IPE 203

Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

1
Introduction
Mechanics: The oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under the
influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by considering fluids at rest as a special
case of motion with zero velocity.
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the flow of
gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and
automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with naturally occurring flows. 2
What Is a Fluid?
• A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a
fluid.
• Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis
of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or
tangential) stress that tends to change its shape. A solid
can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a
fluid deforms continuously under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
• In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids, stress
is proportional to strain rate.
• When a constant shear force is applied, a solid eventually Deformation of a rubber block placed
stops deforming at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid between two parallel plates under the
never stops deforming and approaches a constant rate of influence of a shear force. The shear
strain. stress shown is that on the rubber—an
equal but opposite shear stress acts on
the upper plate.
3
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal component of a force
acting on a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential component of a
force acting on a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is at a state of
zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a liquid
container is tilted, a shear develops as the liquid
moves to re-establish a horizontal free surface.
The normal stress and shear stress at
the surface of a fluid element. For
fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress.
4
No-slip Condition

A fluid flowing over a stationary surface

comes to a complete stop at the
The development of a velocity profile due to
surface because of the no-slip
the no-slip condition as a fluid flows over a
blunt nose. condition.
Boundary layer: The flow
region adjacent to the wall in
which the viscous effects (and
thus the velocity gradients) are
significant.

Flow separation during flow over a curved surface. 5

Classification Of Fluid Flows
Viscous and Inviscid Flow
There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve viscous effects to
some degree. Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous
flows. However, in many flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically
regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small
compared to inertial or pressure forces. Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid
flow regions greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in accuracy

Internal and External Flow

A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the fluid
flows in a confined space or over a surface. The flow of an unbounded fluid over a
surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow. The flow in a pipe or duct is
internal flow if the fluid is bounded by solid surfaces. Water flow in a pipe, for
example, is internal flow, and airflow over a ball or over an exposed pipe during a
windy day is external flow (Fig. 1–18). The flow of liquids in a duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct is only partially filled with the liquid and there is a free
surface. The flows of water in rivers and irrigation ditches are examples of such
flows. FIGURE 1–18
External flow over a tennis ball,
6
and
the turbulent wake region behind.
Classification Of Fluid Flows
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are
rather chaotic. The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called
laminar. The word laminar comes from the movement
of adjacent fluid particles together in “laminae.” The
flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low
velocities is typically laminar. The highly disordered
fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and
is characterized by velocity fluctuations is called
turbulent (Fig. 1–20). The flow of low-viscosity fluids
such as air at high velocities is typically turbulent. A
flow that alternates between being laminar and
turbulent is called transitional. The experiments
conducted by Osborne Reynolds in the 1880s resulted
in the establishment of the dimensionless Reynolds
number, Re, as the key parameter for the
determination of the flow regime in pipes (Chap. 8).

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Classification Of Fluid Flows
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• The term steady implies no change at a point with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady.
• The term uniform implies no change with location over a
specified region.
• The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which the
flow oscillates about a steady mean.
• Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices.

Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil at Mach

number 0.6. Photo (a) is an instantaneous image,
while photo (b) is a long-exposure (time-averaged)
image.
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Classification Of Fluid Flows
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution.
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity
varies in one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
• However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small
relative to the variation in other directions and can be ignored.

Flow over a car antenna is

approximately two-dimensional
except near the top and bottom of
the antenna.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the
entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains
unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r). 9
 Properties of Fluid
VISCOSITY
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the “fluidity”.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction. The magnitude of this force
depends, in part, on viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its

“resistance to deformation.”
Viscosity is due to the internal frictional
force that develops between different layers
of fluids as they are forced to move relative
to each other.

A fluid moving relative to a body exerts a

drag force on the body, partly because of
friction caused by viscosity.

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 Properties of Fluid
VISCOSITY
Newtonian fluids: Fluids for which the rate of
deformation is proportional to the shear stress.

Shear
stress

Shear force

The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow between two parallel

plates when the upper plate moves with a constant velocity.
 coefficient of viscosity
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
kg/m  s or N  s/m2 or Pa  s
1 poise = 0.1 Pa  s 11
 Properties of Fluid
VISCOSITY

The rate of deformation (velocity gradient) of a Variation of shear stress with the rate of
Newtonian fluid is proportional to shear stress, and deformation for Newtonian and non-Newtonian
the constant of proportionality is the viscosity. fluids (the slope of a curve at a point is the
apparent viscosity of the fluid at that point).
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 Properties of Fluid
VISCOSITY
The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to the pumping power
needed to transport a fluid in a pipe or to move a body through a
fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the molecules
in liquids and by the molecular collisions in gases, and it varies
greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more energy at higher
temperatures, and they can oppose the large cohesive
intermolecular forces more strongly. As a result, the energized
liquid molecules can move more freely.
In a gas, the intermolecular forces are negligible, and the gas
molecules at high temperatures move randomly at higher
velocities. This results in more molecular collisions per unit volume
per unit time and therefore in greater resistance to flow.

The viscosity of liquids decreases and the viscosity

13
of gases increases with temperature.
 Properties of Fluid
VISCOSITY

This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid

by measuring torque at a specified angular velocity.
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a
viscometer, a device that measures viscosity.

L length of the cylinder

number of revolutions per unit time

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 Properties of Fluid
PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum
(i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere (Fig. 3–2), and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure. This difference is called the gage pressure. Pgage can be positive or negative, but pressures below
atmospheric pressure are sometimes called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and
the absolute pressure. Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures are related to each other by

Pgage = Pabs - Patm

Pvac = Patm - Pabs

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 Properties of Fluid
Variation of Pressure with Depth
It will come as no surprise to you that pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the horizontal direction. This can
be shown easily by considering a thin horizontal layer of fluid and doing a force balance in any horizontal direction.
However, this is not the case in the vertical direction in a gravity field. Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because
more fluid rests on deeper layers, and the effect of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced by an increase in
pressure (Fig. 3–6).
An easier equation to remember and apply between any two points in the same fluid under hydrostatic conditions is

Pbelow = Pabove + ρg|Δz|

If we take the “above” point to be at the free surface of a
liquid open to the atmosphere (Fig. 3–9), where the
pressure is the atmospheric pressure Patm, then from
Eq. 3–7 the pressure at a depth h below the free surface
becomes
P = Patm + ρgh or Pgage = ρgh

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 Properties of Fluid
Variation of Pressure with Depth

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 Properties of Fluid
Pressure Measurement Devices
The Barometer
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often
referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the pressure produced by a
column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g =
9.807 m/s2).

The length or the cross-sectional

area of the tube has no effect on
the height of the fluid column of
a barometer, provided that the
tube diameter is large enough to
avoid surface tension (capillary)
effects.

The basic barometer. 18

 Properties of Fluid
Pressure Measurement Devices
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A
manometer contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

The basic manometer.

Measuring the pressure drop across a flow

section or a flow device by a differential
In stacked-up fluid layers, the pressure change across a fluid layer of manometer.
density  and height h is gh. 19
 Properties of Fluid
Pressure Measurement Devices
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
• Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a hook whose end
is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle.
• Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to convert the pressure effect
to an electrical effect such as a change in voltage, resistance, or capacitance.
• Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they can be more sensitive,
reliable, and precise than their mechanical counterparts.
• Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by having a diaphragm deflect
between two chambers open to the pressure inputs.
• Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state pressure transducers, work
on the principle that an electric potential is generated in a crystalline
substance when it is subjected to mechanical pressure.

Various types of Bourdon tubes used to

measure pressure.
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 Introduction To Fluıd Statıcs
Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.
The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus there are no shear
(tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it.
The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal stress, which is the pressure, and the variation of
pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid.
The topic of fluid statics has significance only in gravity fields.
The design of many engineering systems such as water dams and liquid storage tanks requires the
determination of the forces acting on the surfaces using fluid statics.

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Hydrostatic Forces On Submerged Plane
Surfaces
A plate, such as a gate valve in a dam, the wall of a liquid storage
tank, or the hull of a ship at rest, is subjected to fluid pressure Hoover
distributed over its surface when exposed to a liquid. Dam.
On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel
forces, and we often need to determine the magnitude of the force
and its point of application, which is called the center of pressure.

When analyzing hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces, the

atmospheric pressure can be subtracted for simplicity when it
acts on both sides of the structure.

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Buoyancy
Buoyant force: The upward force a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it. The buoyant force is caused by the
increase of pressure with depth in a fluid.

The buoyant force acting on the plate is equal

to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
plate.
For a fluid with constant density, the buoyant
force is independent of the distance of the
body from the free surface.
It is also independent of the density of the
solid body.

A flat plate of uniform thickness h submerged in a liquid parallel to

the free surface.

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 The buoyant forces acting on a solid body submerged
in a fluid and on a fluid body of the same shape at
the same depth are identical. The buoyant force FB
acts upward through the centroid C of the displaced
volume and is equal in magnitude to the weight W of
the displaced fluid, but is opposite in direction. For a
solid of uniform density, its weight Ws also acts
through the centroid, but its magnitude is not
necessarily equal to that of the fluid it displaces.
(Here Ws > W and thus Ws > FB; this solid body would
sink.)

Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid

is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the displaced volume.

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For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force, which is the weight of
the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body:

A solid body dropped into a fluid will sink, float,

or remain at rest at any point in the fluid,
depending on its average density relative to the
density of the fluid.

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 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Introduction
You are already familiar with numerous
conservation laws such as the laws of
conservation of mass, conservation of energy,
and conservation of momentum.
Historically, the conservation laws are first
applied to a fixed quantity of matter called a
closed system or just a system, and then
extended to regions in space called control
volumes.
The conservation relations are also called Many fluid flow devices such as this Pelton wheel hydraulic
balance equations since any conserved quantity turbine are analyzed by applying the conservation of mass and
must balance during a process. energy principles, along with the linear momentum equation.

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 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Conservation of Mass
The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a change is expressed as msys = constant
or dmsys/dt = 0, which is the statement that the mass of the system remains constant during a process.

Mass balance for a control volume (CV) in rate form:

the total rates of mass flow into

and out of the control volume

the rate of change of mass within the

control volume boundaries.

Continuity equation: In fluid mechanics, the conservation of mass relation written for a differential
control volume is usually called the continuity equation.
27
 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Linear Momentum Equation
Linear momentum: The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear momentum or
just the momentum of the body.
The momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity V is mV.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it and is
inversely proportional to its mass, and that the rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to the
net force acting on the body.
Conservation of momentum principle: The momentum of a system remains constant only when the net
force acting on it is zero, and thus the momentum of such systems is conserved.
Linear momentum equation: In fluid mechanics, Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear
momentum equation.

28
 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Conservation of Energy
The conservation of energy principle (the energy balance): The net energy transfer to or from a system
during a process be equal to the change in the energy content of the system.
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work.
Control volumes also involve energy transfer via mass flow.

the total rates of energy transfer into and out of the

control volume

the rate of change of energy

within the control volume boundaries

In fluid mechanics, we usually limit our consideration to mechanical forms of energy

only.
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 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a cross section
per unit time.

The differential mass flow rate

Point functions have exact differentials

Path functions have inexact differentials The normal velocity Vn for a surface is the
component of velocity perpendicular to the
surface.
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 Average velocity

Volume flow rate

Mass flow rate

The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid

The average velocity Vavg is defined as the average flowing through a cross section per unit time.
speed through a cross section.
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 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Conservation of Mass Principle
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume: The net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time
interval t is equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume during t.

the total rates of mass flow into

and out of the control volume

the rate of change of mass within the

control volume boundaries.

Mass balance is applicable to any control

volume undergoing any kind of process.

Conservation of mass principle for an ordinary

bathtub. 32
 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does not change with time
(mCV = constant).
Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of mass entering a control volume equal the
total amount of mass leaving it.
For steady-flow processes, we are interested in the amount of
mass flowing per unit time, that is, the mass flow rate.

Multiple inlets and

exits

Single
stream

Many engineering devices such as nozzles, diffusers, turbines,

compressors, and pumps involve a single stream (only one inlet
and one outlet).

Conservation of mass principle for a two-inlet–one-outlet

steady-flow system. 33
 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when the fluid is incompressible, which
is usually the case for liquids.
Steady, incompressible

Steady, incompressible flow

(single stream)

There is no such thing as a “conservation of volume” principle.

However, for steady flow of liquids, the volume flow rates, as well as the mass
flow rates, remain constant since liquids are essentially incompressible
substances.

During a steady-flow process, volume flow rates are not

necessarily conserved although mass flow rates are.

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 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and
directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.

Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass:

Flow energy + kinetic energy + potential energy

Mechanical energy change:

• The mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during flow if its pressure, density, velocity, and
elevation remain constant.
• In the absence of any irreversible losses, the mechanical energy change represents the mechanical
work supplied to the fluid (if emech > 0) or extracted from the fluid (if emech < 0). 35
 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
The Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli equation: An approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is valid in
regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside of boundary layers and wakes,
where the fluid motion is governed by the combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.

The Bernoulli equation is an approximate equation that is

valid only in inviscid regions of flow where net viscous
forces are negligibly small compared to inertial,
gravitational, or pressure forces. Such regions occur
outside of boundary layers and wakes.

36
 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
In two-dimensional flow, the acceleration can be decomposed into two components:
streamwise acceleration as along the streamline and
normal acceleration an in the direction normal to the streamline, which is given as an = V2/R.
Streamwise acceleration is due to a change in speed along a streamline, and normal acceleration is due to a
change in direction.
For particles that move along a straight path, an = 0 since the radius of curvature is infinity and thus there is no
change in direction. The Bernoulli equation results from a force balance along a streamline.

During steady flow, a fluid may not accelerate in time

Acceleration in steady flow is due to at a fixed point, but it may accelerate in space.
the change of velocity with position.
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 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equatıons
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

Steady, incompressible flow:

The forces acting on a fluid particle along a streamline.

The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a The Bernoulli equation between any two points on the same
fluid particle is constant along a streamline during steady streamline:
flow when compressibility and frictional effects are
negligible. 38
The incompressible Bernoulli equation is derived assuming
incompressible flow, and thus it should not be used for flows
with significant compressibility effects.

39
 • The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as the “conservation of
mechanical energy principle.”
• This is equivalent to the general conservation of energy principle for
systems that do not involve any conversion of mechanical energy and
thermal energy to each other, and thus the mechanical energy and
thermal energy are conserved separately.
• The Bernoulli equation states that during steady, incompressible flow
with negligible friction, the various forms of mechanical energy are
converted to each other, but their sum remains constant.
• There is no dissipation of mechanical energy during such flows since
The Bernoulli equation states that the sum there is no friction that converts mechanical energy to sensible
of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies thermal (internal) energy.
of a fluid particle is constant along a • The Bernoulli equation is commonly used in practice since a variety of
streamline during steady flow. practical fluid flow problems can be analyzed to reasonable accuracy
with it.

40
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
1. Steady flow The Bernoulli equation is applicable to steady flow.
2. Frictionless flow Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small, and frictional effects may or may not be
negligible.
3. No shaft work The Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section that involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any
other machine or impeller since such devices destroy the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with the
fluid particles. When these devices exist, the energy equation should be used instead.
4. Incompressible flow Density is taken constant in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation. The flow is
incompressible for liquids and also by gases at Mach numbers less than about 0.3.
5. No heat transfer The density of a gas is inversely proportional to temperature, and thus the Bernoulli equation
should not be used for flow sections that involve significant temperature change such as heating or cooling
sections.
6. Flow along a streamline Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equation is applicable along a streamline. However, when
a region of the flow is irrotational and there is negligibly small vorticity in the flow field, the Bernoulli equation
becomes applicable across streamlines as well.

41
 Frictional effects, heat transfer, and components that disturb the streamlined
structure of flow make the Bernoulli equation invalid. It should not be used in
any of the flows shown here.

When the flow is irrotational, the Bernoulli equation becomes applicable between any two points along the
flow (not just on the same streamline). 42
Example: Water Discharge from a Large Tank Example: Spraying Water
into the Air

43
Example: Siphoning Out Gasoline from a Fuel Tank

44
Example: Velocity Measurement by a Pitot Tube

45
 Example: The Rise of the Ocean Due to a
Hurricane

The eye of hurricane Linda (1997 in the Pacific Ocean

near Baja California) is clearly visible in this satellite
photo.

46
 Internal Flow
Pipe Flow
The fluid velocity in a pipe changes from zero at the wall because of the no-
slip condition to a maximum at the pipe center. In fluid flow, it is convenient to
work with an average velocity Vavg, which remains constant in incompressible
flow when the cross-sectional area of the pipe is constant (Fig. 8–2).

Transition from laminar to turbulent

A careful inspection of flow in a pipe reveals that the fluid flow is streamlined
at low velocities but turns chaotic as the velocity is increased above a critical
value, as shown in Fig. 8–4. The flow regime in the first case is said to be
laminar, characterized by smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion, and
turbulent in the second case, where it is characterized by velocity fluctuations
and highly disordered motion. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow
does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over some region in which the flow
fluctuates between laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully
turbulent. Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent. Laminar flow is
encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or
narrow passages.
47
 Internal Flow
Reynolds Number
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity, surface
temperature, and type of fluid, among other things. After exhaustive experiments in the 1880s, Osborne Reynolds
discovered that the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid (Fig. 8–5).
This ratio is called the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal flow in a circular pipe as

where Vavg = average flow velocity (m/s), D = characteristic length of the geometry
(diameter in this case, in m), and 𝜈 = 𝜇/𝜌 = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).
Note that the Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity
The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical
Reynolds number, Recr. The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for
different geometries and flow conditions. For internal flow in a circular pipe, the
generally accepted value of the critical Reynolds number is Recr = 2300.

48
 Internal Flow
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop ΔP since it is directly related to the power
requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow.
The pressure drop is proportional to the viscosity 𝜇 of the fluid, and ΔP
would be zero if there were no friction. Therefore, the drop of pressure from
P1 to P2 in this case is due entirely to viscous effects, and the following
equation represents the pressure loss ΔPL when a fluid of viscosity 𝜇 flows
through a pipe of constant diameter D and length L at average velocity Vavg.

where 𝜌 Vavg2/2 is the dynamic pressure and f is the Darcy friction factor,

In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are commonly expressed

in terms of the equivalent fluid column height, called the head loss hL.

The head loss hL represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be
raised by a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe. 49
 Internal Flow
Minor loss
The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings,
valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and
contractions in addition to the pipes.
These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and cause
additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing they
induce.
In a typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor compared
to the total head loss in the pipes (the major losses) and are called
minor losses.
Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient KL.

Head loss due to

component
For a constant-diameter section of a pipe with a minor loss component,
the loss coefficient of the component (such as the gate valve shown) is
determined by measuring the additional pressure loss it causes and
dividing it by the dynamic pressure in the pipe. 50
 Internal Flow
Minor loss.
When the inlet diameter equals outlet diameter, the loss
coefficient of a component can also be determined by
measuring the pressure loss across the component and dividing
it by the dynamic pressure:
KL = PL /(V2/2).
When the loss coefficient for a component is available, the head
loss for that component is

Minor
loss
Minor losses are also expressed in terms of the equivalent
length Lequiv.
The head loss caused by a component (such as the
angle valve shown) is equivalent to the head loss
caused by a section of the pipe whose length is the
equivalent length.

51
 Internal Flow
Minor loss.
Total head loss (general)

Total head loss (D = constant)

The head loss at the inlet of a pipe is almost

negligible for well-rounded inlets (KL = 0.03 for r/D >
0.2) but increases to about 0.50 for sharp-edged
inlets.
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 Internal Flow
Minor loss.

Head loss due to

component

53
 Internal Flow
Minor loss.
(a) The large head loss in a partially closed
valve is due to irreversible deceleration,
flow separation, and mixing of high-velocity
fluid coming from the narrow valve
passage.
(b) The head loss through a fully-open ball
valve, on the other hand, is quite small.

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