PHYSICS CHAPTER 2 Notes

UNCERTAINTIES & ERRORS:
UNCERTAINTIES: a quantitative measure of how much your

measured values deviate from a standard or expected value.
ERRORS: are the uncertainties in measured quantities which
arise from different sources due to either limitations of
observer, measuring instrument used or method of the
experiment used.
FORMS OF ERRORS:
1. Absolute Errors: they are written in the form : ±x units
→always written to 1sf.
→They are usually given by the least count of instrument.
e.g. Metre Rule → L = ± 0.1 cm
Vernier Calliper → L = ± 0.01 cm
Screw Guage → L = ± 0.001 cm OR ± 0.01 mm
2. Fractional Errors: they are written in the form : ±x / x
→ has no units
3. Percentage Errors: they are written in the form : ±{x / x}100
→ has no units
❖Fractional or %age errors are useful to indicate the
suitability of chosen instrument.
❖More the error less likely for that instrument to be
selected.
TYPES OF ERRORS
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS: are the constant errors which
cause all results to be incorrect by roughly the same
amount in the same direction i.e. either higher or lower
than actual.
For example:
1. zero errors in instruments
2. extra counts due to background radiations
3. wrong assumptions
4. reaction time of experimenter
5. incorrect markings on any scale (miscalibration)
❖ Systematic errors can be eliminated COMPLETELY

❖ They CANNOT be minimized by taking average of
many readings taken.
Ways To Minimize:
1. Use another set of apparatus
2. Operate the system in systematic way to predict the
error
3. Use of calibration curves to predict the error
On a graph, S.Errors are represented by:

(i) either y-intercept or x-intercept
(ii) Difference between the actual value & average
value.
RANDOM ERRORS: are the errors with different
magnitudes and signs in repeated readings. They
occur due to our inability to obtain the true value.
For example:
1. variations in external physical conditions
2. irregularity of the quantity to be measured such
as variations in diameter of wire.
3. inability of experimenter(e.g counting
oscillations)
4. parallax error
5. taking readings which changes with time
6. fluctuations in the last digit of digital meters.
→ Random errors cannot be eliminated completely,
they can only be minimized.
✓ On a graph, R.Errors are represented by:

Scatter of points or deviation
Ways To Minimize:
1. Take large no of readings and average them out
2. Operate the system periodically.
COMPOUND ERRORS
➢ Results of an experiment is often obtained by combining
few quantities.
➢ The computation of error depends upon the type of the
equations used in the process.
➢ The rules for the computations of errors are:
1. Addition or Subtraction: If R = R2 ± R1 then the error is
R =R2 + R1
2. Multiplication: If R = a × b then the error is calculated
by :
R a b
= +
𝑅 𝑎 𝑏
3. Division: If R = a / b then the error is calculated by :
R a b
𝑅
= 𝑎 + 𝑏
1. Addition or Subtraction: If R = R2 ± R1 then the
error is: R =R2 + R1
2. Multiplication: If R = a × b then the error is
calculated by :
R a b
𝑅
= 𝑎 + 𝑏
3. Division: If R = a / b then the error is calculated by :
R a b
= +
𝑅 𝑎 𝑏
4. Constant Multiplied by a Variable: If R = 2 × a
then the error is calculated by :
R a
𝑅
= ± 𝑎
5. Power of a variable: If R = ap, where p is a
constant, then the error is calculated by :
R a
𝑅
= ± 𝑝{ 𝑎
}
6. General Case (Combination of any or all of above):
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A thermometer can be read to an
accuracy of ± 0.5 °C. This thermometer is
used to measure a temperature rise from
40 °C to 100 °C.
What is the percentage uncertainty in the
measurement of the temperature rise?
A 0.5 % B 0.8 % C 1.3 % D 1.7%
2. In an experiment, a radio-controlled car takes
2.50 ± 0.05 s to travel 40.0 ± 0.1 m.
What is the car’s average speed and the
uncertainty in this value?
A 16 ± 1 m𝑠 −1 B 16.0 ± 0.2 m 𝑠 −1
C 16.0 ± 0.4 m 𝑠 −1 D 16.00 ± 0.36 m 𝑠 −1
3. The power loss P in a resistor is calculated using

the formula P = V2/ R. The uncertainty in the
potential difference V is 3 % and the uncertainty in
the resistance R is 2%. What is the uncertainty in
P?
A 4% B 7%
C 8% D 11%
4. In a simple pendulum experiment to
determine g the equation used is
T=2
Where T is the time period, is found to be
(2.160.01) s when the length L of the
pendulum is (1.1500.005) m.
Find the value of g and its uncertainty.
5. A student performing an experiment founds
the following data:
Radius of the ball = 2.0 ± 0.1 𝑐𝑚
Mass of the ball = 5.0 ± 0.1 𝑘𝑔
i) Find the density of the ball.

ii)How shall the student express his answer?
iii)What is the quantity contributing to largest
error in his experiment?
iv)How can he improve this reading?
6. In a simple electrical circuit, the current
in a resistor is measured as (2.50 ± 0.05)
mA. The resistor is marked as having a
value of 4.7 Ω ± 2 %.
If these values were used to calculate the
power dissipated in the resistor, what
would be the percentage uncertainty in the
value obtained?
A2% B4% C6% D8%
7. A student attempts to measure the diameter of a
steel ball by using a meter rule to measure four
similar balls in a row. The initial reading where the
first ball was placed is X and the final reading where
the last ball was is Y. The student estimates the
positions on the scale to be as:
X (1.0 ± 0.2) cm Y (5.0 ± 0.2) cm
What is the diameter of a steel ball together with its
associated uncertainty?
A (l.0± 0.05) cm B (1.0±0.I)cm
C (1.0 ± 0.2) cm D (1.0 ± 0.24) cm

8. The Young modulus of the material of a wire is to be
found. The Young modulus E is given by the equation
4𝐹𝑙
below. 𝐸= 2 .
𝜋𝑑 𝑥
The wire is extended by a known force and the following
measurements are made.
Which measurement has the largest effect on the
uncertainty in the value of the calculated Young modulus?
9. A student uses a metre rule to measure the
length of an elastic band before and after
stretching it.
The lengths are recorded as:
Length of band before stretching, 𝐿0 = 50.0 ± 0.1 cm
Length of band after stretching, 𝐿𝑆 = 51.6 ± 0.1 cm.
Determine:
(a) The change in length (𝐿𝑆 - 𝐿0 ), quoting your

answer with its uncertainty,
(b) The fractional change in length, ,
(c) The uncertainty in your answer in (b).
PRECISION: It refers to the extent or the limit of
sensitivity of a given measuring instrument to
obtain the readings of the physical quantity being
measured.
✓ THIS MEANS The precision of a measuring tool

is related to the size of its measurement
increments. The smaller the measurement
increment, the more precise the tool.
✓ Q: Is Vernier Calliper more precise than Screw
guage?
✓ Precision is given by the deviation of results
from their average of set of results.
✓ Precision tells us how close the readings are

to one another; they all may be far from
actual value.
A B
DIAMETER DEVIATION DIAMETER DEVIATION
0.38 0.02 0.40 0.00
0.36 0.04 0.41 0.01
0.40 0.00 0.39 0.02
0.44 0.04 0.42 0.02
0.42 0.42 0.38 0.02
AVG= 0.40 AVG= 0.40
✓ CONCLUSION:
Precision α
→ more the deviation less precise the

readings are & vice versa.
→ This means Precision α
→Precision can be improved by:

i. using a magnifying glass for readings.
ii. Using instrument with smaller least count
ACCURACY: It refers to how close the readings are
to the actual value.
✓ Accuracy of a measurement is given by the
percentage error.
✓ Accuracy α , more the %age error
less accurate the readings are & vice versa.
✓ This means Accuracy α
✓ Accuracy can be improved by:
i. using a more precise instrument .i.e which has
smaller least count.
ii. Measuring large magnitude quantity.
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Uses: It can be used to measure:
1. Amplitude
2. Voltage
3. Current
4. Time period
5. Frequency
6. Depth measurements
X-PLATES:
✓Info about time using x-plate settings or Time
base settings
✓T = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 boxes by 1 wave on x-axis ×
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
1
✓𝑓 =
𝑇
Y-PLATES:
✓Acts as an input for the C.R.O.
✓Info about amplitude
✓Amplitude = No. of boxes by peak of the
wave × Y-plate settings
18 A sound wave is displayed on the screen of a
cathode-ray oscilloscope. The time base of the
c.r.o. is set at 2.5 ms / cm.
What is the frequency
of the sound wave?
A 50 Hz
B 100 Hz
C 200 Hz
D 400 Hz
19. The setting of the time
base is then changed from
10 ms cm–1 to
20 ms cm–1and
the Y-sensitivity is
unaltered.
Which trace is now
seen on the screen?
43The diagram shows a
square-wave trace
on the screen of a
c.r.o. A grid of 1 cm
squares covers the
screen. The time-
base setting is
10 ms cm–1.
What is the approx
frequency of the
square-wave?
A 70 Hz
B 140 Hz
C 280 Hz
D 1400Hz
32 The diagram shows a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.)
being used to measure the rate of rotation of a flywheel.
The flywheel has a small magnet M mounted on it. Each
time the magnet passes the coil, a voltage pulse is
generated, which is passed to the c.r.o.
The display of the c.r.o. is 10 cm wide.
The flywheel is rotating at a rate of about 3000
revolutions per minute.
Which time-base setting will display clearly
separate pulses on the screen?
A 1 s cm–1
B 10 ms cm–1
C 100 μs cm–1
D 1 μs cm–1

PHYSICS CHAPTER 2 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHYSICS CHAPTER 2 Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHYSICS CHAPTER 2 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNCERTAINTIES & ERRORS:

UNCERTAINTIES: a quantitative measure of how much your

❖ Systematic errors can be eliminated COMPLETELY

On a graph, S.Errors are represented by:

✓ On a graph, R.Errors are represented by:

3. The power loss P in a resistor is calculated using

i) Find the density of the ball.

C (1.0 ± 0.2) cm D (1.0 ± 0.24) cm

(a) The change in length (𝐿𝑆 - 𝐿0 ), quoting your

✓ THIS MEANS The precision of a measuring tool

✓ Precision tells us how close the readings are

→ more the deviation less precise the

→Precision can be improved by:

You might also like