured above absolute zero or vacuum.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

Vapour Pressure. When evaporation of a liquid having a free surface takes place
within an enclosed space, the partial pressure created by the vapour molecules is called
the vapour pressure. Vapour pressure increases with temperature.

Compressibility.A parameter describing the relationship between pressure and change

in volume for a fluid. A compressible fluid is one which changes its volume appreciably
under the application of pressure. Therefore, liquids are virtually incompressible
whereas gases are easily compressed. The compressibility of a fluid is expressed by
the bulk modulus of elasticity (E), which is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the
corresponding volume change per unit volume.

VII. SELF EVALUATION:

1. Explain how temperature and pressure affects the density and viscosity of a fluid.
2. Discuss why atmospheric temperature on top of the mountain is always lower
than that on the sea level..

VIII. REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

 Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The reciprocal of density is the
specific volume which is defined as volume per unit mass.
 Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-
known substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is
defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard
substance at a specified temperature.

 When two solid bodies in contact move relative to each other, a friction force
develops at the contact surface in the direction opposite to motion. There is a
property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the
“fluidity,” and that property is the viscosity. The force a flowing fluid exerts on a
body in the flow direction is called the drag force, and the magnitude of this force
depends, in part, on viscosity.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 14

  Fluid pressure is the force exerted by the fluid per unit area. Fluid pressure is
transmitted with equal intensity in all directions and acts normal to any plane. In
the same horizontal plane the pressure intensities in a liquid are equal.

 Terms commonly used in static pressure analysis include:

 Pressure Head. The pressure intensity at the base of a column of homogenous

fluid of a given height in meters.

 Vacuum. A perfect vacuum is a completely empty space in which, therefore the

pressure is zero.

 Atmospheric Pressure. The pressure at the surface of the earth due to the head
of air above the surface. At sea level the atmospheric pressure is about 101.325
kN/m2 (i.e. one atmosphere = 101.325 kN/m2 is used as units of pressure).

 Gauge Pressure. The pressure measured above or below atmospheric pressure.

 Absolute Pressure. The pressure measured above absolute zero or vacuum.

 Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

 Vapour Pressure. When evaporation of a liquid having a free surface takes

place within an enclosed space, the partial pressure created by the vapour
molecules is called the vapour pressure. Vapour pressure increases
with temperature.

ACTIVITY: Make an essay which relates fluid property to real life situations.

IX. REFERENCES:
Yunus A. Cengel et al (2010)Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw-Hill co.,
New York, USA

T. Al Shemmeri (2012) Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill co., New York, USA

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 15

MODULE 3

I. TITLE: FLUID STATICS

II. TOPIC: Pascal’s law, Fluid Static law, Pressure Measurement and Buoyancy.

III. TIME FRAME: 14 hours

IV. INTRODUCTION:
Pascal’s law states that the pressure intensity at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in
all directions. Fluid static law states that the pressure in a fluid increases with increasing
depth. In the case of water this is called hydrostatic law. Pressure can be measured in
many ways such as transducers, bourdon gage and manometers.

V. OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to be able to;
1. intrinsically explain the concept of pascal’s law, fluid static law,
pressure measurement and buoyancy.
2. solve problems involving pascal’s law, fluid static law,
pressure measurement and buoyancy.
3. design pressure measuring device.
4. find pleasure in learning fluid statics.
VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES:
Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law states that the pressure intensity at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in
all directions. Consider a small prism of fluid of unit thickness in the z-direction
contained in the bulk of the fluid as shown below. Since the cross-section of the prism is
equilateral triangle, P3 is at an angle of 45o with the x-axis. If the pressure intensities
normal to the three surfaces are P1, P2, P3 as shown then since:-

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 16

Force = Pressure x Area

Force on face AB = P1 x (AB x 1)

BC = P2 x (BC x 1)

AC = P3 x (AC x 1)

Resolving forces vertically:

P1 x AB = P3 x AC cos θ

But AC cos θ = AB Therefore P1 = P3

Resolving forces horizontally:

P2 x BC = P3 x AC sin

But AC sin θ = BC Therefore P2 = P3

Hence P1 = P2 = P3(1.4)

In words: the pressure at any point is equal in all directions.

Fluid-Static Law

The fluid-static law states that the pressure in a fluid increases with increasing depth. In
the case of water this is termed the hydrostatic law.

Consider a vertical column, height h (m), of fluid of constant cross-sectional area A (m 2)

totally surrounded by the same fluid of density ρ (kg/m 3)

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 17

 For vertical equilibrium of forces:

 Force on base = Weight of Column of Fluid

 Weight of column = mass x acceleration due to gravity W = m.g

 Mass of the fluid column = its density x volume,

 Volume of the column = Area (A) of the base x height of the column (h);

 Weight of the column = ρ x A x h x g

 Force = Pressure x Area = P x A

Hence: P x A = ρ x A x h x g
Divide both sides by the area A, P = ρ g h

EXAMPLE: A dead-weight tester is a device commonly used for calibrating pressure

gauges. Weights loaded onto the piston carrier generate a known pressure in the piston
cylinder, which in turn is applied to the gauge. The tester shown below generates a
pressure of 35 MPa when loaded with a 100 kg weight.

Determine:

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 18

 a. The diameter of the piston cylinder (mm)
b. The load (kg) necessary to produce a pressure of 150kPa

Solution:

a. P = F/A
The Force F = mass x acceleration = 100 x 9.81 = 981 N
Hence A = F / P = 981 /35 x 106 = 2.8 x 10-5 m2
The area of cross-section of the piston is circular, hence the diameter is found as
follows:
b. F = P x A =150 x 103 x 2.8 x 10-5 = 42 N
But F = mg Therefore m = 42/9.81 = 4.28 kg.

EXAMPLE:
a. If the air pressure at sea level is 101.325 kPa and the density of air is 1.2 kg/m 3,
calculate the thickness of the atmosphere (m) above the earth.
b. What gauge pressure is experienced by a diver at a depth of 10m in seawater of
relative density 1.025?

Assume g = 9.81 m/s2.

Solution:

a. Given: P = 101.325 kPa = 101325 Pa

ρair = 1.2 kg/m3
Then using P = ρair g h
The depth of the atmospheric air layer is calculated:

b. since the relative density is RD = 1.025

Therefore,
ρseawater = 1.025 x 1000 = 1025 kg/m3
Then P = ρseawater g h
= 1025 x 9.81 x 10
= 100.552 kPa
Pressure Measurement
In general, sensors used to measure the pressure of a fluid are called pressure
transducers. A Transducer is a device that, being activated by energy from the fluid
system, in itself responds in a manner related to the magnitude of the applied pressure.
There are essentially two different ways of measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid
whether static or in motion. The essential feature of a pressure transducer is the elastic
element which converts the signal from the pressure source into mechanical

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 19

displacement (e.g. the Bourdon gauge). The second category has an electric element
which converts the signal into an electrical output. The popularity of electric pressure
transducers is due to their adaptability to be amplified, transmitted, controlled and
stored.
The Bourdon gauge is a mechanical pressure measurement device that relies on a
circular arc of elliptical cross-section tube (the Bourdon tube) closed at one end,
changing shape to a circular cross-section under the action of fluid pressure. The
resulting motion at the closed end is amplified by a gear arrangement to produce the
movement of a pointer around a scale. The scale is normally calibrated to indicate
pressure readings proportional to the deflection of the pointer.

Figure 1: Bourdon pressure gauge

Manometers:
The pressure is indicated by the displacement of the manometric fluid as high will be
given the symbol P1 and on the low side will be P 2. By balancing the forces on each
side, a relationship between pressures and manometer displacement can be
established.

A. U-tube manometer
P1 – P2 = ρ g h

B. Well-type manometer
P1 – P2 = ρ g (h1 + h2)
But since h2 x d = h1 x D the equation can be rewritten as
P1 – P2 = ρ g h1 (1 + d / D)

C. Inclined tube manometer

P1 – P2 = ρ g h
L = h / sin (θ) with (θ) as the angle of the low limb with the horizontal axis.
Hence:
P1 – P2 = ρ g L sin (θ)

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 20

Figure 2: Manometers

Example:

A U-tube manometer is connected to a closed tank, shown below, containing oil

having a density of 860 kg/m 3, the pressure of the air above the oil being 3500 Pa.
If the pressure at point A in the oil is 14000 Pa and the manometer fluid has a RD
of 3, determine:

1. The depth of oil, z1

2. The differential reading, z2 on the manometer.

Solution:
1. At point A in the tank:
PA = ρoil g z1 + Pair
i.e. 14000 = (860 x 9.81 x z1) + 3500
z1 = 1.244 m.
2. At datum : equilibrium of pressure on both sides
PLHS = PRHS
PA + ρoil x g x z1 = ρm x g x z2
14000 + (860 x 9.81 x 0.6) = 3000 x 9.81 x z2
z2 = 0.647 m

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 21

Applications of Pascal’s law
Two very useful devices based on Pascal’s law are hydraulic brakes and hydraulic lift
shown below. The pressure applied by the foot on the brake pedal is transmitted to the
brake fluid contained in the master cylinder. This pressure is transmitted undiminished
in all directions and acts through the brake pads on the wheel reducing the rotary
motion to a halt. Sliding friction between the tyres and the road surface opposes the
tendency of forward motion reducing the linear momentum to zero.

Figure 3: Hydraulic brakes

By means of hydraulic lifts, vehicles are lifted high on ramps for repairs and servicing. A
force F applied on the cylinder of small area A, creates a pressure P=F/A which acts
upwards on the ramp in the large cylinder of cross sectional area A’. The upward force
acting on the ramp (being equal to F’= FA’/A) is much larger than the applied force F.

FIGURE 4: Hydraulic lift

Buoyancy
The buoyancy of a body immersed in a fluid is that property which will determine
whether the body will sink, rise or float. Archimedes established the analysis over 2000
years ago. Archimedes reasoned that the volume of an irregular solid could be found by
determining the apparent loss of weight when the body is totally immersed in a liquid of
known density.

Archimedes principle states:-

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 22

 1. “The upthrust (vertical force) experienced by a body immersed in a fluid equals
the weight of the displaced fluid”
2. “A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it floats”.

Upthrust

F = Pressure x Area =PxA

But P = ρ.g.h
Therefore, F = ρ.g.h.A
But the volume VL= h.A
Therefore, F = ρ.g.VL
Buoyant force can be expressed as:
F(b) = W(air) – W(liquid) = d x g x VL

where d is the density of the liquid, g is the acceleration of gravity and v is the volume of
the immersed object (or the immersed part of the body if it floats). Since W=mg, the
apparent change in mass when submerged is

m – m(apparent) = d(liquid) x vL

Example

A hydrogen filled balloon has a total weight force of 9.5 kN. If the tension in the mooring
cable anchoring the balloon to the ground is 15.75 kN, determine the upthrust
experienced by the balloon and its volume.

Take the density of air as 1.23 kg/m3.

Solution:

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 23

Since the system is stable: Upthrust = Weight force + Tension in cable

F=W+T

= 9.5 + 15.75

= 25.25 kN

The Upthrust is F = ρ x VL x g

Since the upthrust = the weight of displaced fluid, Therefore Balloon Volume

Example 2:

A model boat consists of open topped rectangular metal can containing sand as a
ballast. If the can has a width of 100 mm, a length of 500 mm, and a mass of 1 kg,
determine the mass of sand (kg) required for the can to be immersed to a depth of 250
mm in sea water (RD = 1.03).

Solution:

Displaced volume VL = W x D x L = 0.1 x 0.25 x 0.5 = 0.0125 m3

For stable condition – Upthrust = weight force or F = W
The Upthrust due to Buoyancy = ρseawater g VL

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 24

The total weight = (mcan + msand) x 9.81
Therefore: ρseawater g VL. = (mcan + msand) x 9.81
1030 x 9.81 x 0.0125 = (1.0 + msand) x 9.81
Solving msand = 11.87 kg
Note: The sand will need to be levelled off or the can will not float vertically and may
even be unstable.

Example 3:

The hydraulic jack shown, the piston weighs 1000 N, determine the weight of the car
which is supported by the jack when the gauge reading is 1.2 bar. Assume that the  jack
cylinder has a diameter of 0.4 m.

Solution:

VII. SELF EVALUATION:

1. Describe the effect of buoyancy in real life situation.
2. Discuss how manometer measures pressure differential.
3. Explain the significance of Pascal’s law on hydraulic devices.

VIII. REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

 Pascal’s law states that the pressure intensity at a point in a fluid at rest is the
same in all directions.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 25

  Fluid static law states that the pressure in a fluid increases with increasing depth.
In the case of water this is called hydrostatic law.
 In general, sensors used to measure the pressure of a fluid are called pressure
transducers. A Transducer is a device that, being activated by energy from the
fluid
 system, in itself responds in a manner related to the magnitude of the applied
pressure.
 The Bourdon gauge is a mechanical pressure measurement device that relies on
a circular arc of elliptical cross-section tube (the Bourdon tube) closed at one
end, changing shape to a circular cross-section under the action of fluid
pressure. The resulting motion at the closed end is amplified by a gear
arrangement to produce the movement of a pointer around a scale. The scale is
normally calibrated to indicate pressure readings proportional to the deflection of
the pointer.

 Manometers: The pressure is indicated by the displacement of the manometric

fluid by balancing the forces on each side.

 The buoyancy of a body immersed in a fluid is that property which will determine
whether the body will sink, rise or float. Archimedes reasoned that the volume of
an irregular solid could be found by determining the apparent loss of weight when
the body is totally immersed in a liquid of known density.

ACTIVITY: Make an essay which relates fluid static concepts to real life
situations / conditions.

IX. REFERENCES:
Yunus A. Cengel et al (2010)Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw-Hill co.,
New York, USA

T. Al Shemmeri (2012) Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill co., New York, USA

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 26

MODULE 4

I. TITLE: INTERNAL FLUID FLOW

II. TOPIC: Conservation of mass and energy, Flow measurements, Flow

obstruction losses and Fluid power.

III. TIME FRAME: 14 hours

IV. INTRODUCTION:
Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called internal flows which include
flows through pipes, ducts, nozzles diffusers, sudden contractions and expansions,
valves, and fittings. The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation
states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the
system must remain constant over time. The law of conservation of energy states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed - only converted from one form of energy
to another. There are a large number of devices for measuring fluid flow rates to suit
different applications. Restriction methods of fluid flow are based on the acceleration or
deceleration of the fluid through some kind of nozzle, throat or vena contracta. When a
pipe changes direction, changes diameter or has a valve or other fittings there will be a
loss of energy due to the disturbance in flow. The fluid power available at a given point
for a fluid is defined as the product of mass, acceleration due to gravity and the fluid
head.

V. OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student is expected to be able to;
1. concretely explain the concept of mass and energy conservation.
2. describe the devices for measuring fluid flow rates.
3. evaluate how obstruction causes energy loss on flowing fluid.
4. evaluate how flowing fluid produces power.
5. solve problems involving mass and energy conservation,
flow measurements, flow obstruction losses and fluid power.
6. find pleasure in learning internal fluid flow concepts.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES:

Definitions:
Dynamic or Velocity Pressure - Dynamic pressure is related to fluid motion on a large
scale i.e. fluid velocity.
Stagnation Pressure Total Pressure - The sum of the static pressure plus the
dynamic pressure of a fluid at a point.

Streamline – An imaginary line in a moving fluid across which, at any instant, no fluid is
flowing. ie it indicates the instantaneous direction of the flow.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 27

Stream tube - A ‘bundle’ of neighbouring streamlines may be imagined to form a
stream tube (not necessarily circular) through which the fluid flows.
Control volume - A fixed volume in space through which a fluid is continuously flowing.
The boundary of a control volume is termed the control surface. The size and shape is
entirely arbitrary and normally chosen such that it encloses part of the flow of particular
interest.

Classification of Fluid behaviour

Steady or unsteady
A flow is termed steady if its properties do not vary with time. A flow is termed
unsteady if properties at a given point vary with time.
Quasi-steady flow is essentially unsteady but its properties change sufficiently slowly
with respect to time, at a given point, that a series of steady state solutions will
approximately represent the flow.
Uniform or Non-uniform
A uniform flow is one in which properties do not vary from point to point over a
given cross-section.
Non-uniform flow has its properties changing with respect to space in a given cross-
section.
One-dimensional or Multi-dimensional
One-dimensional flow, is one in which the direction and magnitude of the velocity at
all points are identical. Variation of velocity in other directions is so small that they can
be neglected. eg. flow of water in small bore pipe at low flow rates.

Two-dimensional flow is one in which the velocity has two main components.

Three-dimensional flow is one in which the flow velocity has significant components in
all three directions.

Viscid or Inviscid
This sometime distinguished as Viscid and inviscid flow in relation to the viscous
forces whether they are neglected or taken into account
Compressible or Incompressible
If the changes in density are relatively small, the fluid is said to be incompressible. If
the changes in density are appreciable, in case of the fluid being subjected to relatively
high pressures, the fluid has to be treated as Compressible.

Ideal or Real

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 28

An ideal fluid is both inviscid and incompressible. This definition is useful in forming
analytical solution to fluid flow problems.

Fluids in reality are viscous and compressible. Thus, the effect of compressibility and
viscosity must be considered for accurate analysis. It must be stressed that in most
common engineering applications at standard pressure and temperature, water can be
assumed incompressible and inviscid. The assumption of ideal fluid can help to
formulate a solution, an approximate solution, still better than no solution.

Conservation of Mass

The continuity equation applies the principle of conservation of mass to fluid flow.

Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume tank having one inlet and one outlet as
shown below.

conservation of mass

If the flow is steady i.e no accumulation of fluid within the tank, then the rate of fluid
flow at entry must be equal to the rate of fluid flow at exit for mass conservation. If, at
entry (or exit) having a cross-sectional area A (m 2), a fluid parcel travels a distance dL in
time dt, then the volume flow rate (V, m3/s) is given by: V = (A . dL)/∆t

but since dL/∆t is the fluid velocity (v, m/s) we can write: Q = V x A

The mass flow rate (m, kg/s) is given by the product of density and volume flow rate

i.e. m = ρ.Q = ρ .V.A

Between two points in flowing fluid for mass conservation we can write: m1 = m2

or ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ2 V2 A2

If the fluid is incompressible i.e. ρ1 = ρ2 then:

V1A1 = V2A2

Hence an incompressible flow in a constant cross-section will have a constant velocity.

For branched systems the continuity equation implies that the sum of the incoming fluid

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 29

mass (or volume) flow rates must equal the sum of the outgoing mass (or volume) flow
rates.

Example:

Air enters a compressor with a density of 1.2 kg/m 3 at a mean velocity of 4 m/s in the 6
cm x 6 cm square inlet duct. Air is discharged from the compressor with a mean velocity
of 3 m/s in a 5 cm diameter circular pipe. Determine the mass flow rate and the density
at outlet.

Solution:

Given: ρ1 = 1.2 kg/m3, V1 = 4 m/s, V2 = 3 m/s

A1 = 0.06 x 0.06 = 0.0036 m2

The mass flow rate is:

m = ρ1A1V1

= 1.2 x 0.0036 x 4

= 17.28 x 10-3 kg/s

Conservation of mass between sections 1 and 2 implies that:

ρ1A1V1 = ρ2 A2V2

Hence the density at section 2 is calculated:

Conservation of Energy

There are three forms of non-thermal energy for a fluid at any given point:-

The kinetic energy due to the motion of the fluid.

The potential energy due to the positional elevation above a datum.
The pressure energy, due to the absolute pressure of the fluid at that point.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 30

Conservation of energy necessitates that the total energy of the fluid remains constant,
however, there can be transformation from one form to another.

If all energy terms are written in the form of the head (potential energy), ie in metres of
the fluid, then:

represents the pressure head (sometimes known as ‘flow work’)

represents the velocity head (also known as kinetic energy)

The energy conservation, thus, implies that between any two points in a fluid

This equation is known as the Bernoulli equation and is valid if the two points of interest 1 & 2
are very close to each other and there is no loss of energy.

In a real situation, the flow will suffer a loss of energy due to friction and obstruction
between stations 1 & 2, hence

where hL is the loss of energy between the two stations.

When the flow between stations 1 & 2 is caused by a pump situated between the two
stations, the energy equation becomes:

Where hp is the head gain due to the pump.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 31

EXAMPLE:

A jet of water of 20 mm in diameter exits a nozzle directed vertically upwards at a

velocity of 10 m/s. Assuming the jet retains a circular cross –section, determine the
diameter (m) of the jet at a point 4.5 m above the nozzle exit. Take ρ water = 1000 kg/m3.

Solution:

Bernoulli Equation:

Given: v, z1 = 0 (Datum) z2 = 4.5 m. p1 = p2 (both atmospheric). The energy equation
reduces to:

From continuity equation: 

Hence,

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 32

Flow Measurement

There are a large number of devices for measuring fluid flow rates to suit different
applications. Three of the most commonly encountered restriction methods will be
presented here.

Restriction methods of fluid flow are based on the acceleration or deceleration of the
fluid through some kind of nozzle, throat or vena contracta.

The theoretical analysis applies the continuity and Bernoulli equations to an ideal fluid
flow between points 1 and 2 thus:

Start with Bernoulli equation:

Rearranging,

Then use the continuity equation V1.A1 = V2. A2

Therefore (V1/V2)2 = (A2/A1)2

Substituting into the rearranged Bernoulli equation and solving for V 2 we have:-

The theoretical volume flow rate is Q = A2 V2

And the theoretical mass flow rate is m. = ρ A2 V2

The above values are theoretical because ideal fluid flow conditions were assumed.
Actual flow rate values are obtained by multiplying the theoretical values by a meter
discharge coefficient Cd to account for frictional and obstruction losses encountered by
the fluid in its passage through the meter. The energy losses manifest themselves as a
greater pressure drop (P1 – P2) then that predicted by the theory.

It can be shown that,

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 33

The Venturi meter

The Venturi meter has a converging section from the initial pipe diameter down to a
throat, followed by a diverging section back to the original pipe diameter. See figure.

The Venturi tube

Differential pressure measurements are taken between the inlet (1) and throat (2)
positions. The geometry of the meter is designed to minimize energy losses (C d > 0.95).

The Orifice meter

An orifice meter is a flat plate, with a hole which may be square edged or bevelled,
inserted between two flanges in a pipe line. In this instance positions (1) and (2) are as
shown below. Orifice plates have a simple construction and are therefore inexpensive
but they suffer from high energy losses (Cd = 0.6).

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 34

 The Orifice Meter

The Pitot-static tube

A slender concentric tube arrangement, aligned with the flow, used to measure flow
velocity by means of a pressure difference. See figure below. The outer tube is closed
in the flow direction but has sidewall holes to enable the measurement of static
pressure. The inner tube is open in the direction of the fluid flow and is thus
experiencing the total (static + dynamic) pressure of the fluid flow. It is assumed that the
fluid velocity is rapidly brought to zero upon entry to the inner tube with negligible friction
(Cd ~1). The pressure difference between the tubes is applied to a U tube manometer
which will therefore indicate the velocity pressure.

Start with Bernoulli equation:

Since the Pitot-static tube is mounted horizontally, the z-terms will cancel out, and the
static end is motionless, i.e. V 2 = 0. It can be shown that the duct velocity V 1 is given
by:-

Pitot-static tube

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 35

Example:

A Venturi meter fitted in a 15 cm pipeline has a throat diameter of 7.5 cm. The pipe
carries water, and a U-tube manometer mounted across the Venturi has a reading of
95.2 mm of mercury. Determine:

1. the pressure drop in Pascal’s, indicated by the manometer

2. the ideal throat velocity (m/s)
3. the actual flow rate (l/s) if the meter CD is 0.975.

Solution:

(i) p1 – p2 = ρm x g x h

= 13600 x 9.81 x 0.0952 = 12701 Pa

(iii) Q = Cd V2 A2

= 0.975 x 5.206 x 0.00441

= 0.0224 m3/s = 22.4 l/s

Flow Regimes

Consider the variation in velocity across the cross-section of a pipe containing a fluid in
motion. There is no motion of fluid in direct contact with the pipe wall, and the velocity of
the fluid stream increases in a direction away from the walls of the pipe. In 1839, Hagen
(USA) observed that the fluid moves in layers with a velocity gradient. He observed that
the velocity gradient in a circular pipe follows a parabolic law, at low flow rates. This
type of flow is termed LAMINAR.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 36

When the flow rate of the fluid stream is high, the velocity distribution had a much flatter
shape and this type of flow is known as TURBULENT.
The average velocity producing turbulent flow is greater than that for a laminar flow of a
given fluid in a given duct.
For both flows, the build-up of velocity is along the radius of the pipe, and the maximum
velocity occurs at the centre line.
Osborne Reynolds demonstrated experimentally in 1883 (Manchester) that under
laminar flow, the fluid streamlines remain parallel. This was shown with the aid of a dye
filament injected in the flow which remained intact at low flow velocities in the tube. As
the flow velocity was increased (via a control valve), a point was reached at which the
dye filament at first began to oscillate then broke up so that the colour was diffused over
the whole cross-section indicating that particles of fluid no longer moved in an orderly
manner but occupied different relative positions in successive cross-sections
downstream.
Reynolds also found that it was not only the average pipe velocity V which
determined whether the flow was laminar or turbulent, but that the density (ρ) and
viscosity (µ) of the fluid and the pipe diameter (D), also determined the flow regime. He
proposed that the criterion which determined the type of regime was the dimensionless
group (ρvD/µ). This group has been named the Reynolds number (Re) as a tribute to
his contribution to Fluid Mechanics.

Re = ρ V D/µ

Based on Reynolds number the flow can be distinguished into three regimes for pipe
flow:

Laminar if Re < 2000

Transitional if 2000 < Re < 4000

Turbulent if Re > 4000

Re = 2000, 4000 are the lower and upper critical values.

DARCY FORMULA

Consider a duct of length L, cross-sectional area A c, surface area As, in which a fluid of
density, is flowing at mean velocity V.

The forces acting on a segment of the duct are that due to pressure difference and that
due to friction at the walls in contact with the fluid.

If the acceleration of the fluid is zero, the net forces acting on the element must be zero,
hence

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 37

According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion for a constant velocity flow:

∑ F = 0

The force due to pressure on either side of the section is equal to the friction force
resisting the flow:

(P1 -P2). Ac – (f ρ V2/2). As = 0

Where the pressures act normal to the flow direction on the area of cross-section Ac,
and the frictional force acts on the circumferential wall area As, separating the fluid and
the pipe’s surface.

Let hf denote the head lost (m) due to friction over a duct length L,

ie p1 – p2 = ρ g hf

Substituting we get

hf = f. (As/Ac). V2/2g

For a pipe As/Ac = π D L /π D2/4 = 4L/D

hf = (4 fL/D).V2/2g(2.8)

This is known as Darcy formula.

THE FRICTION FACTOR AND MOODY DIAGRAM

The value of the friction factor (f) depends mainly on two parameters namely the value
of the Reynolds number and the surface roughness.

For laminar flow (ie Re < 2000), the value of the friction factor is given by the following
equation irrespective of the nature of the surface:

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 38

While for a smooth pipe with turbulent (i.e. Re > 4000) flow, the friction factor is given
by:

f = 0.079 Re  0.25 (Blasius equation)(2.10)

For Re > 2000 and Re < 4000, this region is known as the critical zone and the value of
the friction factor is uncertain and not quoted on the Moody diagram (Figure 2.5).

In the turbulent zone, if the surface of the pipe is not perfectly smooth, then the value of
the friction factor has to be determined from the Moody diagram.

The relative roughness (k/d) is the ratio of the average height of the surface
projections on the inside of the pipe (k) to the pipe diameter (D). In common with
Reynolds number and friction factor this parameter is dimensionless. Values of k are
tabled on the Moody chart for a sample of materials.

The Moody Chart / Diagram

EXAMPLE:

Water flows in a 40mm diameter commercial steel pipe (k = 0.045 x 10 -3 m) at a rate of
1 litre/s. Determine the friction factor and head loss per metre length of pipe using:

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 39

 1. The Moody diagram
2. Smooth pipe formulae. Compare the results.

Take: ρ = 1000 kg/m3, µ = 1 x 10-3 kg/ms

Solution:

V = Q/A = 0.001 /(1.256 x 10-3) = 0.796 m2

Re = ρ V D/µ

= 1000 x 0.796 x 0.04/ 1 x 10-3 = 31840 i.e. turbulent

1. Moody diagram

k/D = 0.045 x 10-3/0.04 = 0.0011

From intersection of k/D and Re values on Moody diagram read off f = 0.0065

Therefore,

2. Using Blasius equation for smooth pipe:

i.e. 9% less than Moody.

Note that if the pipe is assumed smooth, the friction factor from the Moody diagram
would be f = 0.0058 which is closer to the Blasius value.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 40

Flow Obstruction Losses

When a pipe changes direction, changes diameter or has a valve or other fittings there
will be a loss of energy due to the disturbance in flow. This loss of energy (ho) is usually
expressed by:

Where V is the mean velocity at entry to the fitting and K is an empirically determined
factor. Typical values of K for different fittings are given in the table below:

Obstruction K
tank exit 0.5
tank entry 1.0
smooth bend 0.30
Mitre bend 1.1
Mitre bend with guide vanes 0.2
90 degree elbow 0.9
45 degree elbow 0.42
Standard T 1.8
Return bend 2.2
Strainer 2.0
Globe valve, wide open 10.0
Angle valve, wide open 5.0
Gate valve, wide open 0.19
¾
 open 1.15
½
 open 5.6
¼
 open 24.0
Sudden enlargement 0.10
Conical enlargement: 6o 0.13
(total included angle) 10o
15o
25o
Sudden contractions:
area ratio 0.2
(A2/A1) 0.4
0.6
0.8

Table for: Obstruction Losses in Flow Systems

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 41

Fluid Power

The fluid power available at a given point for a fluid is defined as the product of mass,
acceleration due to gravity and the fluid head, and since the mass flow rate is defined
as the volume flow rate multiplied by the fluid density, the Fluid power therefore can be
expressed as:

P = ρ. g. Q.htot

For a pump, htot represents the head required to overcome pipe friction (h f), obstruction
losses (ho) and to raise the fluid to any elevation required (h z).

ie htot = hz + hf + ho(2.13a)

Note: If the delivery tank operates at pressure in excess of the supply tank an additional
term (hp) must be added to the required head equation as this pressure rise must also
be supplied by the pump.

If the pump efficiency ηp is introduced, the actual pump head requirement is:

P = ρ. g. Q.htot / ηp(2.12b)

For a turbine with efficiency ηt, the power output is given by:

P = ρ. g. Q.htot xηt(2.12c)

Where htot = hz – (hf + ho)(2.13b)

Example:

Determine the input power to an electric motor (η m = 90%) supplying a pump (η p = 80%)
delivering 50 l/s of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m 3, µ = 0.001 kg/ms) from tank1 to tank 2 as
shown below if the pipeline length is 200m long, of 150 mm diameter galvanised steel
(assumed surface roughness k=0.15mm).

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 42

Solution:

Input Power:

FLUID MOMENTUM

Knowledge of the forces exerted by moving fluids is important in the design of

hydraulic machines and other constructions. The Continuity and Bernoulli
relationships are not sufficient to solve forces acting on bodies in this case and
the momentum principle derived from Newton’s Laws of motion is also
required.

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity, and represents the
energy of motion stored in the system. Momentum is a vector quantity and
can only be defined by specifying its direction as well as magnitude.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

“The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the net force acting, and
takes place in the direction of that force”.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 43

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

“To every action there is a reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in

direction”.

Application of Momentum Equation

Consider horizontal jet impinging a surface tangentially at a steady state.

Resolving horizontally we have for the x-component

Resolving vertically we have for the y-component

The resultant force acting on the solid surface due to the jet is given by

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 44

If smooth, then k = 1 and

Fx = ρA V12 (1 – cos θ) , Fy = ρA V12 sin θ

Special cases:

The angle of the striking jet has a very important effect on the force, 3
different angles are illustrated below:

EXAMPLE:

A jet of water having a diameter of 7.5 cm and a velocity of 30 m/s strikes a

stationary a flat plate at angle θ = 30o as shown below.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 45

Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the plate
assuming there is no friction between the jet and the plate. Take ρwater = 1000
kg/m3.

Solution:

A = 0.00442 m2

Smooth i.e. k = 1, V1 = V2 = 30 m/s

Fx = ρAV12 (1 – cos θ)

= 1000 x 0.00442 x 302 (1 – cos 30)

= 533 N

Fy = ρA V12 sin θ

= 1000 x 0.00442 x 302 x sin 30

= 1989 N

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 46

FLOW FORCES ON A REDUCER BEND

The change of momentum of a fluid flowing through a pipe bend induces a

force on the pipe.

The pressures are to be considered in this case since the reducer bend is part
of flowing system which is not subjected to atmospheric conditions.

x – Momentum

-Fx + p1A1 – p2 A2 cos θ = ρ V. (V2 cos θ -V1)

y – Momentum

-Fy + p2A2 sin θ = ρ Q (-V2 sin θ – 0)

The total force

From continuity equation: 

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 47

For A1 = A2 and θ = 90o

The force acting at an angle θR = tan-1  with the x – axis

EXAMPLE:

Bernoulli equation between 1–3:

z1 = 2, z3 = 0 (level 3 is assumed datum). p1 = p3 (both atmospheric). And V1 = 0

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 48

The energy equation reduces to:

The flow rate is calculated:

Applying Bernoulli equation between 1 and 2:

VII. SELF EVALUATION:

1. Discuss the contrast on fluid flow for sudden contraction and sudden expansion.
2. Describe how mass and energy are conserved.
3. What is the sense of restrictions on fluid flow.
4. Explain the concept of forces exerted by moving fluid.

VIII. REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

 Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called internal flows which
include flows through pipes, ducts, nozzles diffusers, sudden contractions and
expansions, valves, and fittings.

 The basic principles involved are independent of the cross The basic principles
involved are independent of the cross-sectional sectional shape, although the
details of the flow may be dependent on it.

 The flow regime (laminar or turbulent) of internal flows is primarily a function of

the Reynolds number.

 the Reynolds number, Re = ρ V D/µ

 Laminar if Re < 2000, Transitional if 2000 < Re < 4000, Turbulent if Re > 4000
Re = 2000, 4000 are the lower and upper critical values.
The velocity gradient in a circular pipe follows a parabolic law, at low flow rates.
This type of flow is termed LAMINAR.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 49

 When the flow rate of the fluid stream is high, the velocity distribution had a much
flatter shape and this type of flow is known as TURBULENT.
 The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for
any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system
must remain constant over time.
 The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed - only converted from one form of energy to another.
 There are a large number of devices for measuring fluid flow rates to suit
different applications.
 Restriction methods of fluid flow are based on the acceleration or deceleration of
the fluid through some kind of nozzle, throat or vena contracta.
 When a pipe changes direction, changes diameter or has a valve or other fittings
there will be a loss of energy due to the disturbance in flow.
 The fluid power available at a given point for a fluid is defined as the product of
mass, acceleration due to gravity and the fluid head.
 Since the mass flow rate is defined as the volume flow rate multiplied by the fluid
density, the Fluid power therefore can be expressed as: P = ρ. g. Q.htot
 Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity, and represents the
energy of motion stored in the system. Momentum is a vector quantity and can
only be defined by specifying its direction as well as magnitude.

ACTIVITY: Make an essay which relates internal fluid flow concepts to real situations /
conditions.

IX. REFERENCES:
Yunus A. Cengel et al (2010)Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw-Hill co.,
New York, USA

T. Al Shemmeri (2012) Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill co., New York, USA
New York, USA

MODULE 5

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 50

I. TITLE: HYDROELECTRIC POWER

II. TOPIC: Energy conversion, Types of Turbine

III. Time Frame: 6 hours

IV. INTRODUCTION:
Hydroelectric power plants produces electricity out of the energy of water. It
converts the energy from water into mechanical energy by means of a turbine and
in turn drives the electric generator to produce electricity.

V. OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to;
1. explain the concept of energy conversions from potential energy of water into
useful mechanical power then finally into electricity,
2. describe different types of hydraulic turbines,
3. analyze and solve problems on energy conversion.
4. appreciate the value of hydroelectric power on humanity.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITY:

Hydraulic Turbines are used for converting the potential energy of water into useful
Mechanical power to drive machines as in Mills or pumps or electrical energy using
electrical generators.Hydroelectric power stations can be classified according to power
output into micro hydro, mini hydro, small hydro and large hydro systems. The
definitions according to the International Energy Association. are as follows:

 Micro hydro –hydroelectric station with installed capacity lower than 100 kW.
 Mini hydro – hydroelectric station in the range of 100kW to 1 MW
 Small hydro – hydroelectric station in the range of 1 MW to 30 MW
 Large hydro – hydroelectric station with installed capacity of over 30 MW
 Hydropower is a clean and renewable source of energy that can contribute to
fighting climate change. The following advantages make hydropower a much
preferred option to any fossil fuel power scheme:
No fuel needed – The chief advantage of hydro systems is elimination of the cost
of fuel. Hydroelectric plants are immune to price increases for fossil fuels such as
oil, natural gas or coal, and do not require imported fuel.
 Longevity – Hydroelectric plants tend to have longer lives than fuel-fired
generation, with some plants now in service having been built 50 to 100 years
ago.
 Pollution free – Hydroelectric plants generally have small to negligible emissions
of carbon dioxide and methane due to reservoir emissions, and emit no sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, dust, or other pollutants associated with combustion.
 Quick Response – Since the generating units can be started and stopped
quickly, they can follow system loads efficiently, and may be able to reshape
water flows to more closely match daily and seasonal system energy demands.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 51

  Environmentally friendly – Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often
provide excellent leisure facilities for water sports, and become tourist attractions
in themselves..
 Wildlife preserves can be created around reservoirs, which can provide stable
habitats for endangered and threatened species (Eg. catch rates for game fish
like walleye and small mouth bass are substantially higher on hydro power
reservoirs than natural lakes.)
 Flood prevention – the surplus water can be stored behind the dam and hence
reduce the risk of flood.

HYDRAULIC TURBINES

Introduction

Hydraulic Turbines are used for converting the potential energy of water into useful
Mechanical power to drive machines as in Mills or pumps or electrical energy using
electrical generators.

 Hydroelectric power stations can be classified according to power output into

micro hydro, mini hydro, small hydro and large hydro systems. The definitions
according to the International Energy Association are as follows:
 Micro hydro – hydroelectric station with installed capacity lower than 100 kW
 Mini hydro – hydroelectric station in the range of 100kW to 1 MW
 Small hydro – hydroelectric station in the range of 1 MW to 30 MW
 Large hydro – hydroelectric station with installed capacity of over 30 MW

Hydropower is a clean and renewable source of energy that can contribute to fighting
climate change. The following advantages make hydropower a much preferred option to
any fossil fuel power scheme:

 No fuel needed – The chief advantage of hydro systems is elimination of the cost

of fuel. Hydroelectric plants are immune to price increases for fossil fuels such as
oil, natural gas or coal, and do not require imported fuel.
 Longevity – Hydroelectric plants tend to have longer lives than fuel-fired
generation, with some plants now in service having been built 50 to 100 years
ago.
 Pollution free – Hydroelectric plants generally have small to negligible emissions
of carbon dioxide and methane due to reservoir emissions, and emit no sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, dust, or other pollutants associated with combustion.
 Quick Response – Since the generating units can be started and stopped
quickly, they can follow system loads efficiently, and may be able to reshape
water flows to more closely match daily and seasonal system energy demands.
 Environmentally friendly – Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often
provide excellent leisure facilities for water sports, and become tourist attractions
in themselves.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 52

  Wildlife preserves can be created around reservoirs, which can provide stable
habitats for endangered and threatened species(Eg. catch rates for game fish
like walleye and small mouth bass are substantially higher on hydro power
reservoirs than natural lakes.)
 Flood prevention – the surplus water can be stored behind the dam and hence
reduce the risk of flood.

DEFINITION of HYDRO ENERGY

Working Principle:
According to Newton’s law a force is directly proportional to the change in momentum.
So if there is any change in momentum of fluid a force is generated. In the hydraulic
turbine blades or bucket (in case of Pelton wheel) are provided against the flow of water
which change the momentum of it.  As the momentum is change a resulting pressure
force generated which rotate the rotor or turbine. The most important phenomenon is
the amount of change in momentum of water which is directly proportional to force. As
the change in momentum high the force generated is high which increase the energy
conversion. So the blade or buckets are designed so it can change maximum
momentum of water. This is the basic principle of turbine. These turbines are used as
hydro electric power plant.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 53

Types of hydraulic turbine

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 54

Depending on the method of interaction between the fluid and the machine, there are two main
types of turbines, IMPULSE and REACTION.

A. Impulse Turbine

This type of turbine is usually selected for high head and low flow rate conditions. The
water is usually directed on to the turbine blades via a nozzle and the jet will impinge
and leaves the turbine at atmospheric condition.

The high velocity jet leaves the nozzle at atmospheric pressure and impinges on to the
wheel blades or buckets.

The tangential force exerted on the buckets is produced by a change in momentum of

the jet, both in magnitude and direction.

The most important type of impulse turbine is the PELTON wheel.

B. Reaction Turbine

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 55

This type of turbine is usually selected for low head conditions, but relatively higher flow
rate than in impulse turbines. In reaction turbines part of the pressure energy is
transformed into kinetic energy in the stationary guide vanes and the remainder is
transferred in the runner wheel. This type of turbine does not run at atmospheric; in fact
the pressure changes continuously while flowing through the machine. The chief
turbines of this type are the FRANCIS and KAPLAN turbines.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 56

KAPLAN TURBINE
Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 57
Performance evaluation of Hydraulic Turbines:

The power available from water can be expressed as

P=ρQghxη (1)

Where

P = power available (W)

ρ = density (kg/m3) (~ 1000 kg/m3 for water)

Q= water flow (m3/s)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s 2)

h = falling height, head (m)

The hydraulic efficiency depends on many factors such as the type of turbine and the
operational conditions. Typical values are between 50% and 75%.

The theoretical approach velocity of water is given by:

(2)

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 58

However real hydropower stations have penstock of considerable length incorporating
many pipe fittings, bends and valves, hence the effective head is reduced, and as such
the real velocity of water approaching the turbine is less than that quoted in equation 2.

The volume flow rate of water is calculated by the continuity equation:

Q=VxA

The different hydraulic turbines described in the previous section have different
characteristics such as power rating, operating head and rotational speed, the term
specific speed is introduced to group the three terms:

The concept of specific speed helps to classify the different turbines according to the
range in which they operate, see Table

Typical Power – flow rate evaluation chart.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 59

Operating Range of Hydraulic Turbines

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

A small-scale hydraulic power system has an elevation difference between the reservoir
water surface and the pond water surface downstream of the turbine is 10 m. The flow
rate through the turbine is 1 m 3/s. The turbine/generator efficiency is 83%. Determine
the power produced if:

a. Flow losses are neglected.

b. Assume friction loss equivalent to 1 m head.

VII. SELF EVALUATION:

1.How does hydroelectric power station generates electricity?
2.Explain how an impulse turbine works.

VIII. REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:

 Hydraulic Turbines are used for converting the potential energy of water into
useful Mechanical power to drive electrical generators to produce electricity.
 There are two main types of turbines, IMPULSE and REACTION.

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 60

  In impulse turbine, water is usually directed on to the turbine blades via a nozzle
and the jet will impinge and leaves the turbine at atmospheric condition.

 In reaction turbines part of the pressure energy is transformed into kinetic energy
in the stationary guide vanes and the remainder is transferred in the runner
wheel. This type of turbine does not run at atmospheric; in fact the pressure
changes continuously while flowing through the machine.

ACTIVITY: Make an essay which relates the significance of hydroelectric power to real
Life situations / condition.

IX. REFERENCES:
Yunus A. Cengel et al (2010)Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw-Hill co.,
New York, USA

T. Al Shemmeri (2012) Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill co., New York, USA

GOOD LUCK!

PREPARED BY: JERRY A. MADRID, MIE

Instructor I

Flu Mech – Fluid Mechanics 61