INTRODUCTION TO changes, such as the flow of gases

through nozzles at high speeds.

FLUID MECHANICS
The category aerodynamics deals with
the flow of gases (especially air) over
bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and
Mechanics is the oldest physical automobiles at high or low speeds
science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces What is a Fluid?
The branch of mechanics that deals with A substance exists in three primary
bodies at rest is called statics, while the phases: solid, liquid, and gas. A
branch that deals with bodies in motion substance in the liquid or gas phase is
is called dynamics. referred to as a fluid.
The subcategory fluid mechanics is Distinction between a solid and a fluid is
defined as the science that deals with made on the basis of the substance’s
the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid ability to resist an applied shear (or
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), tangential) stress that tends to change
and the interaction of fluids with solids its shape.
or other fluids at the boundaries. Fluid
A solid can resist an applied shear
mechanics is also referred to as fluid
stress by deforming, whereas a fluid
dynamics by considering fluids at rest
deforms continuously under the
as a special case of motion with zero
influence of shear stress, no matter how
velocity.
small.
In solids, stress is proportional to strain,
but in fluids stress is proportional to

Hydrodynamics - The study of the

motion of fluids that can be
approximated as incompressible (such
as liquids, especially water, and gases
at low speeds).
Hydraulics - subcategory of strain rate
hydrodynamics subcategory of
hydrodynamics.
Gas dynamics deals with the flow of
fluids that undergo significant density
Classification of Fluid Flows
There is a wide variety of fluid flow
problems encountered in practice, and it
is usually convenient to classify them
based on some common characteristics
to make it feasible to study them in
groups.

Viscous versus Inviscid

Regions of Flow
When two fluid layers move relative to
each other, a friction force develops
between them, and the slower layer tries
to slow down the faster layer.
This internal resistance to flow is
quantified by the fluid property
viscosity, which is a measure of
internal stickiness of the fluid.
Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by
molecular collisions in gases.
There is no fluid with zero viscosity,
and thus all fluid flows involve viscous
effects to some degree.
Flows in which the frictional effects are
significant are called viscous flows.
However, in many flows of practical
interest, there are regions (typically
regions not close to solid surfaces)
where viscous forces are negligibly
small compared to inertial or pressure
forces.
Neglecting the viscous terms in such
inviscid flow regions greatly simplifies
the analysis without much loss in
accuracy.
 • A pressure of 210 atm, for example,
causes the density of liquid water at 1
Internal versus External Flow atm to change by just 1 percent.
• A fluid flow is classified as being • Gases, on the other hand, are highly
internal or external, depending on compressible. A pressure change of
whether the fluid flows in a confined just 0.01 atm, for example, causes a
space or over a surface. change of 1 percent in the density of
• The flow of an unbounded fluid over a atmospheric air.
surface such as a plate, a wire, or a
pipe is external flow.
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
• The flow in a pipe or duct is internal
flow if the fluid is completely bounded • Some flows are smooth and orderly
by solid surfaces. while others are rather chaotic.

• Water flow in a pipe, for example, is • The highly ordered fluid motion
internal flow, and airflow over a ball characterized by smooth layers of
or over an exposed pipe during a fluid is called laminar. The word
windy day is external flow. laminar comes from the movement of
adjacent fluid particles together in
Compressible versus “laminae.” The flow of high-viscosity
Incompressible Flow fluids such as oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
A flow is classified as being
compressible or incompressible, • The highly disordered fluid motion
depending on the level of variation of that typically occurs at high
density during flow. velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called
• Incompressibility is an
turbulent. The flow of low-viscosity
approximation, in which the flow is said
fluids such as air at high velocities is
to be incompressible if the density
typically turbulent.
remains nearly constant throughout.
• A flow that alternates between being
• Therefore, the volume of every portion
laminar and turbulent is called
of fluid remains unchanged over the
transitional. The experiments
course of its motion when the flow is
conducted by Osborne Reynolds in the
approximated as incompressible.
1880s resulted in the establishment of
• The densities of liquids are the dimensionless Reynolds number,
essentially constant, and thus the Re, as the key parameter for the
flow of liquids is typically determination of the flow regime in pipes
incompressible. Therefore, liquids are
usually referred to as incompressible
substances.
 • The terms unsteady and transient
are often used interchangeably, but
these terms are not synonyms. In fluid
mechanics, unsteady is the most
general term that applies to any flow
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced that is not steady, but transient is
Flow typically used for developing flows.
• A fluid flow is said to be natural or When a rocket engine is fired up, for
forced, depending on how the fluid example, there are transient effects (the
motion is initiated. pressure builds up inside the rocket
engine, the flow accelerates, etc.) until
• In forced flow, a fluid is forced to the engine settles down and operates
flow over a surface or in a pipe by steadily.
external means such as a pump or a
fan. • The term periodic refers to the kind of
unsteady flow in which the flow
• In natural flows, fluid motion is due oscillates about a steady mean.
to natural means such as the
buoyancy effect, which manifests
itself as the rise of warmer (and thus
lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler
(and thus denser) fluid.
• In solar hot-water systems, for
example, the thermosiphoning effect is
commonly used to replace pumps by
placing the water tank sufficiently above
the solar collectors.

Steady versus Unsteady Flow

FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS
• The terms steady and uniform are
used frequently in engineering, and thus Fluid Mechanics is a physical science
it is important to have a clear dealing with the action of fluids at rest or
understanding of their meanings. The in motion, and with applications and
term steady implies no change of devices in engineering using fluids.
properties, velocity, temperature, etc., The term hydrodynamics is applied to
at a point with time. The opposite of the flow of liquids or to lowviscosity gas
steady is unsteady. The term uniform flows where the gas can be considered
implies no change with location over as being essentially incompressible.
a specified region. These meanings Hydraulics deals with the application of
are consistent with their everyday use fluid mechanics to engineering devices
(steady girlfriend, uniform distribution, involving liquids, usually water or oil.
etc.).
Hydraulics deals with such problems as
to the flow of fluids through pipes or in
open channels, the design of storage
dams, pumps, and water turbines, and
with other devices for the control or use
of liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets, Density or Mass Density
and flow meters. • Density or mass density of a fluid is
defined as the ratio of the mass of a
fluid to its volume. Thus, mass per unit
volume of a fluid is called density. It is
denoted the symbol ρ (rho). The unit of
mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic
meter, i.e ., kg/m3 .
• The density of liquids may be
considered as constant while that of
gases changes with the variation of
pressure and temperature.
• Mathematically mass density is written
Properties of Fluid
as
Any characteristic of a system is called
• The value of density of water is 1
a property. Some familiar properties
g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3
are pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m. The list can be
extended to include less familiar ones
m
such as viscosity, thermal P= V
conductivity, modulus of elasticity,
thermal expansion coefficient, For an ideal gas, its density can be
electric resistivity, and even velocity found from the specific gas constant
and elevation. and ideal gas law:
Properties are considered to be either p
intensive or extensive. Intensive P= RT
properties are those that are
independent of the mass of the
system, such as temperature, 𝒑 = absolute pressure of gas in Pa
pressure, and density. Extensive
properties are those whose values 𝑹 = gas constant Joule /kg-°K
depend on the size—or extent—of the For air: R = 287 J/kg- °K R = 1,716 lb-
system. Total mass, total volume V, ft/slug- °R
and total momentum are some
examples of extensive properties 𝑻 = absolute temperature in °Kelvin °K =
°C + 273 °R = °F + 46
Units:
English: Slugs/ft3
Metric: gram/cm3
SI: kg/m3