FLUID MECHANICS to resist an applied shear (or tangential)

stress that tends to change its shape

Mechanics is the oldest physical science
that deals with both stationary and moving A solid can resist an applied shear stress by
bodies under the influence of forces. deforming. Whereas a fluid deforms
continuously under the influence of
Called statics The branch of mechanics that shear stress, no matter how small
deals with bodies at rest.
In solids stress is proportional to strain, but
Called dynamics the branch that deals with in fluids stress is proportional to strain rate.
bodies in motion.
• In a liquid, molecules can move relative to
Fluid mechanics is defined as the each other, but the volume remains relatively
science that deals with the behavior of constant because of the strong cohesive
fluids at rest (fluid static) or in motion forces between the molecules.
(fluid dynamics), and the interaction of
fluids with solids or other fluids at the • As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
boundaries. container it is in, and it forms a free surface
in a larger container in a gravitational field
Fluid statics The study of fluids at rest is
called. • A gas, on the other hand, expands until it
encounters the walls of the container and fills
Fluid kinematics The study of fluids in the entire available space
motion, where pressure forces are not
considered. • This is because the gas molecules are
widely spaced, and the cohesive forces
Fluid dynamics the pressure forces are between them are very small
also considered for the fluids in motion that
branch of science. • Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a free
surface.
Hydrodynamics The study of the motion of
fluids that are practically incompressible Differences between liquid and gases
(such as liquids, especially water, and gases Liquid
at low speeds).
- Difficult to compress and often
A subcategory of hydrodynamics is regarded as incompressible
hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in - Occupies a fixed volume and will take
pipes and open channels. the shape of the container
Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids - A free surface is formed if the volume
that undergo significant density changes, of container is greater than the liquid.
such as the flow of gases through nozzles at Gases
high speeds
-Easily to compress-changes of volume is
The category aerodynamics deals with the large, cannot normally be neglected and are
flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such related to temperature
as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high
or low speeds -No fixed volume, it changes volume to
expand to fill the containing vessels
Some other specialized categories such as
meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology -Completely fill the vessel so that no free
deal with naturally occurring flows. surface is formed.

What is a Fluid? Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

A substance exists in three primary phases • Mechanics of fluids is extremely important

solid, liquid, and gas. A substance in the in many areas of engineering and science.
liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. Examples are

Distinction between a solid and a fluid is Biomechanics

made on the basis of the substance’s ability
•Blood flow through arteries and veins
• Airflow in the lungs • Oil and Gas: Pipeline, pump, valve,
offshore rig, oil spill Cleanup, etc.
• Flow of cerebral fluid
• Almost everything in our world is either in
Households contact with a fluid or is itself a fluid
• Piping systems for cold water, natural gas, •The number of fluid engineering
and sewage applications is enormous breathing, blood
• Piping and ducting network of heating and flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines,
air- conditioning systems airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills, pipes,
missiles, icebergs, engines, filters, jets, and
•Refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, dish washer, sprinklers, to name a few
washing machine, water meter, natural gas
meter, air conditioner, radiator, etc. • When you think about it, almost everything
on this planet either is a fluid or moves within
Meteorology and Ocean Engineering or near a fluid

•Movements of air currents and water Classification of Fluid Flows

currents
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Mechanical Engineering
- When two fluid layers move relative
• Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning to each other, a friction force
equipment, pollution-control equipment, etc. develops between them and the
slower layer tries to slow down the
• Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, faster layer.
submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind - This internal resistance to flow is
turbines, biomedical devices, the cooling of quantified by the fluid property
electronic components, and the viscosity, which is a measure of
transportation of water, crude oil, and natural internal stickiness of the fluid
gas - Viscosity is caused by cohesive
Civil Engineering forces between the molecules in
liquids and by molecular collisions in
• Transport of river sediments gases

•Pollution of air and water Internal versus External Flow

• Design of piping systems - A fluid flow is classified as being

internal on external, depending on
•Flood control systems whether the fluid is forced to flow in a
Chemical Engineering confined channel or over a surface.
- The flow of an unbounded fluid over a
• Design of chemical processing equipment surface such as a plate, a wire, or a
pipe is external flow.
Turbomachines: pump, turbine, fan, blower, - The flow in a pipe or duct is internal
propeller, etc. flow if the fluid is completely
• Military: Missile, aircraft, shup, underwater bounded by solid surfaces.
vehicle, dispersion of chemical agents, etc. - Water flow in a pipe, for example, is
internal flow, and airflow over a ball
• Automobile: IC engine, air conditioning, or over an exposed pipe during a
fuel flow, external aerodynamics, etc. windy day is external flow.

• Medicine: Heart assist device, artificial Compressible versus Incompressible

heart valve, Lab-on-a- Chip device, glucose Flow
monitor, controlled drug delivery, etc.
- A flow is classified I as being
• Electronics: Convective cooling of compressible or incompressible,
generated heat. depending on the level of variation of
density during flow.
• Energy: Combuster, burner, boiler, gas, - Incompressibility is an approximation,
hydro and wind turbine, etc. and a flow is said to be
 incompressible if the density remains - The opposite of steady is unsteady.
nearly constant throughout. - The term uniform implies no
- Therefore, the volume of every change with location over a
portion of fluid remains unchanged specified region
over the course of its motion when
the flow (or the fluid) is Properties of Fluids
incompressible. - Any characteristic of a system is
- The densities of liquids are called property.
essentially constant, and thus the - Some familiar properties are pressure
flow of liquids is typically P, temperature T, volume V, and
incompressible. Therefore, liquids are mass m
usually referred to as incompressible - Other less familiar properties include
substances. viscosity, thermal conductivity,
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow modulus of elasticity, thermal
expansion coefficient, electric
- Some flows are smooth and orderly resistivity, and even velocity and
while others are rather chaotic. elevation.
- The highly ordered fluid motion - Properties are considered to be either
characterized by smooth layers of intensive or extensive
fluid is called laminar. - Intensive properties are those that
- The flow of high-viscosity fluids such are independent of La of system,
as oils at low velocities is typically such as temperature, pressure, and
laminar. density.
- The highly disordered fluid motion - Extensive properties are those
that typically occurs at high velocities whose values depends on the size or
and is characterized by velocity extent of the system. Total mass,
fluctuations is called turbulent, total volume and total momentum
- Transitional constants smooth are some examples of extensive
properties.
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced - An easy way to determine whether a
Flow property is intensive or extensive is
- A fluid flow is said to be natural or to divide the system into two equal
forced depending on how the fluid parts with an imaginary partition.
motion is initiated. - Each part will have the same value of
- In forced flow, a fluid is forced to intensive properties as the original
flow over a surface or in a pipe by system, but half the value of the
external means such as a pump or a extensive properties.
fan. Density or Mass Density
- In natural flows, any fluid motion is
due to natural means such as the - Density or mass density of a fluid is
buoyancy effect, which manifests defined as the ratio of the mass of a
itself as the rise of the warmer (and fluid to its volume. Thus mass per
thus lighter) fluid and the fall of unit volume of a fluid is called
cooler (and thus denser) fluid. density. It is denoted the symbol p
- In solar hot-water systems, for (tho). The unit of mass density in Sl
example, the thermosiphoning effect unit is kg per cubic meter, i.e., kg/m³
is commonly used to replace pumps - The density of liquids may be
by placing the water tank sufficiently considered as constant while that of
above the solar collectors gases changes with the variation of
pressure and temperature.
Steady versus Unsteady Flow - Mathematically mass density is
- The terms steady and uniform are written as.
used frequently in Engineering, and - P= Mass of fluid / Volume of fluid p=
thus it is important to have a clear - The value of density of water is 1
Understanding of their meanings. gm/cm³ or 1000 kg/m³.
- The term steady implies no change at Specific weight or Weight Density
a point with time.
 - Specific weight or weight density of a The Scientific Method involves a series of
fluid is the ratio between the weight steps that are used to investigate a natural
of a fluid to its volume. occurrence.
- Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid
is called weight density and it is Problem/Question – Develop a question or
denoted by the symbol w problem that can be solved through
- Mathematically, experimentation.

W= Weight of fluid / Volume of fluid Observation/Research – Make observations

and research your topic of interest.
(Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity /
Volume of fluid Formulate a Hypothesis – Predict a
possible answer to the problem or question.
=Mass of fluid x g / Volume of fluid
Example: If soil temperatures rise, then plant
= PXg growth will increase.

=W= pg Experiment- Develop and follow a

procedure. Include a detailed materials list.
Specific Gravity. The outcome must be measurable
- Specific gravity is defined. As the (quantifiable).
ratio of the weight density (or Collect and Analyze Results- Modify the
density) of a fluid to the weight procedure if needed. Confirm the results by
density (or density) of a standard retesting. Include tables, graphs, and
fluid. photographs.
- For liquids, the standard fluid is taken
water and for gases, the standard Conclusion- Include a statement that
fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is accepts or rejects the hypothesis. Make
also called relative density. It is recommendations for further study and
dimensionless quantity and is possible improvements to the procedure.
denoted by the symbol S.
Communicate the Results- Be prepared to
S(for liquids) = Weight density (density) present the project to an audience. Expect
of liquid / Weight density (density) of questions from the audience.
water

S(for gases) = Weight density (density)

of gas / Weight density (density) of air STEPS IN THE CONVERSION OF UNITS

Thus weight density of a liquid=Sx 1) Identify the unit you are starting with.
Weight density of water Sx1000x9.81 2) Identify the unit you want to end
N/m² with.
3) Find the conversion factor/s that will
Thus density of a liquid=Sx Density of convert the starting unit to ending
water =Sx1000kg/m³ unit. Using the fractional form the
unit you want to end will be the
SUBTANCE SG numerator the unit to be cancelled
WATER 1.0
will be the denominator.
BLOOD 1.05
SEAWATER 1.025 4) Set up the Mathematical expression
GASOLINE 0.7 so that all units except the unit you
ETHYL ALCOHOL 0.79 want to end with, will not be
MERCURY 13.6 cancelled.
WOOD 0.3- 0.9
GOLD 19.2 EXAMPLE 1
BONES 1.7-2.0
ICE 0.92 Convert 36 inches to feet.
AIR ( at 1 ATM ) 0.0013
Solution:

Step 1: inches

Step 2: feet
 whose units of measure were the centimeter,
gram and second. Until 1889 the scientific
Step 3: 1 foot / 12 inches community had two metric standards for
Step 4: 36 inches x 1 foot / 12 inches = 3 feet lengthy mass, and time.

Step 5. Therefore 36 in = 3 feet BASE QUANTITY BASE UNIT SYMBOL

LENGTH Meter m
EXAMPLE 2 Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Convert 2 miles in inches. Electric Current Ampere a
Thermodynamic Kelvin k
Solution: temperature Mole mol
Amount of Candela cd
Step 1: miles SUBTANCE
Luminous
Step 2: inches intensity

Step 3: 5280 feet / 1 mile Derived Name Symbol

Quantity
12 inches / 1foot
Area Square m²
Volume meter m³
Step 4: 2 miles x 5280 feet / 1mile x 12
Velocity Cubic Meter m/s
inches / 1foot= 2x 5280 x 12 in / 1x1 = Acceleration Meter per m/s²
126,720 in. Wave number second m-¹
Mass Density Meter per kg/m³
5. Therefore 2 miles – 126,700 in Specific volume second m³/kg
Current density squared A/m²
Introduction Amount of Reciprocal mol/m²
SUBTANCE Meter
International System of Units (SI)
concentration Kilogram cd/m²
The International System of Units Luminance per cubic
meter
(abbreviated Sl from systeme internationale,
Cubic
the French version of the name) is a scientific meter per
method of expressing the magnitudes or kilogram
quantities of important natural phenomena. Ampere
There are seven base units in the system, square
from which other units are derived. This meter
Mole per
system was formerly called the meter-
cubic meter
kilogram-second (MKS) system.
Candela
The International System of Units (SI)
per square
Standard International meter
Fundamental unit
The International System of Units (St), which
began as the decimal metric system during (1) The units of fundamental quantities
the French Revolution, deals with the are called fundamental units.
definitions, terminology, proper usage, and
modifications of scientific units. (ii) It does not depend on any other unit.

The metric system was established officially Eg: length-m, mass- kg.
in France on June 22, 1799, and consisted of
Derived unit
two standard measures the meter for length
and the kilogram for mass. (i) The units used to measure
derived quantities are called
The German mathematician and astronomer
derived units
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) promoted
(ii) It depends on fundamental units
the use of the metric system and in 1832
for their measurement.
added the second as the unit of time.
e.g.: speed – m/s, density- kg/m³
The British Association for the Advancement
of Science (BAAS) in 1874 Introduced an Fundamental Quantities and
alternative system, known as the cgs system, Fundamental Units
Fundamental Quantities: The physical respect I to time. Such type of flow is know
quantities which do not depend on any other as Steady flow.
physical quantities for their measurement are
called fundamental quantities. Un-steady- If fluid parameters such as
velocity, acceleration, etc. changes with
Fundamental Units: The units used to respect to time, such a known as Unsteady
measure fundamental quantities are called type of flow is known as Unsteady flow.
fundamental units.
Uniform- If fluid parameters such as
Error, Types of Errors. velocity, acceleration, etc does not change
with respect to space, such type of flow is
Error: An error is a fault, which may occur known as Uniform flow.
even in the most careful observation
Non-uniform
Types of Error
Rotational- When fluid particles while
(I) Instrumental error flowing rotates about their own axis, such a
(iii) Systematic error flow is known as Rotational flow.
(iv) Random error
Irrotational
Systematic error
Viscous- When viscosity of fluid is
- Instrumental error considered in fluid flow, such type of flow is
- Personal error known as Viscous flow Viscosity is a resisting
- Error because of external causes force to flowing fluid.
- Error Because of defect in the
system Inviscid- Euler Qquation p Dv / Dt = Vp + pg

Commonly Or Mostly Used Error Method Newtonian

Instrumental error: The error because of Non-Newtonian

wrong adjustment or defective setting of the
instrument is called as instrumental error: Streamline- The flow in which velocity is
constant or varies with regular manner, such
Personal error this error is due to type of flow is known as streamline flows.
carelessness or fault of an observer while
taking readings. Laminar- Blood Flow through capillaries
is laminar flow, flow smoothly
Error because of external causes: this
error arise due to changes in environmental Turbulent- zig-zag manner and fluctuate
conditions. irregularly

Error due to defect in the system: This

error is because of defective experimental SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
setup.
A way to express very small or very large
INTRODUCTION numbers that is often used in “scientific
According to nature of flows and their calculations where the analysis must be very
dependency 09 on other factors such as precise,
density, velocity gradient, etc. flows are Scientific Notation is a way of writing a
divided into various types. number as a multiplication problem where….
Incompressible - is type of flow in which The first number is greater than one but
density of fluid remains constant. It means less than ten and the second number is a
fluid is incompressible. power of 10.

POWERS OF 10
Compressible- is flow in which density of Exponential Form Standard Name
fluid changes with respect to distance. (Power)
10⁶ 1 000 000
Steady- If fluid parameters such as velocity, 10⁵ 100 000
acceleration, etc. does not change with
 10⁴ 10 000
10³ 1000
10² 100
10¹ 10
10⁰ 1
10-¹ 0.1
10-² 0.01
10-³ 0.001

To Change from Standard Form to

Scientific Notation:

(1) Place decimal point such that

there is one non-zero digit to
the left of the decimal point.
(2) Count number of decimal
places the decimal has
“moved” from the original
number. This will be the
exponent of the 10.

(3) If the original number was

less than 1, the exponent is
negative, if the original
number was greater than 1,
the exponent is positive.

Example: 4,750,000

Use 4.75 ( moved 6 decimal place )

Answer: 4.75 X 10⁶

The original number is greater than 1 so the

exponent is positive.

Example: 0.000789

Use 7.89 ( moved 4 decimal places )

Answer: 7.89 X 10-⁴

The original number was less than 1 so the

exponent is negative

To Change from Scientific Notation to

Standard Form:

(1) Move decimal point to RIGHT

for POSITIVE exponent of
10.
(2) Move decimal point to LEFT
for NEGATIVE exponent of
10.