Nondestructive

testing

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Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a wide

group of analysis techniques used in
science and technology industry to
evaluate the properties of a material,
component or system without causing
damage.[1] The terms nondestructive
examination (NDE), nondestructive
inspection (NDI), and nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used
to describe this technology.[2] Because
NDT does not permanently alter the article
being inspected, it is a highly valuable
technique that can save both money and
time in product evaluation,
troubleshooting, and research. The six
most frequently used NDT methods are
eddy-current, magnetic-particle, liquid
penetrant, radiographic, ultrasonic, and
visual testing.[3] NDT is commonly used in
forensic engineering, mechanical
engineering, petroleum engineering,
electrical engineering, civil engineering,
systems engineering, aeronautical
engineering, medicine, and art.[1]
Innovations in the field of nondestructive
testing have had a profound impact on
medical imaging, including on
echocardiography, medical
ultrasonography, and digital radiography.

X-ray vault used in Radiography

NDT methods rely upon use of

electromagnetic radiation, sound and
other signal conversions to examine a
wide variety of articles (metallic and non-
metallic, food-product, artifacts and
antiquities, infrastructure) for integrity,
composition, or condition with no
alteration of the article undergoing
examination. Visual inspection (VT), the
most commonly applied NDT method, is
quite often enhanced by the use of
magnification, borescopes, cameras, or
other optical arrangements for direct or
remote viewing. The internal structure of a
sample can be examined for a volumetric
inspection with penetrating radiation (RT),
such as X-rays, neutrons or gamma
radiation. Sound waves are utilized in the
case of ultrasonic testing (UT), another
volumetric NDT method – the mechanical
signal (sound) being reflected by
conditions in the test article and evaluated
for amplitude and distance from the
search unit (transducer). Another
commonly used NDT method used on
ferrous materials involves the application
of fine iron particles (either suspended in
liquid or dry powder – fluorescent or
colored) that are applied to a part while it
is magnetized, either continually or
residually. The particles will be attracted to
leakage fields of magnetism on or in the
test object, and form indications (particle
collection) on the object's surface, which
are evaluated visually. Contrast and
probability of detection for a visual
examination by the unaided eye is often
enhanced by using liquids to penetrate the
test article surface, allowing for
visualization of flaws or other surface
conditions. This method (liquid penetrant
testing) (PT) involves using dyes,
fluorescent or colored (typically red),
suspended in fluids and is used for non-
magnetic materials, usually metals.

Analyzing and documenting a

nondestructive failure mode can also be
accomplished using a high-speed camera
recording continuously (movie-loop) until
the failure is detected. Detecting the
failure can be accomplished using a sound
detector or stress gauge which produces a
signal to trigger the high-speed camera.
These high-speed cameras have advanced
recording modes to capture some non-
destructive failures.[4] After the failure the
high-speed camera will stop recording.
The captured images can be played back
in slow motion showing precisely what
happened before, during and after the
nondestructive event, image by image.

Applications
NDT is used in a variety of settings that
covers a wide range of industrial activity,
with new NDT methods and applications,
being continuously developed.
Nondestructive testing methods are
routinely applied in industries where a
failure of a component would cause
significant hazard or economic loss, such
as in transportation, pressure vessels,
building structures, piping, and hoisting
equipment.

Weld verification …
 1. Section of material with a surface-breaking crack
that is not visible to the naked eye.
2. Penetrant is applied to the surface.
3. Excess penetrant is removed.
4. Developer is applied, rendering the crack visible.

In manufacturing, welds are commonly

used to join two or more metal parts.
Because these connections may
encounter loads and fatigue during
product lifetime, there is a chance that
they may fail if not created to proper
specification. For example, the base metal
must reach a certain temperature during
the welding process, must cool at a
specific rate, and must be welded with
compatible materials or the joint may not
be strong enough to hold the parts
together, or cracks may form in the weld
causing it to fail. The typical welding
defects (lack of fusion of the weld to the
base metal, cracks or porosity inside the
weld, and variations in weld density) could
cause a structure to break or a pipeline to
rupture.

Welds may be tested using NDT

techniques such as industrial radiography
or industrial CT scanning using X-rays or
gamma rays, ultrasonic testing, liquid
penetrant testing, magnetic particle
inspection or via eddy current. In a proper
weld, these tests would indicate a lack of
cracks in the radiograph, show clear
passage of sound through the weld and
back, or indicate a clear surface without
penetrant captured in cracks.

Welding techniques may also be actively

monitored with acoustic emission
techniques before production to design
the best set of parameters to use to
properly join two materials.[5] In the case
of high stress or safety critical welds, weld
monitoring will be employed to confirm the
specified welding parameters (arc current,
arc voltage, travel speed, heat input etc.)
are being adhered to those stated in the
welding procedure. This verifies the weld
as correct to procedure prior to
nondestructive evaluation and metallurgy
tests. The American Welding Society
(AWS) has a Certified Welding Inspector
Certification for professional welders
performing NDT inspections.

Structural mechanics …

Structure can be complex systems that

undergo different loads during their
lifetime, e.g. Lithium-ion batteries.[6] Some
complex structures, such as the turbo
machinery in a liquid-fuel rocket, can also
cost millions of dollars. Engineers will
commonly model these structures as
coupled second-order systems,
approximating dynamic structure
components with springs, masses, and
dampers. The resulting sets of differential
equations are then used to derive a
transfer function that models the behavior
of the system.

In NDT, the structure undergoes a dynamic

input, such as the tap of a hammer or a
controlled impulse. Key properties, such
as displacement or acceleration at
different points of the structure, are
measured as the corresponding output.
This output is recorded and compared to
the corresponding output given by the
transfer function and the known input.
Differences may indicate an inappropriate
model (which may alert engineers to
unpredicted instabilities or performance
outside of tolerances), failed components,
or an inadequate control system.

Reference standards, which are structures

that intentionally flawed in order to be
compared with components intended for
use in the field, are often used in NDT.
Reference standards can be with many
NDT techniques, such as UT,[7] RT[8] and
VT.

Relation to medical procedures …

Chest radiography indicating a peripheral bronchial

carcinoma.

Several NDT methods are related to

clinical procedures, such as radiography,
ultrasonic testing, and visual testing.
Technological improvements or upgrades
in these NDT methods have migrated over
from medical equipment advances,
including digital radiography (DR), phased
array ultrasonic testing (PAUT), and
endoscopy (borescope or assisted visual
inspection).

Notable events in academic

and industrial NDT
1854 Hartford, Connecticut – A boiler at
the Fales and Gray Car works
explodes,[9][10] killing 21 people and
seriously injuring 50. Within a decade,
the State of Connecticut passes a law
requiring annual inspection (in this case
visual) of boilers.
1880–1920 – The "Oil and Whiting"
method of crack detection[11] is used in
the railroad industry to find cracks in
heavy steel parts. (A part is soaked in
thinned oil, then painted with a white
coating that dries to a powder. Oil
seeping out from cracks turns the white
powder brown, allowing the cracks to be
detected.) This was the precursor to
modern liquid penetrant tests.
1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
discovers what are now known as X-
rays. In his first paper he discusses the
possibility of flaw detection.
1920 – Dr. H. H. Lester begins
development of industrial radiography
for metals.
1924 – Lester uses radiography to
examine castings to be installed in a
Boston Edison Company steam
pressure power plant.
1926 – The first electromagnetic eddy
current instrument is available to
measure material thicknesses.
1927-1928 – Magnetic induction system
to detect flaws in railroad track
developed by Dr. Elmer Sperry and H.C.
Drake.
1929 – Magnetic particle methods and
equipment pioneered (A.V. DeForest and
F.B. Doane.)
1930s – Robert F. Mehl demonstrates
radiographic imaging using gamma
radiation from Radium, which can
examine thicker components than the
low-energy X-ray machines available at
the time.
1935–1940 – Liquid penetrant tests
developed (Betz, Doane, and DeForest)
1935–1940s – Eddy current instruments
developed (H.C. Knerr, C. Farrow, Theo
Zuschlag, and Fr. F. Foerster).
1940–1944 – Ultrasonic test method
developed in USA by Dr. Floyd Firestone,
who applies for a U.S. invention patent
for same on May 27, 1940 and is issued
the U.S. patent as grant no. 2,280,226 on
April 21, 1942. Extracts from the first
two paragraphs of this seminal patent
for a nondestructive testing method
succinctly describe the basics of
ultrasonic testing. "My invention
pertains to a device for detecting the
presence of inhomogeneities of density
or elasticity in materials. For instance if
a casting has a hole or a crack within it,
my device allows the presence of the
flaw to be detected and its position
located, even though the flaw lies
entirely within the casting and no
portion of it extends out to the surface."
Additionally, "The general principle of my
device consists of sending high
frequency vibrations into the part to be
inspected, and the determination of the
time intervals of arrival of the direct and
reflected vibrations at one or more
stations on the surface of the part."
Medical echocardiography is an
offshoot of this technology.[12]
1946 – First neutron radiographs
produced by Peters.
 1950 – The Schmidt Hammer (also
known as "Swiss Hammer") is invented.
The instrument uses the world's first
patented non-destructive testing
method for concrete.
1950 – J. Kaiser introduces acoustic
emission as an NDT method.

(Basic Source for above: Hellier, 2001) Note

the number of advancements made during
the WWII era, a time when industrial quality
control was growing in importance.

1955 – ICNDT founded. World

organizing body for Nondestructive
Testing.
1955 – First NDT World Conference
takes place in Brussels, organized by
ICNDT. NDT World Conference takes
place every four years.
1963 – Frederick G. Weighart's[13] and
James F. McNulty (U.S. radio
engineer)'s[14] co-invention of Digital
radiography is an offshoot of the pairs
development of nondestructive test
equipment at Automation Industries,
Inc., then, in El Segundo, California. See
James F. McNulty also at article
Ultrasonic testing.
1996 – Rolf Diederichs founded the first
Open Access NDT Journal in the
Internet. Today the Open Access NDT
Database NDT.net
1998 – The European Federation for
Non-Destructive Testing (EFNDT) was
founded in May 1998 in Copenhagen at
the 7th European Conference for Non-
Destructive Testing (ECNDT). 27
national European NDT societies joined
the powerful organization.
2008 – NDT in Aerospace Conference
was established DGZfP and Fraunhofer
IIS hosted the first international
congress in Bavaria, Germany.
2008 – Academia NDT International has
been officially founded and has its base
 office in Brescia (Italy) www.academia-
ndt.org
2012 – ISO 9712:2012 ISO Qualification
and Certification of NDT Personnel
2020 – Indian Society for Non-
destructive Testing (ISNT)
Accreditation Certification from NABCB
for Qualification and Certification of
NDT Personnel as per ISO 9712:2012

ISO 9712:2012 — Non-

destructive testing —
Qualification and
certification of NDT
personnel
This International Standard specifies
requirements for principles for the
qualification and certification of personnel
who perform industrial non-destructive
testing (NDT).

The system specified in this International

Standard can also apply to other NDT
methods or to new techniques within an
established NDT method, provided a
comprehensive scheme of certification
exists and the method or technique is
covered by International, regional or
national standards or the new NDT
method or technique has been
demonstrated to be effective to the
satisfaction of the certification body.

The certification covers proficiency in one

or more of the following methods: a)
acoustic emission testing; b) eddy current
testing; c) infrared thermographic testing;
d) leak testing (hydraulic pressure tests
excluded); e) magnetic testing; f)
penetrant testing; g) radiographic testing;
h) strain gauge testing; i) ultrasonic
testing; j) visual testing (direct unaided
visual tests and visual tests carried out
during the application of another NDT
method are excluded).
Methods and techniques

An example of a 3D replicating technique. The flexible

high-resolution replicas allow surfaces to be
examined and measured under laboratory conditions.
A replica can be taken from all solid materials.

NDT is divided into various methods of

nondestructive testing, each based on a
particular scientific principle. These
methods may be further subdivided into
various techniques. The various methods
and techniques, due to their particular
natures, may lend themselves especially
well to certain applications and be of little
or no value at all in other applications.
Therefore, choosing the right method and
technique is an important part of the
performance of NDT.

Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT)

Blue etch anodize (BEA)
Dye penetrant inspection or liquid
penetrant testing (PT or LPI)
Electromagnetic testing (ET) or
electromagnetic inspection (commonly
known as "EMI")
Alternating current field
measurement (ACFM)
Alternating current potential drop
measurement (ACPD)
Barkhausen testing
Direct current potential drop
measurement (DCPD)
Eddy-current testing (ECT)
Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL)
for pipelines, tank floors, and wire
rope
Magnetic-particle inspection (MT or
MPI)
Magnetovision
 Remote field testing (RFT)
Ellipsometry
Endoscope inspection
Guided wave testing (GWT)
Hardness testing
Impulse excitation technique (IET)
Microwave imaging

X-Ray, Optical and Terahertz image of a packaged

IC.[15]

Terahertz nondestructive evaluation

(THz)
Infrared and thermal testing (IR)
 Thermographic inspection
Scanning thermal microscopy
Laser testing
Electronic speckle pattern
interferometry
Holographic interferometry
Self-mixing laser interferometry
Low coherence interferometry
Optical coherence tomography
(OCT)
Profilometry
Shearography
Leak testing (LT) or Leak detection
Hydrostatic test
 Absolute pressure leak testing
(pressure change)
Bubble testing
Halogen diode leak testing
Hydrogen leak testing
Mass spectrometer leak testing
Tracer-gas leak testing method for
helium, hydrogen and refrigerant
gases
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and
NMR spectroscopy
Metallographic replicas[16][17]
Spectroscopy
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
 Mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIR)
(Far-infrared =) Terahertz
spectroscopy
Raman Spectroscopy
Optical microscopy
Positive material identification (PMI)
Radiographic testing (RT) (see also
Industrial radiography and Radiography)
Computed radiography
Digital radiography (real-time)
Neutron imaging
SCAR (small controlled area
radiography)
X-ray computed tomography (CT)
Resonant inspection
Resonant acoustic method
(RAM)[18]
Scanning electron microscopy
Surface temper etch (Nital Etch)
Ultrasonic testing (UT)
Acoustic resonance technology
(ART)
Angle beam testing
Electromagnetic acoustic
transducer (EMAT) (non-contact)
Laser ultrasonics (LUT)
Internal rotary inspection system
(IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes
 Phased array ultrasonics (PAUT)
Thickness measurement
Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics
(TOFD)
Time-of-flight ultrasonic
determination of 3D elastic
constants (TOF)
Vibration analysis
Visual inspection (VT)
Pipeline video inspection
Weight and load testing of structures
Corroscan/C-scan
3D computed tomography
Industrial CT scanning
 Heat Exchanger Life Assessment
System
RTJ Flange Special Ultrasonic Testing

Personnel training,
qualification and certification
Successful and consistent application of
nondestructive testing techniques
depends heavily on personnel training,
experience and integrity. Personnel
involved in application of industrial NDT
methods and interpretation of results
should be certified, and in some industrial
sectors certification is enforced by law or
by the applied codes and standards.[19]
NDT professionals and managers who
seek to further their growth, knowledge
and experience to remain competitive in
the rapidly advancing technology field of
nondestructive testing should consider
joining NDTMA, a member organization of
NDT Managers and Executives who work
to provide a forum for the open exchange
of managerial, technical and regulatory
information critical to the successful
management of NDT personnel and
activities. Their annual conference at the
Golden Nugget in Las Vegas is a popular
for its informative and relevant
programming and exhibition space
Certification schemes …

There are two approaches in personnel

certification:[20]

1. Employer Based Certification: Under

this concept the employer compiles
their own Written Practice. The written
practice defines the responsibilities
of each level of certification, as
implemented by the company, and
describes the training, experience
and examination requirements for
each level of certification. In
industrial sectors the written
practices are usually based on
recommended practice SNT-TC-1A of
the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing.[21] ANSI
standard CP-189 outlines
requirements for any written practice
that conforms to the standard.[22] For
aviation, space, and defense (ASD)
applications NAS 410 sets further
requirements for NDT personnel, and
is published by AIA – Aerospace
Industries Association , which is
made up of US aerospace airframe
and powerplant manufacturers. This
is the basis document for EN 4179[23]
and other (USA) NIST-recognized
aerospace standards for the
 Qualification and Certification
(employer-based) of Nondestructive
Testing personnel. NAS 410 also
sets the requirements also for
"National NDT Boards", which allow
and proscribe personal certification
schemes. NAS 410 allows ASNT
Certification as a portion of the
qualifications needed for ASD
certification.[24]
2. Personal Central Certification: The
concept of central certification is that
an NDT operator can obtain
certification from a central
certification authority, that is
recognized by most employers, third
parties and/or government
authorities. Industrial standards for
central certification schemes include
ISO 9712,[25] and ANSI/ASNT CP-
106[26] (used for the ASNT ACCP [27]
scheme). Certification under these
standards involves training, work
experience under supervision and
passing a written and practical
examination set up by the
independent certification authority.
EN 473[28] was another central
certification scheme, very similar to
ISO 9712, which was withdrawn when
CEN replaced it with EN ISO 9712 in
2012.
In the United States employer based
schemes are the norm, however central
certification schemes exist as well. The
most notable is ASNT Level III (established
in 1976-1977), which is organized by the
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing for Level 3 NDT personnel.[29]
NAVSEA 250-1500 is another US central
certification scheme, specifically
developed for use in the naval nuclear
program.[30]

Central certification is more widely used in

the European Union, where certifications
are issued by accredited bodies
(independent organizations conforming to
ISO 17024 and accredited by a national
accreditation authority like UKAS ). The
Pressure Equipment Directive (97/23/EC)
actually enforces central personnel
certification for the initial testing of steam
boilers and some categories of pressure
vessels and piping.[31] European Standards
harmonized with this directive specify
personnel certification to EN 473.
Certifications issued by a national NDT
society which is a member of the
European Federation of NDT (EFNDT ) are
mutually acceptable by the other member
societies [32] under a multilateral
recognition agreement.
Canada also implements an ISO 9712
central certification scheme, which is
administered by Natural Resources
Canada, a government
department.[33][34][35]

The aerospace sector worldwide sticks to

employer based schemes.[36] In America it
is based mostly on the Aerospace
Industries Association's (AIA) AIA-NAS-
410 [37] and in the European Union on the
equivalent and very similar standard EN
4179.[23] However EN 4179:2009 includes
an option for central qualification and
certification by a National aerospace NDT
board or NANDTB (paragraph 4.5.2).
Levels of certification …

Most NDT personnel certification schemes

listed above specify three "levels" of
qualification and/or certification, usually
designated as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3
(although some codes specify Roman
numerals, like Level II). The roles and
responsibilities of personnel in each level
are generally as follows (there are slight
differences or variations between different
codes and standards):[25][23]

Level 1 are technicians qualified to

perform only specific calibrations and
tests under close supervision and
direction by higher level personnel. They
can only report test results. Normally
they work following specific work
instructions for testing procedures and
rejection criteria.
Level 2 are engineers or experienced
technicians who are able to set up and
calibrate testing equipment, conduct the
inspection according to codes and
standards (instead of following work
instructions) and compile work
instructions for Level 1 technicians.
They are also authorized to report,
interpret, evaluate and document testing
results. They can also supervise and
train Level 1 technicians. In addition to
testing methods, they must be familiar
with applicable codes and standards
and have some knowledge of the
manufacture and service of tested
products.
Level 3 are usually specialized
engineers or very experienced
technicians. They can establish NDT
techniques and procedures and interpret
codes and standards. They also direct
NDT laboratories and have central role
in personnel certification. They are
expected to have wider knowledge
covering materials, fabrication and
product technology.
Terminology
The standard US terminology for
Nondestructive testing is defined in
standard ASTM E-1316.[38] Some
definitions may be different in European
standard EN 1330.

Indication
The response or evidence from an
examination, such as a blip on the
screen of an instrument. Indications are
classified as true or false. False
indications are those caused by factors
not related to the principles of the
testing method or by improper
implementation of the method, like film
damage in radiography, electrical
interference in ultrasonic testing etc.
True indications are further classified as
relevant and non relevant. Relevant
indications are those caused by flaws.
Non relevant indications are those
caused by known features of the tested
object, like gaps, threads, case
hardening etc.
Interpretation
Determining if an indication is of a type
to be investigated. For example, in
electromagnetic testing, indications
from metal loss are considered flaws
because they should usually be
investigated, but indications due to
variations in the material properties may
be harmless and nonrelevant.
Flaw
A type of discontinuity that must be
investigated to see if it is rejectable. For
example, porosity in a weld or metal
loss.
Evaluation
Determining if a flaw is rejectable. For
example, is porosity in a weld larger
than acceptable by code?
Defect
A flaw that is rejectable – i.e. does not
meet acceptance criteria. Defects are
generally removed or repaired.[38]
Reliability and statistics
Probability of detection (POD) tests are a
standard way to evaluate a nondestructive
testing technique in a given set of
circumstances, for example "What is the
POD of lack of fusion flaws in pipe welds
using manual ultrasonic testing?" The POD
will usually increase with flaw size. A
common error in POD tests is to assume
that the percentage of flaws detected is
the POD, whereas the percentage of flaws
detected is merely the first step in the
analysis. Since the number of flaws tested
is necessarily a limited number (non-
infinite), statistical methods must be used
to determine the POD for all possible
defects, beyond the limited number tested.
Another common error in POD tests is to
define the statistical sampling units (test
items) as flaws, whereas a true sampling
unit is an item that may or may not contain
a flaw.[39][40] Guidelines for correct
application of statistical methods to POD
tests can be found in ASTM E2862
Standard Practice for Probability of
Detection Analysis for Hit/Miss Data and
MIL-HDBK-1823A Nondestructive
Evaluation System Reliability Assessment,
from the U.S. Department of Defense
Handbook.
See also
Destructive testing
Failure analysis
Forensic engineering – Investigation of
failures associated with legal
intervention
Inspection – Organized examination or
formal evaluation exercise
Magnetovision
Maintenance testing
Materials science – Interdisciplinary
field which deals with discovery and
design of new materials, primarily of
physical and chemical properties of
solids
Predictive maintenance – Determining
the condition of in-service equipment in
order to estimate when maintenance
should be performed
Product certification
Quality control – Project management
process making sure produced products
are good
 Reliability engineering – Sub-discipline
of systems engineering that emphasizes
dependability in the lifecycle
management of a product or a system
Risk-based inspection
Robotic non-destructive testing –
Method of inspection using remotely
operated tools
Stress testing
Terahertz nondestructive evaluation

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Testing. A S M International. ISBN 978-
0-87170-517-4.
2. Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of
Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-
Hill. p. 1.1. ISBN 978-0-07-028121-9.
3. "Introduction to Nondestructive
Testing" . asnt.org.
4. Bridges, Andrew. "High Speed
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Testing" . NASA TechBriefs. Retrieved
1 November 2013.
5. Blitz, Jack; G. Simpson (1991).
Ultrasonic Methods of Non-Destructive
Testing. Springer-Verlag New York,
LLC. ISBN 978-0-412-60470-6.
. Waldmann, T. (2014). "A Mechanical
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 Batteries". Journal of the
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A1742–A1747.
doi:10.1149/2.1001410jes .
7. "EDM Notch Reference Standards » PH
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. "Radiography (RT) Reference
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10. "Today in History – Fales & Gray
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 Hartford Hospital | Connecticut History
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2019-08-17.
11. "History of PI" . www.ndt-ed.org.
Archived from the original on 2009-
08-23. Retrieved 2006-11-21.
12. Singh S, Goyal A (2007). "The origin of
echocardiography: a tribute to Inge
Edler" . Tex Heart Inst J. 34 (4): 431–
8. PMC 2170493 . PMID 18172524 .
13. U.S. Patent 3,277,302, titled "X-Ray
Apparatus Having Means for
Supplying An Alternating Square Wave
Voltage to the X-Ray Tube", granted to
Weighart on October 4, 1964, showing
 its patent application date as May 10,
1963 and at lines 1-6 of its column 4,
also, noting James F. McNulty’s earlier
filed co-pending application for an
essential component of invention
14. U.S. Patent 3,289,000, titled "Means
for Separately Controlling the Filament
Current and Voltage on a X-Ray Tube",
granted to McNulty on November 29,
1966 and showing its patent
application date as March 5, 1963
15. Ahi, Kiarash (2018). "A Method and
System for Enhancing the Resolution
of Terahertz Imaging" . Measurement.
 doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2018.06.
044 .
1 . ASTM E1351: "Standard Practice for
Production and Evaluation of Field
Metallographic Replicas" (2006)
17. BS ISO 3057 "Non-destructive testing -
Metallographic replica techniques of
surface examination" (1998)
1 . "Fundamentals of Resonant Acoustic
Method NDT" (2005)
19. "ICNDT Guide to Qualification and
Certification of Personnel for NDT"
(PDF). International Committee for
NDT. 2012.
20. John Thompson (November 2006).
Global review of qualification and
certification of personnel for NDT and
condition monitoring. 12th A-PCNDT
2006 – Asia-Pacific Conference on
NDT. Auckland, New Zealand.
21. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-
1A: Personnel Qualification and
Certification in Nondestructive Testing,
(2006)
22. ANSI/ASNT CP-189: ASNT Standard
for Qualification and Certification of
Nondestructive Testing Personnel,
(2006)
23. EN 4179: "Aerospace series.
Qualification and approval of
personnel for non-destructive testing"
(2009)
24. AIA NAS410
25. ISO 9712: Non-destructive testing --
Qualification and certification of NDT
personnel (2012)
2 . ANSI/ASNT CP-106: "ASNT Standard
for Qualification and Certification of
Nondestructive Testing Personnel"
(2008)
27. "ASNT Central Certification Program",
ASNT Document ACCP-CP-1, Rev. 7
(2010)
2 . EN 473: Non-destructive testing.
Qualification and certification of NDT
personnel. General principles, (2008)
29. Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of
Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-
Hill. p. 1.25. ISBN 978-0-07-028121-9.
30. Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of
Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-
Hill. p. 1.26. ISBN 978-0-07-028121-9.
31. Directive 97/23/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 29
May 1997 on the approximation of the
laws of the Member States concerning
pressure equipment, Annex I,
paragraph 3.1.3
32. EFNDT/SEC/P/05-006: Agreement for
EFNDT multilateral recognition of NDT
personnel certification schemes
(2005)
33. http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/smm-
mms/ndt-end/index-eng.htm  : The
NDT Certifying Agency (CANMET-MTL)
34. The relevant national standard for
Canada is CAN/CGSB-48.9712-2006
"Qualification and Certification of Non-
Destructive Testing Personnel.", which
complies with the requirements of ISO
9712:2005 and EN 473:2000.
35. Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of
Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-
 Hill. p. 1.27. ISBN 978-0-07-028121-9.
3 . R. Marini and P. Ranos: "Current Issues
in Qualification and Certification of
Non-Destructive Testing Personnel in
the Aerospace Industry ", ECNDT 2006
- Th.3.6.5
37. AIA-NAS-410: "Aerospace Industries
Association, National Aerospace
Standard, NAS Certification and
Qualification of Nondestructive Test
Personnel"
3 . ASTM E-1316: "Standard Terminology
for Nondestructive Examinations", The
American Society for Testing and
Materials, in Volume 03.03 NDT, 1997
 39. T. Oldberg and R. Christensen (1999).
"Erratic Measure" . 4 (5). NDT.net.
40. T. Oldberg (2005). "An Ethical Problem
in the Statistics of Defect Detection
Test Reliability" . 10 (5). NDT.net.

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Nondestructive Testing
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Terminology for Nondestructive
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Bray, D.E. and R.K. Stanley, 1997,
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Terminology. Nine parts. Parts 5 and 6
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EN 1330-4: Non-destructive testing.
Terminology. Terms used in ultrasonic
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particle testing (2005)
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tightness testing (1998)
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