Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level

Complete
Biology
Fourth edition

m a t e r i a l
Sam ple student

Ron Pickering
David Martindill
Alice Robinson

Oxford excellence for Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level

Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level
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 C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

1.1 Biology is the study of life How the characteristics of life depend on each other
Each of the characteristics of life is linked to the others – for example,

and living organisms organisms can only grow if they are nourished. As they take nourishment
from their environment, they may also produce waste materials which
they must then excrete. To respond to the environment, they must organise
The dawn of life their cells and tissues to carry out actions. Because of the random nature of
OBJECTIVES
Scientists believe that the Earth was formed from an enormous cloud reproduction, they are likely to show variation from generation to generation.
■ To understand that living things
of gases about 5 billion years ago. Atmospheric conditions were harsh Depending on energy
differ from non-living things
(there was no molecular oxygen, for example), the environment was The organisation in living things and their ability to carry out their life
■ To be able to list the characteristics
very unstable and conditions were unsuitable for life as we know it. processes depends on a supply of energy. Many biologists today define life
of living things
■ To understand that energy must be Many scientists believe that the first and simplest living organisms as a set of processes that result from the organisation of matter and which
expended to maintain life appeared on Earth about 2.8 billion years ago. These organisms depend on the expenditure of energy.
probably fed on molecules in a sort of ‘soup’ (called the primordial In this book we shall see:
soup) which made up some of the shallow seas on the Earth at that
■ how energy is released from food molecules and trapped in a usable form
time. A question that has always intrigued scientists, philosophers
■ how molecules are organised into the structures of living organisms
and religious leaders is:
■ how living organisms use energy to drive their life processes.
What distinguishes these first living organisms from the molecules
in the primordial soup? 1. Nutrition: the taking in of
In other words, what is life? materials for energy, growth and
development. Plants require light,
Characteristics of living organisms carbon dioxide, water and ions and 5
You know that a horse is alive, but a steel girder is not. However, it is make their foods using the process of 6
2
not always so obvious whether something is alive or not – is a dried- photosynthesis. Animals require 1 4
out seed or a virus particle living or non-living? To try to answer organic compounds and ions (and
questions like this, biologists use a list of characteristics that living usually water) and obtain their foods
3
organisms show. ‘ready made’ by eating them.

Living organisms: 2. Growth and development: the

■ Respire processes by which an organism
■ Show irritability (sensitivity to their environment) and movement changes in size and in form. For
■ Nourish themselves example, as a young animal increases
in size (as it grows), the relative sizes 4. Reproduction: the processes 5. Respiration: the 6. Irritability (or
■ Grow and develop
of its body parts change (it develops). that make more of the same kind chemical reactions that break sensitivity): the ability to
■ Excrete
Growth is a permanent increase in of organism – new individuals. down nutrient molecules in detect or sense changes in the
■ Reproduce An organism may simply split living cells to release energy internal or external
size and dry mass, and results from
The opposite page gives more details of the characteristics of life. an increase in cell number or cell size into two, or reproduction may be for metabolism. The form of environment and to make
You may see other similar lists of these characteristics using slightly or both. a more complex process respiration that releases the appropriate responses. The
involving fertilisation. most energy uses oxygen. changes are called stimuli and
different words. You can remember this particular list using the word
3. Excretion: removal from Reproduction makes new Many organisms have the responses often involve
RINGER. It gives Ringer’s solution its name. This is a solution of
organisms of toxic materials, the organisms of the same species as gaseous exchange systems movement (an action by an
ions and molecules that physiologists use to keep living tissues in – it
waste products of metabolism the parents. This depends on a that supply their cells with organism or part of an
keeps the cells alive. set of chemical plans (the genetic oxygen from their organism causing a change of
(chemical reactions in cells including
As well as the characteristics in the ‘ringer’ list, living things have a respiration) and substances in excess information) contained within environment. position or place).
complex organisation that is not found in the non-living world. A of requirements. each living organism.
snowflake or a crystal of quartz is an organised collection of identical
molecules, but even the simplest living cell contains many different
complex substances arranged in very specific structures.
Q
1 Approximately how many years passed between the formation of the Earth and the appearance of the first living organisms?
Living things also show variation – the offspring are often different 2 What sort of molecules do you think might have been present in the primordial soup?
from one another and from their parents. This is important in 3 RINGER is a word that helps people remember the characteristics of living organisms. Think of your own word to help
adaptation to the environment and in the process of evolution. you remember these characteristics.
4 Suggest two ways in which reproduction is essential to living organisms.

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1.2 The variety of life This kind of key, with only two answers to
each question (in this case, YES or NO), is
called a dichotomous key (‘dichotomous’ All living organisms
means branching). It can be written as a
branching or spider key, using the same The five kingdoms
OBJECTIVES The need to classify living things questions: Prokaryote
Protoctistans
Variation and natural selection lead to evolution. Evolution, and the
■ To know that organisms can Plants
isolation of populations, leads to the development of new species Fungi
be classified into groups by the 1 Does the organism have cells with a definite nucleus?
(see page 238). Each species has different characteristics, and some Animals
features that they share
■ To appreciate why classification of these characteristics can be inherited by successive generations YES NO
is necessary of this species. Observing these inherited characteristics allows
■ To understand the use of a key scientists to put all living organisms into categories. The science of
■ To be able to name the five placing organisms into categories on the basis of their observable 2 Is the organism made up of many different cells?
kingdoms, and describe their characteristics is called classification. There are so many different It is a prokaryote
types of living organism (i.e. an enormous variety of life) that the study NO YES
distinguishing characteristics
■ To understand the hierarchy of of these organisms would be impossible without an ordered way of
classification classifying them.
3 Is the organism a heterotroph?
To know why a binomial system of
E For example, classification is important in
■
It is a protoctistan
nomenclature is valuable ■ Conservation: scientists need to be able to identify different YES NO
organisms in habitats which are being managed, and they need to
Branching keys are easy to use, but
control which organisms are used in breeding programmes take up a lot of space when fully
4 Does the organism have cell walls and
■ understanding evolutionary relationships: organisms which does it feed by external digestion?
drawn out. For this reason the listed
form of a dichotomous key like the
have many of the same features are normally descended from It is a plant one shown opposite is usually used
common ancestors. The more features shared by different YES NO for identification of organisms outside
the laboratory.
organisms, the more recently they separated from one another
during evolution.
It is a fungus It is an animal
Classification keys
Taxonomists (people who study classification) place organisms into
groups by asking questions about their characteristics, such as ‘Does Five kingdoms
the organism photosynthesise?’ or ‘Does the organism contain many Using the key above, it is possible to place any living organism into
cells?’. A series of questions like this is called a classification key. one of five very large groups. These groups, distinguished from one
Examples of such keys are shown below and on the opposite page. another by obvious characteristics of morphology and anatomy,
E The characteristics of living organisms used to make classification are called the five kingdoms. Each of these kingdoms contains an
keys have traditionally been based on morphology and anatomy enormous number of different species, and keys can be used within
(the shape and structure of organisms) because this was what the a kingdom to place any individual species into further groups. The
scientists could easily observe and measure. diagram on the next page shows the names of these groups, and how
YES Go to question 2
the lion is classified within the Animal Kingdom.
1 Does the organism have cells with a definite nucleus?
NO It is a prokaryote
Hierarchy of classification*
YES Go to question 3
2 Is the organism made up of many different cells? The sequence of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and
NO It is a protoctistan
YES Go to question 4 species is called a hierarchy of classification.
3 Is the organism a heterotroph?
NO It is a plant Notice that each classification group is given a name. Lions belong
4 Does the organism have cell walls and does it feed by YES It is a fungus to the class Mammalia and the order Carnivora, for example. The
external digestion? NO It is an animal
final two group names are written in italics – this is a worldwide
▲  A key may be used to place an organism in one of the five kingdoms convention amongst scientists. The lion is called simba in Swahili,

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león in Spanish and leu in Romanian but is known as Panthera leo

to scientists in each of these countries. This convention of giving Q
organisms a two-part name made up of their genus and species was 1 State which of the following is the best definition 5 The scientific name for the human is Homo sapiens. State
of classification. the meaning of this name.
introduced by the Swedish biologist Carolus Linnaeus. He gave
a Giving every organism a name 6 The table below lists some of the characteristics of living
every organism known to science a two-part name based entirely
b Arranging organisms into groups organisms.
on the body structure of the organism. This binomial system of
c Describing the external features of organisms a Match each characteristic with its definition. Write the
nomenclature is still in use today (binomial 5 ‘two name’). d Identifying all living organisms letter and number to show your answer, for example,
E New species today may be classified based on characteristics such 2 State which of the following is the correct binomial name a–4.
as protein structure, chromosome number or gene (DNA or RNA) for the English oak (a species of oak tree).
Characteristic Definition
sequence, which Linnaeus knew nothing about. Each organism, even a Quercus robur
b Quercus Robur a excretion 1 the ability to detect changes in the
each individual, has its own DNA profile. Scientists can compare the
environment
DNA profiles of different species. c quercus robur
d QUERCUS ROBUR b nutrition 2 processes that make more of the same
organism
E How this helps in classification 3 Arrange these classification groups in order of size (from
c sensitivity 3 removal of the waste products of
■ Protein structure: organisms which are closely related (share a the largest to the smallest):
metabolism
more recent ancestor) have very similar amino acid sequences in class, family, genus, kingdom, order, phylum, species.
4 The scientific names for the weasel and mink are Mustela d reproduction 4 taking into the body of materials for
proteins such as haemoglobin. energy, growth and development
nivalis and Mustela vison, respectively. Both of these
animals belong to the order Carnivora, as do the fox b Suggest why many biologists believe that respiration is
Organisms that are closely related have very similar DNA profiles – humans and
chimpanzees, for example, share 98.6% of their genes! (Vulpes vulpes) and otter (Lutra lutra). The otter, mink the most significant characteristic of a living organism.
and weasel all belong to the family Mustelidae.
a Which feature must they have in common to belong
■ DNA structure: closely related organisms have very similar base to the order Carnivora?
sequences in DNA (see page 214) because there has been less b Which two animals are most closely related?
‘evolutionary time’ for mutation to change these base sequences. c Which animal is the most different from the other
three?
Kingdom (Animalia) All animals are ingestive d Suggest one feature that places all of these organisms
On moving down the heterotophs.
hierarchy of groups, in the Animal Kingdom.
note that there are ... Phylum (Chordata) Other phyla
All chordates have a
notochord (becomes the
Class (Mammalia) Other classes backbone).
MAKING A KEY – INVESTIGATION
More similarities
All mammals have fur and
and Order (Carnivora) Other orders For example:
mammary glands.
fewer differences
Branching key
between the members All objects
Family (Felidae) Other families All carnivores have well
developed carnassial
(flesh-cutting) teeth.
Genus (Panthera) Other genera
All Felidae have
Species Other species retractable claws.
Panthera leo
All Panthera (big cats)
can roar but cannot purr. With threads Without threads

■ Repeat this branching process until you have separated all

All lions belong to the same
the objects on the basis of some observable external
species. Members of the
same species can mate and characteristic.
produce fertile offspring ■ Remove all the objects and ask one of your classmates to
with other members of the use the key to identify one of the objects (you choose
same species.
Examine the collection of objects.
■ Choose a feature that allows you to divide the group into
which one they should try to identify).
two approximately equal-sized subgroups.
■ Draw a ‘branch/fork’ and use the feature that you have
▲  The hierarchical classification of the lion chosen to place each object into one of the two groups.

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1.3 Fungi
OBJECTIVES Fungal cells have a common structure
The fungi are a very large group of organisms. They range in size from
■ To know the structure of a fungus
single-celled yeasts to enormous fungi whose underground parts may
■ To understand the methods of
occupy an area greater than a football or hockey field. One section of the
nutrition used by fungi Cross wall hypha may contain
■ To understand the use of spores in Fungal cells have a cell wall made of a mixture of substances several nuclei.
fungal reproduction including chitin. The cytoplasm contains many organelles including
Cell wall
■ To appreciate the impact of fungi nuclei, ribosomes and mitochondria (see page 24), because the fungus Vacuole

on the lives of humans manufactures digestive enzymes. It feeds by saprotrophic (‘dead- Hypha Cytoplasm may
release digestive
feeding’) nutrition, as illustrated below. enzymes.
The mycelium is made up of
Reproduction in fungi branching hyphae, and Insoluble
Digestive Soluble
penetrates throughout the food compounds
Single-celled yeasts reproduce asexually by binary fission, but all source. The food may be the in food
products of
remains of an animal or plant. source enzymes digestion
other fungi reproduce by the production of spores. absorbed by
fungus by
Requirements of fungi diffusion or
active transport
Fungi have very similar requirements to those of bacteria, that is:
■ a moist environment, so that they can absorb the soluble products
of digestion of their food source in solution ▲  Saprotrophic nutrition involves external digestion by enzymes
■ a warm environment, so that enzymes can work at their optimum
temperature
■ a nutrient source to provide the raw materials and energy required
for growth.
Fungi do not require light because they do not rely on photosynthesis
for the production of food compounds. This means that fungi are
rarely found in light environments, because such environments are
usually too warm and dry for fungal growth.

The importance of fungi

Fungi have a number of effects on the lives of humans. For example:
■ they are decomposers, and play a vital role in nutrient cycles (see
page 254)
■ mould fungi consume food which might otherwise be eaten by
humans (see page 254)
■ fungi may be agents of disease, as in athlete’s foot, for example (see
page 112)
■ they may themselves be a source of food, for example, mushrooms
■ fungi are used in biotechnology – the brewing and baking industries
(see page 276) are entirely dependent on the activities of yeast,
for example.

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1.4 Plants: the plant kingdom E Angiosperm features adapt them for life on dry land

Flowers – the colour, pattern, shape, scent The ovary protects the ovules and developing
or nectar of the flower can attract insects, embryo, particularly from drying out.
birds or mammals. (‘Angiosperm’ means ‘enclosed seed’.)
OBJECTIVES
■ To recall that all plants are autotrophs, and are
E Ferns
Ferns are much better adapted to life on land than
able to absorb light energy to drive photosynthesis
either mosses or algae. They have roots, stems,
■ To understand some of the steps in the adaptation of Large leaf surface allows high Fruits are formed from ripened ovaries.
plants to life on dry land complex leaves and vascular tissues. They are able rate of photosynthesis to supply Their specialised shapes, colours, smells and textures aid
to produce spores for wide dispersal. However, energy for growth and fruit seed dispersal by wind, water and animals.
■ To recall the characteristics of two main plant groups production. However, water losses
they do not have very thick cuticles and can only
by evaporation and diffusion
survive in shady, humid areas. The gametes of through stomata are high.
Plants are autotrophs ferns, like those of mosses, must swim through a
As autotrophs, plants manufacture food molecules film of moisture to reach the site of fertilisation.
Stomata with guard cells regulate loss of water vapour
from simple, inorganic sources by the process of An example of a fern is described below. and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
photosynthesis using light as a source of energy. plant and atmosphere.
Plants all contain the light-absorbing pigment Angiosperms
chlorophyll (or similar molecules which perform The angiosperms or flowering plants are the most
the same function) inside cells which have a successful of plants – they have evolved into many Vascular system transports water, ions and organic solutes.
definite cellulose cell wall. species and have colonised almost every available
habitat. More than 80% of all plants are angiosperms Extensive root systems anchor the shoot systems and
Adaptations to life on land (plants with enclosed seeds). Many features of the absorb water and ions.
The first plants lived in water, but as living lives of flowering plants are covered elsewhere in
organisms evolved, plant forms developed that this book (see pages 46–59, 86–93, 170–173 and
could live on land. The classification of plants into 178–187, for example). The diagram at the top of
groups follows this sequence of evolution. the opposite page summarises these features, and
Monocotyledons and dicotyledons (eudicotyledons) – two groups of angiosperms (flowering plants)
The Plant Kingdom may be divided into three emphasises the adaptations of flowering plants to a
main groups (phyla): mosses, ferns and seed successful life on land, including warmer habitats.
plants. Seed Seedling Mature leaf
Two groups of angiosperms
Mosses cannot grow far away from water, but ferns One seed
There are two major subgroups within the leaf
and flowering plants (angiosperms) are much better angiosperms. In one group, there is a single Monocotyledon e.g. maize One Parallel
adapted to life on land. cotyledon in the seed (see page 185) – these are the cotyledon veins

monocotyledons. In the other group,

These sporangia have been used as
a medicine to cause violent peristalsis
there are two cotyledons – these are
in humans – this is one way to Groups of the dicotyledons (eudicotyledons).
remove tapeworms from the gut! sporangia which There are other differences between
produce and Dicotyledon (eudicotyledon) Two Two seed Branched
monocotyledons and dicotyledons, e.g. pea cotyledons leaves veins
release spores.
as shown in the diagram on the
next page.
Frond – a complex
leaf, with conducting
tubes.

Stem contains phloem

and xylem, though the Q
tubes are short without 1 In what ways are ferns well adapted to life on land?
Young fronds are open ends. 2 Seed plants are well adapted to live and to reproduce in dry environments.
always rolled up.
What major adaptation allows reproduction on dry land?

Simple, true roots Rhizome – underground

for anchorage and stem that can survive
absorption. when fronds die.
▲  Each brown patch on the underside
▲  Ferns have complex leaves, vascular tissues and true roots. They reproduce by of the leaf is made up of many sporangia,
10 producing spores. which produce and release spores 11
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1.5 Invertebrate animals Insects

e.g. blowfly, mosquito
The body is segmented, with the
OBJECTIVES Crustacea segments grouped into The pupa is formed when the
head,  thorax    and    abdomen.
Crabs are slightly unusual because many of their larva moults (sheds its skin).
■ To know the difference between a vertebrate The pupa has a hard outer case
segments are tucked under their body. Hatching
animal and an invertebrate animal inside which the tissues of the
■ To be able to distinguish between different classes Hardened, serrated edge to claw: larva are reorganised into
of arthropods can hold onto slippery food, and Compound eyes adult tissues.
break open shells of molluscs.
■ To understand the importance of metamorphosis
Two pairs of wings
in insects
(rear set may be absent
Jointed limbs: flexible Eyes: important Antennae: or not used for flying).
to help with feeding. sensors in aquatic sense
Vertebrates and invertebrates environment. chemicals The adult blowfly is
The maggot (fly larva)
in the highly adapted for
All animals share one characteristic – they feed environment. is highly adapted for
locomotion (aids dispersal)
on organic molecules (see page 36). Members of and reproduction.
feeding, but has no
the Animal Kingdom can be divided into two large wings or legs, and no
Mouthparts: Sexual reproductive organs.
groups based on whether they have a backbone as very specialised reproduction
part of a bony skeleton. Animals with a backbone for feeding The egg is the product
e.g. piercing by of sexual reproduction
are called vertebrates and those without a mosquitoes.
and is laid on decaying
backbone are called invertebrates.
material which will be a
Arthropods food source for the larva.
Carapace: a thick, Three pairs of legs,
The arthropods are the most numerous of all Gills under shell: hardened shell for Metamorphosis (means ‘change of body form’) allows different
attached to the thorax
animals, both in terms of the number of different allow uptake of protection against stages which:
species and the number of individuals in any one oxygen from water. predators.
do not compete for the same food sources
species. The insects are arthropods that show an can be highly specialised for different functions. The larva
interesting adaptation in their life cycle called is adapted for feeding and growth, and the adult for
Myriapods locomotion and reproduction.
metamorphosis that allows them to use the
resources of their habitat to the maximum. Antennae: these are important Mouthparts: have hard
sense organs in the edges for biting vegetation
Apart from insects, the arthropod phylum millipedes’ dark, damp (millipedes) or other
includes three other classes – arachnids (spiders,
for example), crustaceans (crabs, for example)
environment. animals (centipedes).
Arachnids Q
1 Copy and complete the following paragraph.
and myriapods (millipedes and centipedes). The Head and thorax are combined into Powerful, piercing jaws
All animals have one common characteristic –  .
one body part. – all spiders are predators.
diagrams on the opposite page compare insects The invertebrates are animals that do not have .
and spiders. Amongst the arthropods, insects and and are the most numerous of all animals.
Simple eyes (but more than one
spiders are sometimes confused with one another. Many body segments: Hard exoskeleton:
pair) help to detect prey.
2 The arthropods include four classes – insects,
The table below highlights the differences. body is flexible for protection against arachnids, crustaceans and myriapods.
predators. Four pairs of legs allow chasing prey or
movement and a List three features that all of these classes possess.
holding onto web.
Insects Spiders wriggling around b List three features that only insects possess.
and under leaves Walking legs: allow
Body sections 3 2 c Compare insects and spiders under the headings
and stones. movement over rough Abdomen
Legs 3 pairs 4 pairs ‘Number of legs’, ‘Number of body sections’,
surfaces.
Number of wings’ and ‘Type of eyes’.
Wings Usually 2 pairs None Spinneret which produces
long, thin strands of silk. 3 Insects are the most abundant of all animals on land.
Eyes Compound Simple
(The word arachnid comes Many of them show an adaptation called complete
Body covering: waterproof, from the Greek goddess Spider silk is so strong and thin that it metamorphosis. What does this term mean, and
helping animal to live on land. Arachne who was skilled has been used to make the cross hairs in how does it help to explain why there are so many
at spinning.) the telescopic sights of rifles. insect species?

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1.6 Vertebrate animals: five classes Reptiles

Dry, scaly skin –
limits water loss.
Tail can be used
for swimming,
Fish as in crocodiles.
OBJECTIVES
Scales Lateral line contains sense
■ To know the characteristics of the vertebrates Limbs efficient
covered in mucus help organs to detect vibration.
■ To understand how different classes of vertebrates show streamlining for for crawling
swimming. and climbing.
increasing adaptation to dry land
■ To know the five classes of vertebrate, and to provide Mouth has teeth or
examples of each bony ridges
to aid feeding. ▲ The crocodile has the typical dry scaly skin of reptiles.
The eyes on the top of its head and its sharp, pointed teeth
If asked to name an animal, most people would adapt it for catching prey in water.
probably name a mammal because these are the Operculum covering gills; gills
most familiar animals to us. Mammals are just have a large surface area for gas Fins for movement and
exchange. stability.
one class of the phylum Chordata. The chordates
are often called the vertebrates, although strictly
Amphibians
speaking there are a few chordates that are not
vertebrates. Vertebrates have a hard, usually bony, Nostrils leading
to lungs which
internal skeleton with a backbone. The backbone are used for
is made up of separate bones called vertebrae, gas exchange.
which allow these animals to move with Moist skin
(also used for Birds
great ease. gas exchange).
Forelimbs are Nostril, leading to lungs, which ▲  The heron has typical bird features of feathers and a
There are five classes of vertebrates, which, like Wide mouth as
modified as wings. are the organs of gas exchange.
adult amphibians beak. It is well adapted to capture fish and frogs as it has
the members of the Plant Kingdom, show gradual are all carnivorous. Four limbs, large eyes to spot its prey, a long pointed beak to grab its
adaptations to life on land. The classes are fish, with hind prey and large feet for walking over soft, muddy ground.
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. limbs webbed:
for walking and
Mammals are endothermic vertebrates that have
swimming.
Vertebrates the characteristics shown in the diagram below.
Beak – very light
All have a backbone because no bone A wide range of adaptations has allowed mammals
Feathers, vital for flight
and for endothermy or teeth. to colonise habitats as diverse as the polar wastes
(they give excellent and the Arabian desert.
insulation against
Do they have smooth skin? heat loss). Humans are mammals
Scales on legs – feet ideal Humans show the typical mammalian
for perching.
YES NO characteristics of hair, mammary glands and a
Mammals diaphragm, for example. Humans, though, are
Fish, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals Pinna on ear – can be moved Whiskers are unique amongst all animals in that the adaptations
for maximum efficiency in sensitive to touch
sound detection. and vibration. they show allow them to modify their environment
Scales on skin? so that it is suitable for human occupation.
As a result, humans have been able to live and
Amphibians Fur – body
YES NO
covering which work in many habitats – no animal has a wider
allows range. Human adaptation has allowed advanced
Vertebrates can Fish, Reptiles Birds, Mammals endothermy as
a means of development of the brain, and of all the complex
be separated into
classes based on keeping a activities that the brain can coordinate. The
their skin! constant body
Are scales dry? Feathers on skin?
temperature.
human brain is extremely sensitive to changes in
Mouth – contains teeth temperature. Human adaptations include many
YES NO YES NO which allow mammals to that are concerned with the fine regulation of
use a wide variety of foods
(page 62). blood temperature (see page 146). Another feature
that makes humans very special mammals is an
Reptiles Fish Birds Mammals
Penis – an organ of the male that upright posture, freeing the hands for complex
enables efficient internal fertilisation. movements including the use of tools.
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1.7 Protoctists and prokaryotes: E Bacterial way of life

Bacteria are examples of prokaryotes.

often single celled Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are single-celled organisms that
have no true nucleus. Bacterial cells do not contain organelles like
those found in typical animal and plant cells (see page 23), but are
OBJECTIVES Protoctists able to carry out all of their life processes without them. A few can
This is a kingdom with many members of different types. They photosynthesise, but most feed off other organisms. They may be
■ To know the structure of a
are placed in the Protoctistans Kingdom because they do not fit parasites, feeding off living organisms, or saprotrophs, feeding off
protoctist
anywhere else! All protoctists have cells with nuclei and may have dead organisms.
■ To know the structure of a
other organelles such as chloroplasts. Many are unicellular and some Bacteria are very small, usually about 1–2 m in length, and so are
bacterial cell, an example of a
prokaryote are multicellular. Some feed like animals, others can photosynthesise only visible using a high-powered microscope. The structure of a
and there are even some, like Euglena, which can do both. Unicellular typical bacterium is shown in the diagram below.
■ To know the difference between a
protoctist and a prokaryote protoctists include Plasmodium, which is the parasitic organism that
Bacteria exist in a number of different shapes, some of which are
causes malaria. Algae are classified as protoctists; they vary in size
shown opposite. Shape can be used to classify bacteria.
from tiny unicellular organisms to giant seaweeds.
An understanding of bacterial structure and metabolism is very
important in genetic engineering and biotechnology (see page 268).
Tips!
Remember: if a unicellular organism has
a nucleus, then it is a protoctist and not
a prokaryote. Cocci (singular
coccus) are
spherical
bacteria.
Staphylococcus Pneumococcus
(causes boils) (pneumonia)

Glycogen grains
may be a food store.

Cytoplasm contains enzymes and Slime coat is present

Bacilli (singular
food molecules but no organelles. in some species.
bacillus) are rod-
shaped bacteria.
0.1 µm
Lactobacillus Salmonella typhi
Cell wall does not
contain cellulose. (sours milk) (typhoid)
▲  Paramecium

Cell membrane

Spirilli (singular
Flagella – may be Main DNA strand Plasmids are small spirillum) are
one (flagellum) is not contained rings of DNA, spiral bacteria.
or several, which inside a nucleus. carrying only a
beat to move few genes. Treponema Vibrio
bacterium.
(syphilis) (cholera)
▲  Bacteria have a cell wall but do not have a nucleus ▲  Bacterial shapes
or organelles

▲  Euglena

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1.8 Viruses Questions on characteristics and

OBJECTIVES Viruses classification
When the five-kingdom system of classification was devised, no
■ To know the structure of a virus
one was able to find a place for the group of organisms called the 1 Butterflies are insects for which of the 4 The table below lists some of the characteristics
■ To know that viruses can only live
viruses. This is because viruses do not show the typical features following reasons? of groups of living organisms.
and reproduce inside the cells of
of living things – respiration, nutrition and reproduction, for A Because they lay eggs a Match each description with its
another living organism
example – unless they are inside the cells of another living organism. B Because they can fly classification group. Write the letter and
■ To know the differences between
In other words, all viruses are parasites and therefore cause harm to C Because they have three main body parts number to show your answer, for example,
bacteria and viruses
their host. Some taxonomists have suggested that viruses belong in a D Because they feed on nectar [1] a–4.
sixth kingdom. There is great variation in the structure of viruses, but
they all have certain common features. The structure of a typical virus Group Description of characteristics
2 An eagle is a bird for which of the following
is shown below. a spider 1 cells with a definite cell wall but no chlorophyll
reasons?
b insect 2 produces spores and cells contain chlorophyll
Most viruses cause disease – they may infect humans, domestic A Because it has scales
B Because it has a beak c fungus 3 two body parts and eight jointed legs
animals or plants. The virus COVID-19 is responsible for a severe
respiratory illness. The virus is called a coronavirus because when C Because it can fly d fern 4 body is made of a single cell, with a clear
nucleus and cytoplasm
viewed under the electron microscope the spikes which stick out from D Because it feeds on other birds [1]
e protoctist 5 three body parts and six jointed legs
the protein coat look like a crown (corona = crown in Latin).
3 Fungi are not included in the Plant Kingdom [4]
Genetic material – may be for which of the following reasons? a i State one way in which a bacterium
DNA or RNA, but always a differs from all of the above organisms.
single strand.
A Because they do not reproduce
B Because they do not respire [1]
C Because they do not photosynthesise ii State one way in which a virus differs
D Because they do not excrete [1] from a bacterium. [1]

5 Use the key to identify the five fish shown in the drawings. Write
down the letter of each fish and its name.
Protein coat – protects the [4]
single strand of nucleic acid.
Made of many subunits.

Key
Key
1. One dorsal fin 2
Spikes – may contact and 1. One dorsal fin 2
recognise the cell to be B Two dorsal
Two dorsal fins fins 4 4
infected. 2. Barbels
2. Barbels 3 3
▲  A typical virus has genetic material and a protein coat, A C (fleshy extensions)
(fleshy extensions at
but cannot carry out its life processes. It has no cytoplasm. at corners of mouth
corners of mouth)
No barbels at corners Phoxinus
Dorsal fins
It is important not to confuse viruses with bacteria. The structure of
of mouth
No barbels at Phoxinusphoxinus
3. Four
corners of barbels
mouth phoxinusBarbus barbus
bacteria and their importance to humans are described on page 268.
3. Four Six barbels
barbels Noemacheilus
Barbus barbus
barbatulus
4. More than 10 bony rays Thymallus
thymallus
in first dorsal fin Barbatula
Six barbels
barbatula
10 or fewer bony rays in Osmerus
E
D first dorsal fin eperlanus
4 More than 10 bony Thymallus
Barbel rays in first dorsal fin thymallus

10 or fewer bony Osmerus

rays in first dorsal fin eperlanus

18 19
20
Specimen 5
Specimen 1

five seaweeds.
present in any of the others.
6 The figure shows five different seaweeds.

key which can be used to distinguish between the

b Use your answers to part a to construct a dichotomous
a Describe ONE feature of EACH seaweed which is NOT

[4]
[5]
Specimen 4
Specimen 3
Specimen 2
C H A R AC T E R I S T I C S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F L I V I N G O R G A N I S M S

[4]

Keys and classification

LIVING ORGANISMS A key enables identification of an organism by
* indicates the FIVE KINGDOMS observation of its characteristics. Close observation
1 allows a series of questions (the branch points in
this key) to be answered, eventually leading to
Made up of Made up of the organism being studied.
single cells many cells
2 3

Cells have an
Cells have Cells have Cells have
obvious cell wall
no obvious an obvious no cell wall
12
nucleus nucleus ANIMALS*
Cells contain chlorophyll in Cells do not contain
PROKARYOTE* PROTOCTISTANS* chloroplasts (so organism chlorophyll (so organism
e.g. Salmonella e.g. Plasmodium feeds by photosynthesis) feeds by absorption)
PLANTS*
FUNGI* e.g.
bread mould
4 13
6 7
Organism has Segmented body Soft body with Organism has No separate Stem, leaves Stem, leaves
hard exoskeleton, with chaetae no limbs – covered internal skeleton, root, stem but no roots and roots
jointed limbs, (bristles) by shell non-segmented body and leaves
segmented body VERTEBRATES MOSSES
ARTHROPODS ANNELIDS MOLLUSCS ALGAE
e.g. earthworm e.g. snail 14

Spores Seeds
5 8 produced produced

FERNS SEED PLANTS

Three body Two pairs of Two body No covering on Skin covering
segments (head, antennae segments (head– skin (smooth, e.g. oak tree
thorax, abdomen) thorax, abdomen) moist skin)
Three pairs of legs Four pairs of legs
Two pairs of wings No wings AMPHIBIANS 9
Antennae e.g. frog
Scales on skin No scales on skin
INSECTS CRUSTACEANS SPIDERS
10 11
e.g. mosquito e.g. crab e.g. tarantula
Dry skin Moist
(mucus-covered skin) Feathers Fur/hair
REPTILE Gills Beak Mammary glands
e.g. lizard Fins Wings
MAMMAL
FISH BIRD e.g. human
e.g. stickleback e.g. thrush
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2.1 Organisms are made up of cells Secretory vesicles

containing cell products
such as hormones or
Cytoplasm of animal cells
is often denser, with many
more organelles and
Vacuoles are small
and temporary. They can
be involved with digestion
Glycogen is the
storage form
of carbohydrates.
enzymes are much dissolved substances. (e.g. in phagocytes)
more common in or with excretion
OBJECTIVES animal cells. (contractile vacuoles may

■ To know that the basic unit of living organisms The light microscope
i remove excess water).

is the cell Cells are too small to see with the naked eye so a
■ To know that all cells have certain features in common, microscope is used to study them. Visible light passes The absence of the
but that there are differences between plant and through a suitable specimen, and a series of lenses cellulose wall means
animal cells magnify the image that is formed. A light microscope that animal cells may be
can give a useful magnification of about 400 times, Animal cell features very irregular in shape.
■ To understand that the study of cells requires the use of
often relate to heterotrophic The amount of cytoplasm
a microscope which means the image seen is actually 400 times larger
nutrition and high rates that can be controlled by
than the specimen. The contrast between different of metabolic activity the nucleus is limited,
structures in the image can be improved by using dyes (e.g. liver cell). so that animal cells may
All living organisms are made up of units called or stains. The nucleus of an animal cell, for example, be quite small – about
shows up particularly well when stained with a dye 25 µm in diameter.
cells. Although cells may take on very specialised
called methylene blue, and plant cells often show up
functions, they have certain common features.
better when stained with iodine solution.
These are shown on the opposite page. Both
animal and plant cells have a cell surface Image viewed here
membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus. These
three features can be seen on the photograph of Series of lenses which Plant and animal cells Cell surface membrane Nucleus contains the
magnify and sharpen have common features surrounds the cytoplasm. genetic material (DNA which
a liver cell below. In addition, plant cells have
the image which relate to maintaining It controls the entry and exit makes up genes on the
a cellulose cell wall, a vacuole and may have the characteristics of life. of dissolved substances and chromosomes). This carries
chloroplasts. These features can be seen on the separates the cell’s contents the coded instructions for
from its surroundings. controlling the activities and
photograph of the palisade cell below. characteristics of the cell.
Specimen (living or
prepared) on thin The chromosomes only become
glass slide visible during cell division.

Source of visible light

A typical animal cell is about one-fortieth of a

millimetre in diameter. This is rather a clumsy term,
so scientists use smaller units: one metre (m) contains Plant cell features
1000 millimetres (mm), and one millimetre contains often relate to
1000  micrometres  (µm). So a typical animal cell autotrophic nutrition. The presence of the
▲  A cell from the inside of ▲  A palisade cell from a (e.g. palisade cell of leaf). cellulose cell wall means
is about 25 µm in diameter.
the liver, viewed using leaf, viewed using a that plant cells tend to be
a light microscope light microscope regular in shape.
The presence of the vacuole
(magnified  1500 times) (magnified  500 times) means that plant cells
Cytoplasm contains water
and dissolved substances may be quite large –
The size of a structure or an organism is measured in units of length (such as mm or m). When a diagram is made, or a photograph such as sugars and salts. often 60 µm (or 0.06 mm)
taken, it may not be easy to directly show the correct size – for example, when a structure is extremely small or very large. The correct (or in diameter.
true) size of an organism can be calculated using a combination of actual measurement and a known magnification.
Measured length For example, look at this poppy seed.
Magnification  _________________
Actual length
Measured length Mag  50
or Actual (true) length  _________________ 5 1
Actual length  ___  ___  0.1 mm Chloroplasts contain Large permanent vacuole Starch (in the cytoplasm
Magnification 50 10 Cellulose cell wall
the pigment chlorophyll contains water necessary or the chloroplasts) provides structural support
We can also use a scale line to work out magnification
Tips! (for light absorption) and to provide turgor pressure is the storage form (pressure of cell contents leads
the enzymes necessary and may store ions of carbohydrates. to turgidity) and protects against
1 Make sure that measured and actual lengths are given for the production of and molecules. damage caused by osmotic
in the same units. glucose by photosynthesis. intake of water. The cell wall is
1 mm 2 To help remember the formula: freely permeable to water
Measured and dissolved substances.
Magnification  _________
Measured 10 Actual
Magnification  __________  ___   10 3 Core students can use millimetres as a unit. Extended ▲  The features of plant and animal cells allow these cells to carry out the basic processes
Actual 1
students may need to use millimetres and micrometres. of life. The differences between plant and animal cells are due to the differences in
▲  Calculating magnification and size
lifestyle between animals and plants, especially to their different methods of nutrition.
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Structures within the cytoplasm Cell investigations

Some organelles are so small that they cannot be seen clearly using
a light microscope. However, an electron microscope is capable of 1 LOOKING AT CELLS
showing these minute structures, including mitochondria and rough
Plant cells
endoplasmic reticulum. An onion cut in half
1 Use a razor to cut a small piece out of an
onion leaf. Use forceps to peel skin off the Brown outer
scale leaf
inner surface of the leaf. Put the skin into a
Petri dish of water. Inner fleshy
food-storage
2 Put a drop of iodine solution onto a slide. Put leaves
a small piece of the onion skin (less than 5 Transparent skin
mm) into the solution and smooth it out so from kidney surface
there are no folds. Lower a coverslip over it,
taking care not to trap any bubbles. Prepare
another slide in the same way but using water
instead of the iodine solution.
Kidney
3 Study the stained onion cells under the low,
medium and high power of a microscope,
then look at unstained cells. What parts of the
cell have become stained? Skin pulled Forceps
from inner
Animal cells surface of leaf
4 Use a razor and forceps to peel pieces of
transparent skin off the outside of a kidney. Make a slide of the skin in water, and another in iodine.
5 Study stained and unstained cells. How are they different?
6 Draw plant and animal cells and list their similarities and differences.

▲  Animal cell viewed through an electron microscope 2 MEASURING CELLS

Measuring a field of view

1 Place a clear plastic ruler under a microscope and focus on
it with low power magnification. How many millimetres
wide is the field of view?
2 Remember: 1 mm = 1000 µm. Convert your field of view to
micrometres (µm).

Measuring onion cells

3 Prepare a slide of onion cells. Look at the slide under low
power magnification. How many cells fit across the field of
Cell
view? In the drawing, four and a half cells fill a field of view
2200 µm wide. What is the average length of each cell?
4 What is the average length (in µm) of onion cells in your
slide? Turn the slide around and calculate the average width 1 2 3 4 ½
Ruler
of the cells.
▲  Rough endoplasmic reticulum ▲  Mitochondrion
5 You now know the length in µm of one onion cell. Use this
Rough endoplasmic reticulum is made up of Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is made up Millimetre marks
information, and your onion slide, to calculate the field of
flattened membranes with ribosomes on their of membranes which provide a large surface area vision in µm under medium and high power magnification.
surface. These are the sites of protein synthesis (see for some of the reactions of aerobic respiration. This
page 214) and so are common in cells which make process releases energy needed to perform work in
many proteins (liver cells, for example). the cell (see page 123). The mitochondria are like Hazard warning
powerhouses, and there are many of them in cells that Razors (and scalpels) are sharp, handle with care.
require a lot of energy. Muscle cells, nerve cells and
cells in the liver have many mitochondria.

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2.2 The organisation of living Specialised cells combine to form

tissues …
organisms Cells with similar structures and functions are
massed together in tissues. Some plant and
animal tissues are shown in the tables below.
OBJECTIVES Animal tissue Main functions Plant tissue Main functions
■ To understand that the body of a living organism Specialised cells Epithelium Lines tubes such as the gut and covers Epidermis Protects against water loss, and may
is a highly organised structure Large organisms are multicellular – they are surfaces such as the skin be involved in absorption of water
made up of many cells. Different types of cell Connective tissue Binds and strengthens other tissues, such and ions
■ To understand that cells, tissues, organs and systems
represent increasing degrees of organisation in living have particular structures designed to help them as tendons Mesophyll Photosynthesis
organisms carry out different tasks and functions – they have Blood Transports substances around the body, Parenchyma Fills spaces between other plant
and defends against disease tissues and may be involved in
become specialised. Some examples of specialised
Skeletal tissue Supports and protects softer tissues, and storage, as in the potato tuber
cells, and their functions, are shown in the table.
allows movement Vascular tissue Transports materials through the
Nervous tissue Sets up nerve impulses and transmits them plant body
Cell type Appearance Functions and adaptations around the body Strengthening tissue Supports the plant
Animal cells Muscle tissue Contracts to support and move the body

Red blood cell (page 96) Transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues where aerobic
respiration occurs. The cytoplasm is filled with the pigment … tissues combine to form organs … Epithelial cells Smooth muscle cells
haemoglobin, which carries oxygen. The cells have no nucleus, leaving
Several tissues may be combined to form an Specialised
more space for haemoglobin, and they are very flexible (they can be cells
forced through even the narrowest of blood vessels). organ, a complex structure with a particular
function, such as the small intestine shown right. These cells mass together These cells mass together to form
Ciliated cell (page 129) Has a layer of tiny hairs (cilia) which can move and push mucus
from one place to another. The mucus can transport trapped dust and … organs combine to form organ to form an epithelial tissue.
Tissues
smooth muscle tissue.

microbes when it is pushed by the cilia. systems

In complex organisms, several organs work
together to perform a particular task. These Organ
organs form an organ system.
Motor nerve cell (page 156) Conducts nerve impulses. The cell has a long fibre called an Each cell, tissue and organ in an organism has
axon along which impulses travel, a fatty sheath which gives electrical
insulation, and a many-branched ending which can connect with many a specialised part to play (there is division of Intestine
other cells. labour) but their activities must be coordinated.

Epithelial cell of Epithelium lining

Other important specialised animal cells are the gametes, sperm and egg (page 192). These are specialised for fusion to form a zygote. intestine lining the intestine
The sperm (male) is able to swim and the ovum (female) has a large food store. Each of them has the haploid number of chromosomes. Small intestine

Plant cells
Cell Organ:
Root hair cell Absorbs minerals and water from the soil water. The cell has a Tissue: group of tissues, working
long extension (a root hair) which increases the surface area for the group of cells with together to perform
similar structures, specific functions.
absorption of materials.
working together
to perform a
shared function.
Digestive
Organ system:
Mitochondrion system
group of organs with related
Xylem vessel Transports water and supports the plant. The cell has no functions, working together
cytoplasm (so water can pass freely), no end wall (so that many cells Organelle to perform body functions.
can form a continuous tube) and walls strengthened with a waterproof Organism
substance called lignin.

Another important specialised plant cell is the palisade mesophyll cell (page 50). This cell has many chloroplasts and a shape that allows many
of them to pack together in the regions of highest light intensity for the maximum absorption of light energy.
Human

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Questions on cells and organisation e which structure is a food store. [4]

1 Arrange these biological terms in order of size 4 Copy and complete this table by placing a tick
(from the smallest to the largest): [3] if the structure is present and a cross if it is not. B
D
organ, cell, organism, organelle, tissue, system.
Structure Liver cell Palisade cell

2 Arrange these units of length in order, starting Cell surface membrane E

with the largest and ending with the smallest: Chloroplasts
Cytoplasm A
kilometre, micrometre, metre, millimetre. [2]
Cellulose cell wall 9 Use words from this list to complete the
An average plant cell is 50 micrometres
Nucleus following paragraphs. The words may be used
long. How many plant cells could fit into one
Starch granule once, more than once or not at all.
millimetre? Show your working. [2]
Glycogen granule palisade cell, epidermis, tissues, excretory
3 Look at these photomicrographs (photographs Large, permanent vacuole system, specialised, cells, blood, kidney,
taken through a microscope). Mitochondrion chloroplasts, leaf, red blood cell, division of
Ribosome on endoplasmic reticulum 7 The diagram shows a single-celled organism labour, xylem, phloem, nervous, systems,
called Chlamydomonas. This organism is able endocrine, organ.
[10]
to swim about in the small pools of water a Large numbers of that have the
5 The table below describes some cell structures.
where it lives. same structure and function are grouped
Match each structure with its description. Write
12 µm together to form , for example .
the letter and number to show your answer, for
Epithelial cell Several separate tissues may be joined
example, a–4.
together to form an which is a
Structure Description
FPO complex structure capable of performing
a Cell membrane 1 Structures which contain chlorophyll
<200576_aw1.Q.2.2> a particular task with great efficiency. In
the most highly developed organisms, these
b Cell wall 2 Cavity found only in plant cells
3 Surrounds a plant cell and contains complex structures may work together in
35 µm c Chloroplasts
cellulose a In the table below, which set of numbers (A, B, , for example the in humans is
Palisade cell d Cytoplasm 4 Main site of protein synthesis C or D) correctly relates functions of cell parts responsible for the removal of the waste
a List three differences between the epithelial e Mitochondria 5 Sites of aerobic respiration to the structures labelled in the diagram? products of metabolism. [6]
and palisade cells, and three common f Endoplasmic reticulum 6 Controls entry and exit of substances b The structure of cells may be highly
Function
features which they share. Why are there 7 Carries genetic information and adapted to perform one function, i.e. the
g Nucleus Protection Photosynthesis Movement Control of
differences between these cells? [7] controls cell activities against cell cells may become . One excellent
b Use the scales to calculate the following in µm: h Vacuole 8 Site of anaerobic respiration bursting activities example is the which is highly adapted
i the height of the palisade cell A 2 4 1 3 to carry oxygen in mammalian blood. If
[7]
ii the width of the palisade cell B 1 3 2 4 the different cells, tissues and organs of a
6 The following diagrams show six cells. One of
iii the width of the epithelial cell at its C 4 2 1 3 multicellular organism perform different
the cells transports oxygen in the blood. This
widest point D 2 4 3 1 functions they are said to show . One
cell does not contain a nucleus.
iv the length of a single chloroplast consequence of this is the need for close
a i Give the letter of the cell that transports [1]
v the length of an animal cell nucleus. [5] co-ordination between different organs –
oxygen in the blood. [1] b State three structures in the Chlamydomonas
c Show your working in each case: this function is performed by the and
ii State the function of the nucleus in cell that would not be found in a sperm
i Assume that the epithelial cell is a sphere. systems in mammals. [5]
most cells. [1] cell. [3]
Calculate its volume (volume of sphere c In plants, an example of a cell highly
b i State the letters of two plant cells. [2] 8 On the following diagram of a liver cell, identify:
= 4 πr3). ii State the letter of the cell with a surface
specialised for photosynthesis is the
3 a which structure carries out aerobic respiration which contains many . These cells are
ii Assume that the palisade cell is a adapted for the uptake of minerals. [1] b which structure controls the movement of located in the organ called the which
cylinder. Calculate its volume (volume of salts into the cell also contains other tissues such as
a cylinder = πr2h). c which structure would carry the genes which limits water loss and which
iii How much greater is the volume of the d which feature increases the surface area of transports water and mineral ions to
plant cell than that of the animal cell? the cell the leaf. [5]
Express your answer as a ratio. [6]
28 29
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