CS6456 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

LECTURE NOTES

2014-2015(EVEN SEM)

Prepared by

M.Asia Sahaya Christina AP/CSE

K.A.Chitra Lakshmi AP/CSE

UNIT I OVERVIEW
Why Object-Oriented Programming in C++ – Native Types and Statements –Functions and
Pointers- Implementing ADTs in the Base Language.

1.Object–Oriented Programming Concepts:

The important concept of OOPs are:

Objects

Classes

Inheritance

Data Abstraction

Data Encapsulation

Polymorphism

Overloading

Reusability

Objects:
Object is the basic unit of object-oriented programming. Objects are identified
by its unique name. An object represents a particular instance of a class. There can be
more than one
instance of an object. Each instance of an object can hold its own relevant data.
 An Object is a collection of data members and associated member functions also known
as methods.
Classes:
Classes are data types based on which objects are created. Objects with similar properties
and methods are grouped together to form a Class. Thus a Class represent a set of individual
objects. Characteristics of an object are represented in a class as Properties. The actions
that can be performed by objects becomes functions of the class and is referred to as Methods.

For example consider we have a Class of Cars under which Santro Xing, Alto and
WaganR
represents individual Objects. In this context each Car Object will have its own, Model,
Year of Manufacture, Colour, Top Speed, Engine Power etc., which form Properties of the Car
class and the associated actions i.e., object functions like Start, Move, Stop form the
Methods of Car Class.
No memory is allocated when a class is created. Memory is allocated only when an object
is created, i.e., when an instance of a class is created.
Inheritance:
Inheritance is the process of forming a new class from an existing class or base class. The
base class is also known as parent class or super class, The new class that is formed is called
derived class. Derived class is also known as a child class or sub class. Inheritance helps in
reducing the overall code size of the program, which is an important concept in object-oriented
programming.
Data Abstraction:
Data Abstraction increases the power of programming language by creating user defined
data types. Data Abstraction also represents the needed information in the program without
presenting the details.
Data Encapsulation:
Data Encapsulation combines data and functions into a single unit called Class. When using
Data Encapsulation, data is not accessed directly; it is only accessible through the functions present
inside the class. Data Encapsulation enables the important concept of data hiding possible.
Polymorphism:
Polymorphism allows routines to use variables of different types at different times. An
operator or function can be given different meanings or functions. Polymorphism refers to
a single function or multi-functioning operator performing in different ways.
Overloading:
Overloading is one type of Polymorphism. It allows an object to have different
meanings, depending on its context. When an exiting operator or function begins
to operate on new data type, or class, it is understood to be overloaded.
Reusability:
This term refers to the ability for multiple programmers to use the same written and
debugged existing class of data. This is a time saving device and adds code efficiency to
the language.
Additionally, the programmer can incorporate new features to the existing class, further
developing the application and allowing users to achieve increased performance. This time
saving feature optimizes code, helps in gaining secured applications and facilitates
easier maintenance on the application.
 #include <iostream>
class employee // Class Declaration
{
private:
char empname[50];
int empno;
public:
void getvalue()
{
cout<<"INPUT Employee
Name:"; cin>>empname;
cout<<"INPUT Employee Number:";
cin>>empno;

void displayvalue()
{
cout<<"Employee Name:"<<empname<<endl;
cout<<"Employee Number:"<<empno<<endl;
}
};

main()
{
employee e1; // Creation of Object
e1.getvalue();
e1.displayvalue();
}

2.Programming Concepts:
Encapsulation
It is a mechanism that associates the code and the data it manipulates into a single unit to and
keeps them safe from external interference and misuse. In C++ this is supported by construct called
class. An instance of an object is known as object which represents a real world entity.
Data Abstraction
A data abstraction is a simplified view of an object that includes only features one is
interested in while hides away the unnecessary details. In programming languages, a data
abstraction becomes an abstract data type or a user-defined type. In OOP, it is implemented as
a class.
Inheritance:
Inheritance is a means of specifying hierarchical relationships between types C++
classes can inherit both data and function members from other (parent) classes. Terminology:
"the child (or derived) class inherits (or is derived from) the parent (or base) class".
Polymorphism:
Polymorphism is in short the ability to call different functions by just using one type of
function call. It is a lot useful since it can group classes and their functions together. Polymorphism
means that the same thing can exist in two forms. This is an important characteristic of true
object oriented design - which means that one could develop good OO design with data
abstraction and inheritance, but the real power of object oriented design
seems to surface when polymorphism is used.
Multiple Inheritance
The mechanism by which a class is derived from more than one base class is known as
multiple inheritance. Instances of classes with multiple inheritance have instance variables
for each of the inherited base classes.
Basic c++:
A class definition begins with the keyword class.

The body of the class is contained within a set of braces, { } ; (notice the semi-
colon). class class_name
{
….
….
….
};

Within the body, the keywords private: and public: specify the access level of the
members of the class.
–
the default is private.

Usually, the data members of a class are declared in the private: section of the class and
the member functions are in public: section.
class class_name
{
private:
…
…
…
public:
…
…
…
};

Example:

This class example shows how we can encapsulate (gather) a circle information into
one package (unit or class)
 class Circle
{
private:
double radius;
public:
void setRadius(double r);
double getDiameter();
double getArea();
double getCircumference();
};

Member access specifiers:

Access specifiers are used to identify access rights for the data and member functions of
the class. There are three main types of access specifiers in C++ programming language:

private

public

protected

A private member within a class denotes that only members of the same class have
accessibility. The private member is inaccessible from outside the class.

Public members are accessible from outside the class. .

A protected access specifier is a stage between private and public access. If member
functions defined in a class are protected, they cannot be accessed from outside the class but can
be accessed from the derived class.

Data Members :
Data members include members that are declared with any of the fundamental types, as
well as other types, including pointer, reference, array types, bit fields, and user-defined types.
You can declare a data member the same way as a variable, except that explicit
initializers are not allowed inside the class definition. However, a const static data member of
integral or enumeration type may have an explicit initializer.
A class X cannot have a member that is of type X, but it can contain pointers to X,
references to X, and static objects of X. Member functions of X can take arguments of type X
and have a return type of X. For example:
class X
{
X();
X *xptr;
X &xref;
 static X xcount;
X xfunc(X);

};
Static members:
Class members can be declared using the storage class specifier static in the class
member list. Only one copy of the static member is shared by all objects of a class in a program.
When you declare an object of a class having a static member, the static member is not
part of the class object.
You access a static member by qualifying the class name using the :: (scope resolution)
operator. In the following example, you can refer to the static member f() of class type X as
X::f() even if no object of type X is ever
declared: struct X {
static int
f(); };

int main()
{ X::f();
}

Function:
Functions are building blocks of the programs. They make the programs more modular
and easy to read and manage. All C++ programs must contain the function main( ). The
execution of the program starts from the function main( ). A C++ program can contain any
number of functions according to the needs. The general form of the function is: -
return_type function_name(parameter list)
{
body of the function
}
The function of consists of two parts function header and function body. The function
header is:-
return_type function_name(parameter list)
The return_type specifies the type of the data the function returns. The return_type can be
void which means function does not return any data type. The function_name is the name of the
function. The name of the function should begin with the alphabet or underscore.

The parameter list consists of variables separated with comma along with their data
types. The parameter list could be empty which means the function do not contain any
parameters. The parameter list should contain both data type and name of the variable. For
example,
int factorial(int n, float j)
is the function header of the function factorial. The return type is of integer which means
function should return data of type integer. The parameter list contains two variables n and j of type
integer and float respectively. The body of the function performs the computations.
Member functions are operators and functions that are declared as members of a class.
Member functions do not include operators and functions declared with the friend
specifier.
 These are called friends of a class. You can declare a member function as static; this
is called a static member function. A member function that is not declared as static is called a
nonstatic member function.
The definition of a member function is within the scope of its enclosing class. The body
of a member function is analyzed after the class declaration so that members of that class can be
used in the member function body, even if the member function definition appears before the

declaration of that member in the class member list. When the function add() is called in the
following example, the data variables a, b, and c can be used in the body of add().
class x
{
public:
int add() // inline member function add
{return a+b+c;};
private: int
a,b,c; };
Special type of member function:

Constructor:
–
Public function member
–
called when a new object is created (instantiated).
–
Initialize data members.
–
Same name as class
–
No return type
–
Several constructors

Function overloading

class Circle
{
private: double
radius; public:
Circle(); Circle(int
r);
void setRadius(double r);
double getDiameter(); double
getArea();
double getCircumference(); };
 Default arguments:
#include<iostream>
#include<iomanip> using
namespace std;

long int sum(int n,int diff=1,int first_term=1 )

{
long sum=0;;
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cout<<setw(5)<<first_term+ diff*i;
sum+=first_term+diff*i;
}
return sum;
}

int main()
{
cout<<endl<<Sum=<<setw(7)< <sum(10)<<endl;
//first term=1; diff=1,n=10
//sums the series 1,2,3,4,5………10

cout<<endl<<Sum=<<setw(7)< <sum(6,3,2)<<endl;
//first term=1; diff=2,n=10
//sums the series 2,5,8,11,14,17

cout<<endl<<Sum=<<setw(7)< <sum(10,2)<<endl;
//first term=1; diff=2,n=10
//sums the series 1,3,5………..19

return 1;
}
all the parameters with default values should lie to the right in the signature list i.e.
the default arguments should be the trailing arguments—those at the end of the list.

when a function with default arguments is called, the first argument in the call statement
is assigned to the first argument in the definition, the 2nd to 2nd and so on.

This becomes more clear from the last call to sum() in the above example where value 10
is assigned to n and 2 is assigned to diff and not first_term.

the default argument values appear in the prototype as well as definition.

You still may omit variable names in the prototypes.

The syntax then being

int xyz(int =2,char=5);

Function Overloading:
*C++ supports writing more than one function with the same name but different
argument lists. This could include:
–
different data types
different number of arguments

*The advantage is that the same apparent function can be called to perform similar
but different tasks. The following will show an example of this .
void swap (int *a, int *b) ;
void swap (float *c, float *d) ;
void swap (char *p, char *q) ;
int main ( )
{

int a = 4, b = 6 ;

float c = 16.7, d = -7.89 ;

char p = 'M' , q = 'n' ;

swap (&a, &b) ;

swap (&c, &d) ;

swap (&p, &q) ;

}
void swap (int *a, int *b)
{
int temp; temp = *a; *a = *b; *b = temp; }

void swap (float *c, float *d)

{
float temp; temp = *c; *c = *d; *d = temp;
}
void swap (char *p, char *q)
{
char temp; temp = *p; *p = *q; *q = temp;
}

Friend Function:
 *A friend function of a class is defined outside the class‘s scope (I.e. not
member functions), yet has the right to access the non-public members of the class.
*Single functions or entire classes may be declared as friends of a class.
*These are commonly used in operator overloading. Perhaps the most common use of
friend
functions is overloading << and >> for I/O.
*Basically, when you declare something as a friend, you give it access to your private
data members.
*This is useful for a lot of things – for very interrelated classes, it more efficient (faster)
than using tons of get/set member function calls, and they increase encapsulation by allowing
more freedom is design options.
*A class doesn't control the scope of friend functions so friend function declarations are
usually written at the beginning of a .h file. Public and private don't apply to them.
Example pgm//
class someClass
{
friend void setX( someClass&, int);
int someNumber;
… rest of class definition
}

// a function called setX defined in a program

void setX( someClass &c, int val) {

c.someNumber = val; }

// inside a main function

someClass myClass;
setX (myClass, 5);
//this will work, since we declared
// setX as a friend

Const Functions :
If you declare a class method const, you are promising that the method won't change the
value of any of the members of the class. To declare a class method constant, put the
keyword const after the parentheses but before the semicolon. The declaration of the
constant member functionSomeFunction() takes no arguments and returns void. It looks like this:
void SomeFunction() const;
Access or functions are often declared as constant functions by using the const modifier
Declare member functions to be const whenever they should not change the object

Volatile Functions:
The volatile keyword is a type qualifier used to declare that an object can be modified
in the program by something such as the operating system, the hardware, or a concurrently
executing thread. If your objects are used in a multithreaded environment or they can be
accessed asynchronously (say by a signal handler), they should be declared volatile. A
volatile object can call only volatile member functions safely. If the program calls a
member function that isn't volatile, its behavior is undefined. Most compilers issue a warning if a
non-volatile member function is called by a volatile object:
struct S
{int f1();
int f2() volatile;
}

Static Members:
Object Oriented Programming in C++. A class member is either a property or a method.
A static member of a class is a member whose value is the same for every object instantiated.
This means that if one object changes the value of the static member, this change will be
reflected in another object instantiated from the class. The change (or the resulting value) will be
the same in all the instantiated objects. You can also access a static member using the class name
without instantiation. In this part of the series, we look at static members in C++
classes. You can have a static member along side other members in your class.
Static Property
A static property is also called a static data member.
Declaring a Static Property
You declare a static property just as you declare any other attribute, but you precede the
declaration expression with the keyword, static and a space. The syntax is:
static Type Ident;
Despite this simple feature, you have to learn how to use the static member. You do not
use it in the straightforward way.
Example
The following class illustrates the use of a static property member:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class MyClass
{
public:
static int
sameAll; };
int MyClass::sameAll =
5; int main()
{
MyClass myObj;
myObj.sameAll = 6;
cout << MyClass::sameAll;

return 0;
}
In the code, you have a class called MyClass. This class has just one member, which is
the static data member. You initialize the static member outside the class description as shown
above. You begin with the return type of the static property. This is followed by a space and then
the name of the class. After that you have the scope operator, then the identifier of the static
property. Then you have the assignment operator and the value.
You instantiate an object form the class that has the static member in the normal way. Line
1
in the main function illustrates this. You access the static property of an instantiated object in
the normal way. The second line in the main function illustrates this. However, changing the value as
this line has done means changing the value for the class (description) and any
instantiated object and any object that is still to be instantiated.
The third line in the main function displays the static property value. It uses the class
name; it did not use the object name. To use the class name to access the static attribute, you
begin with the class name. This is followed by the scope operator and then the identifier of the
static property. This shows how you can access a static attribute with the class name directly and
without using an object; this is like accessing the property in the class description. The static
member is a kind of global object.

Objects:
In object-oriented programming language C++, the data and functions (procedures to
manipulate the data) are bundled together as a self-contained unit called an object. A class
is an extended concept similar to that of structure in C programming language, this class
describes the data properties alone. In C++ programming language, class describes both the
properties (data) and behaviors (functions) of objects. Classes are not objects, but they are used
to instantiate objects.
Creation of Objects:
Once the class is created, one or more objects can be created from the class as objects
are instance of the class.

Juts as we declare a variable of data type int as:

int x;

Objects are also declared as:

class name followed by object name;

exforsys e1;

This declares e1 to be an object of class exforsys.

For example a complete class and object declaration is given below:

class exforsys
{
private: int
x,y;
public:
void sum()
{
………
………
 }
};

main()
{
exforsys e1;
……………
……………
}

The object can also be declared immediately after the class definition. In other words the

object name can also be placed immediately before the closing flower brace symbol } of the
class declaration.
Pointers and Objects:
#include <iostream>
using namespace
std; class myclass {
int i;
public:
myclass(int j) {
i = j;
}
int getInt() {
return i;
}
};
int main()
{
myclass ob(88), *objectPointer;
objectPointer = &ob; // get address of ob
cout << objectPointer->getInt(); // use -> to call
getInt() return 0;
}
Constant objects:
We've already seen const references demonstrated, and they're pretty natural: when you
declare a const reference, you're only making the data referred to const. References, by
their very nature, cannot change what they refer to. Pointers, on the other hand, have two ways
that you can use them: you can change the data pointed to, or change the pointer itself.
Consequently, there are two ways of declaring a const pointer: one that prevents you
from changing what is pointed to, and one that prevents you from changing the data pointed to.

The syntax for declaring a pointer to constant data is natural

enough: const int *p_int;
You can think of this as reading that *p_int is a "const int". So the pointer may be
changeable, but you definitely can't touch what p_int points to. The key here is that the
const appears before the *.

On the other hand, if you just want the address stored in the pointer itself to be const, then
you have to put const after the *:
int x;
int * const p_int = &x;
Personally, I find this syntax kind of ugly; but there's not any other obviously better way
to do it. The way to think about it is that "* const p_int" is a regular integer, and that the value
stored in p_int itself cannot change--so you just can't change the address pointed to. Notice, by
the way, that this pointer had to be initialized when it was declared: since the pointer itself is
const, we can't change what it points to later on! Them's the rules.

Generally, the first type of pointer, where the data is immutable, is what I'll refer to as a
"const pointer" (in part because it's the kind that comes up more often, so we should have a
natural way of describing it).
Nested Classes:
§
A class can be declared within the scope of another class. Such a class is called a
"nested class." Nested classes are considered to be within the scope of the enclosing class
and are available for use within that scope. To refer to a nested class from a scope other than its
immediate enclosing scope, you must use a fully qualified name value class Outside { value
class Inside { }; }; In the same way, you can nest as many classes as you wish in another class
and you can nest as many classes inside of other nested classes if you judge it necessary.

Just as you would manage any other class so can you exercise control on a nested
class. For example, you can declare all necessary variables or methods in the nested class or in
the nesting class. When you create one class inside of another, there is no special programmatic
relationship between both classes: just because a class is nested doesn't mean that the nested
class has immediate access to the members of the nesting class. They are two different classes
and they can be used separately.
§
The name of a nested class is not "visible" outside of the nesting class. To access a
nested class outside of the nesting class, you must qualify the name of the nested class
anywhere you want to use it. This is done using the :: operator. For example, if you want
to declare an Inside variable somewhere in the program but outside of Outside, you must qualify
its name. Here is an example:
Local classes:
A local class is declared within a function definition. Declarations in a local class can
only use type names, enumerations, static variables from the enclosing scope, as well as external
variables and functions.
For example:
int x; // global variable
void f() // function definition
{
static int y; // static variable y can be used by
// local class
 int x; // auto variable x cannot be used
by // local class
extern int g(); // extern function g can be used by
// local class

class local // local class

{
int g() { return x; } // error, local variable
x // cannot be used by g
int h() { return y; } // valid,static variable y
int k() { return ::x; } // valid, global x
int l() { return g(); } // valid, extern function
g };
}

int main()
{
local* z; // error: the class local is not visible
// ...}
Member functions of a local class have to be defined within their class definition, if they
are defined at all. As a result, member functions of a local class are inline functions. Like all
member functions, those defined within the scope of a local class do not need the keyword inline.
A local class cannot have static data members. In the following example, an attempt to
define a static member of a local class causes an error:
void f()
{
class local
{

int f(); // error, local class has noninline

// member function
int g() {return 0;} // valid, inline member function
static int a; // error, static is not allowed for
// local class
int b; // valid, nonstatic variable
};
}
//
 UNIT II BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF OOP 9 Data Hiding and Member Functions- Object
Creation and Destruction- Polymorphism data abstraction: Iterators and Containers.

A Real Programming Example

we want to program a card deck for a simple blackjack game we are programming.
Remember containership and inheritance? Let's think about the types of parts that make up
a deck -- and those are the cards. Since all of the cards are very similar in structure, we could use
a struct to represent a single card:
enum Suit = {Clubs, Spades, Diamonds,
Hearts}; struct Card {
Suit suit;
char digit;
};
A note on the digit. If digit <= 10, then it is a number, else it is the letter of the card (J, Q,
K, A). You could also use it as a number 1(ace) through 13(king) as well, perhaps if you were
using the card value in additions or such.
A simple object, the card deck only has one type of item. Now let's think about the types
of actions you can perform on the deck, and then make a class declaration out of this list, as well
as using the previously declared data.
class Deck
{ public:
void CreateDeck();//Fills array with legal cards
void Shuffle(); //Shuffles those cards
Card DrawCard(); //Gets a card from the deck
private:
Card cards[52];
};
Now we have considered all of the things we may need to use a card deck. The programmer first
sets up the deck with CreateDeck(), then whenever needed can Shuffle() the deck, and when the
dealer deals a card, it can be picked up using DrawCard(), and then perhaps placed in the
players hand (which could also could be a class too) or whatever the programmer needs to do
with it.

Constructors and Destructors

 In object-oriented programming, a constructor (sometimes shortened to ctor) in a class
is a special type of subroutine called at the creation of an object. It prepares the new object for
use, often accepting parameters which the constructor uses to set any member variables
required when the object is first created.
What is the use of Constructor
The main use of constructors is to initialize objects. The function of initialization is
automatically carried out by the use of a special member function called a constructor.

General Syntax of Constructor

Constructor is a special member function that takes the same name as the class name.
The syntax generally is as given below:
<class name> { arguments};
The default constructor for a class X has the form
X::X()
In the above example the arguments is optional.

The constructor is automatically named when an object is created. A constructor is named

whenever an object is defined or dynamically allocated using the "new" operator.
I'm not going to write all of the code for this class. Instead I'll leave it open as an exercise
to practice on working with classes. But let's focus on the CreateDeck() function for now. You
may have already noticed that variables aren't being properly pre-initalized. In C this was easy
since all variables were public, and you could simply zero them out, but in classes, some of the
members are private. Now what? The programmer could call the CreateDeck()
function, but even so, if the programmer forgets to do this the rest of the functions could
crash the program. C++'s solution to this is called the constructor. A constructor is the function
which allocates memory for the object as well as initalizing it. Every variable in C++ has a
constructor, even the basic types, but the compiler takes care of these issues for you. However
with classes, even though the compiler can allocate memory for you, it will not initalize them, so
the remain undefined, as with any other variable. Also, when the variable goes out of scope, the
memory needs to be deleted, requireing the constructors counterpart, the destructor.
A constructor is declared by creating a function by the same name as the class. The
destructor has the same name, except with a ~ (the tlide key, next to the 1) in front of it. Below
is the modified Deck class which takes advantage of C++ constructors and destructors. The array
change to a pointer is to allow for dynamic memory allocation using the new command,
to show a very common use of the constructor and destructor:
class Deck
{ public:
Deck(); //Constructor
~Deck(); //Destructor
void CreateDeck();//Fills array with legal cards
void Shuffle(); //Shuffles those cards
Card DrawCard(); //Gets a card from the deck
private:
Card* cards;
};
 Notice that obviously the constructor does not return anything, since it is an "invisible
function" which is automatically called when you make the statement Deck MyCardDeck;.
The same is true for the destructor, which is called when the variable goes out of scope.
Below is an example of how to define and code a constructor, where the array is allocated
and the data is initalized, and the destructor compliment, which cleans up what
the constructor did:

Deck::Deck() {
cards = new Card[52];//Allocate
memory CreateDeck(); //Set up the deck
}
Deck::~Deck() {
delete[] cards; //Deallocate memory

Some of the differences between constructors and other Java methods:

Constructors never have an explicit return type.

Constructors cannot be directly invoked (the keyword ―new‖ must be used).

Constructors cannot be synchronized, final, abstract, native, or static.

Constructors are always executed by the same thread.

Some important points about constructors:

A constructor takes the same name as the class name.

The programmer cannot declare a constructor as virtual or static, nor can the
programmer declare a constructor as const, volatile, or const volatile.

No return type is specified for a constructor.

The constructor must be defined in the public. The constructor must be a public
member.

Overloading of constructors is possible. This will be explained in later sections of this

tutorial.

How do you differentiate between a constructor and normal function?

Latest Answer : A constructor is a member function of a class that is used to create
objects of that class. It has the same name as the class itself, has no return type, and is invoked
using the new operator. An ordinary member function has its own name, a return type ...
Default Constructor
Default Constructor
 The deafual constructor is a constructor. It may be contains arguemnets
(default arquemnets) or It may not be contains arquemnet

Example

class A
{
public:
A(){/*body*/} //Deafult constructor without arquemnet

or

A(int a 0 int b 0){/*body*/} //Default constructor with default

arquement };

if you did not write any constructor within class A. The implicit constructor or inline
constructor A::A() /*[without no body] */ will be called when you create object for
class A

Note: you can't use both constructor in same class. Confilict occur when you create
object of class A that whether to call first one or second one (ambiguity)

This constructor has no arguments in it. Default Constructor is also called as no argument
constructor.

For
class Exforsys
example:
{

private:

int a,b;

public:

Exforsys();

...

};

Exforsys :: Exforsys()
 {

a=0;

b=0;

In C++, default constructors are significant because they are automatically invoked
in certain circumstances:

When an object value is declared with no argument list, e.g. MyClass x;; or allocated
dynamically with no argument list, e.g. new MyClass; the default constructor is used
to initialize the object

When an array of objects is declared, e.g. MyClass x[10];; or allocated dynamically, e.g.
new MyClass [10]; the default constructor is used to initialize all the elements

When a derived class constructor does not explicitly call the base class constructor in
its initializer list, the default constructor for the base class is called

When a class constructor does not explicitly call the constructor of one of its object-valued
fields in its initializer list, the default constructor for the field's class is called In the
standard library, certain containers "fill in" values using the default constructor when the value is
not given explicitly, e.g. vector<MyClass>(10); initializes the vector with 10
elements, which are filled with the default-constructed value of our type.
In the above circumstances, it is an error if the class does not have a default constructor.
The compiler will implicitly define a default constructor if no constructors are explicitly
defined for a class. This implicitly-declared default constructor is equivalent to a
default constructor defined with a blank body.
(Note: if some constructors are defined, but they are all non-default, the compiler will not
implicitly define a default constructor. This means that a default constructor may not exist for a
class.).

Parameterized Constructor – Class Interface

These are access specifiers for class data members and member
methods. 1.
Public: The data members and methods having public as access specifier can be
accessed by the class objects created outside the class.
2.
Protected: The data members and methods declared as protected will be accessible to the
class methods and the derived class methods only.
3.
 Private: These data members and methods will be accessible from the class methods
only not from derived classes and not from objects created outside the class.
4.
Internal: Some languages define internal as an access specifier which means the data
member or method is available to all the classes inside that particular assembly.
5.
Friend: A friend class or method can access all data of a class including private
and protected data.

// A parameterized constructor.

using System;

class MyClass {
public int x;

public MyClass(int i)
{ x = i;

}
}

public class ParmConsDemo {

public static void Main() { MyClass
t1 = new MyClass(10); MyClass t2
= new MyClass(88);

Console.WriteLine(t1.x + " " + t2.x);

}
}

Constructor with Dynamic Allocation

Dynamic memory allocation (also known as heap-based memory allocation) is the

allocation
of memory storage for use in a computer program during the runtime of that program.

A process of obtaining access to additional memory during program execution.

void YourClass::deleteAll()
{
delete ptr1; ptr1 = 0;
delete ptr2; ptr2 = 0;
delete ptr3; ptr3 = 0;
 }

YourClass::YourClass():
ptr1(0), ptr2(0), ptr3(0)
{
try
{
ptr1 = new whatever; ptr2
= new whatever; ptr3 =
new whatever;
}
catch(...)
{
deleteAll();
}
}

YourClass::~YourClass()
{
deleteAll();
}

What is static memory allocation and dynamic memory allocation?

Static Memory Allocation: Memory is allocated for the declared variable by the compiler.
The address can be obtained by using ‗address of‘ operator and can be assigned to
a pointer.
The memory is allocated during compile time. Since most of the declared variables have
static memory, this kind of assigning the address of a variable to a pointer is known as
static memory allocation.
Dynamic Memory Allocation: Allocation of memory at the time of execution (run time)
is known as dynamic memory allocation. The functions calloc() and malloc() support
allocating of dynamic memory. Dynamic allocation of memory space is done by using
these functions
when value is returned by functions and assigned to pointer variables.
Copy Constructor

This constructor takes one argument. Also called one argument constructor. The main use
of copy constructor is to initialize the objects while in creation, also used to copy an
object. The copy constructor allows the programmer to create a new object from an existing one
by initialization.

For example to invoke a copy constructor the programmer writes:

Exforsys e3(e2);
or
Exforsys e3=e2;
 Copy constructor is
1. a constructor function with the same name as the class
2. used to make deep copy of objects.
There are 3 important places where a copy constructor is called.
1. When an object is created from another object of the same type
2. When an object is passed by value as a parameter to a function
3. When an object is returned from a function.

If a copy constructor is not defined in a class the compiler itself defines one. This
will ensure a shallow copy. If the class does not have pointer variables with dynamically
allocated memory then one need not worry about defining a copy constructor. It
can be left to the compiler's discretion.

For Example:

#include <iostream.h>
class Exforsys()

{
private: int a;
public: Exforsys()
{}
Exforsys(int w)
{
a=w;
}
Exforsys(Exforsys& e)
{
a=e.a;
cout<<‖ Example of Copy Constructor‖;
}
void result()
{
cout<< a;
}
};

void main()
{
Exforsys e1(50); Exforsys
e3(e1); cout<< ―=‖;e3.result();
}
In the above the copy constructor takes one argument an object of type Exforsys which is passed
by reference. The output of the above program is

Example of Copy Constructor e3=50

difference between copy constructor and constructor

Constructor is called when an object is created.Copy constructor is called when the copy
of an object is made. For e.g. passing parameter to function by value function returning by
value. Copy constructor takes the parameter as const reference to the object.

A copy constructor is called whenever an object is passed by value, returned by value or

explicitly copied.

Destructors
The destructor of an automatic object is called when the object goes out of scope.
The destructor itself does not actually destroy the object, but it does perform
termination housekeeping before the system reclaims the object‘s.

What is the use of Destructors

Destructors are also special member functions used in C++ programming language.
Destructors have the opposite function of a constructor. The main use of destructors is to
release dynamic allocated memory. Destructors are used to free memory, release resources and
to perform other clean up. Destructors are automatically named when an object is
destroyed. Like constructors, destructors also take the same name as that of the class name.

General Syntax of Destructors

~ classname();

The above is the general syntax of a destructor. In the above, the symbol tilda ~
represents a destructor which precedes the name of the class.
Some important points about destructors:

Destructors take the same name as the class name.

Like the constructor, the destructor must also be defined in the public. The destructor
must be a public member.

The Destructor does not take any argument which means that destructors cannot
be overloaded.

No return type is specified for destructors.

 For example:

class Exforsys
{
private:
……………
public:
Exforsys()
{}
~ Exforsys()
{}
}

What is defference between constructor and destructor

Like constructor the destructor is a member function whose name is the same as the
class name but is preceded by a tilde. For example the destructor of a class integer
can be define as :-

~integer(){}

A destructor never takes any argument nor does it return any value. It will invoked
implicitly by the compiler upon exit from the program to clean up storage that is no
longer accessible.
Re: What is role of constructor and destructor in C++?
The constructor's job is to set up the object so that it can be used.Destructors are less
complicated than constructors. You don't call them explicitly (they are called automatically for
you), and there's only one destructor for each object. The name of the destructor is the name of
the class, preceeded by a tilde.

Operator Overloading

Operator Overloading in two Parts, In Part I of Operator Overloading you will learn about
Unary Operators, Binary Operators and Operator Overloading – Unary operators.

Operator overloading is a very important feature of Object Oriented Programming. Curious

to know why!!? It is because by using this facility programmer would be able to create new
definitions to existing operators. In fact in other words a single operator can take up
several functions as desired by programmers depending on the argument taken by the operator by
using the operator overloading facility.

After knowing about the feature of operator overloading now let us see how to define
and use this concept of operator overloading in C++ programming language.

We have seen in previous sections the different types of operators. Broadly

classifying operators are of two types namely:

Unary Operators

Binary Operators

Unary Operators:
As the name implies takes operate on only one operand. Some unary operators are namely
++
called as Increment operator, -- called as Decrement Operator, ! , ~, unary minus.

Binary Operators:
The arithmetic operators, comparison operators, and arithmetic assignment operators
all this which we have seen in previous section of operators come under this category.

Both the above classification of operators can be overloaded. So let us see in detail each of
this.

Operator Overloading – Unary operators

As said before operator overloading helps the programmer to define a new functionality
for the existing operator. This is done by using the keyword operator.

The general syntax for defining an operator overloading is as follows:

return_type classname :: operator operator symbol(argument)

{
…………..
statements;
}

Thus the above clearly specifies that operator overloading is defined as a member
function by making use of the keyword operator.

In the above:

return_type – is the data type returned by the function

class name - is the name of the class

operator – is the keyword

 operator symbol – is the symbol of the operator which is being overloaded or

defined for new functionality

:: - is the scope resolution operator which is used to use the function definition outside the
class. The usage of this is clearly defined in our earlier section of How to define class members.

For example

Suppose we have a class say Exforsys and if the programmer wants to define a operator
overloading for unary operator say ++, the function is defined as
 Inside the class Exforsys the data type that is returned by the overloaded operator is defined
as

Class Exforsys
{
Private :

……….
Public :

void operator++();

……….
};

So the important steps involved in defining an operator overloading in case of

unary operators are namely:

Inside the class the operator overloaded member function is defined with the return data
type as member function or a friend function. The concept of friend function we will define in
later sections. If in this case of unary operator overloading if the function is a member function
then the number of arguments taken by the operator member function is none as
seen in the below example. In case if the function defined for the operator overloading is
a friend function which we will discuss in later section then it takes one argument.

The operator overloading is defined as member function outside the class using the scope
resolution operator with the keyword operator as explained above

Now let us see how to use this overloaded operator member function in the program

#include<iostream.h>
classExforsys
{
private:
int
x;
public:
Exforsys( )
{x=0;
} //Constructor
void
display();

void
Exforsys++();
};
Void Exforsys::display()
{
cout<<‖ of
x is:―<<x;
}
void Exforsys::operator ++( )//Operator Overloading for operator ++ defined
{
++x;
}

Void main()
{
Exforsys e1,e2; //Object e1 and e2 created cout<<‖Before
Increment‖
cout<<‖:‖<<e1.display();
cout<<‖
e2:‖<<e2.display();
++e1; //Operator overloading
applied
++e2;
cout<<‖
After Increment‖ cout<<‖
e1:‖<<e1.display(); cout
<<‖e2:
‖<<e2.display();
}
The output of the above program is:

Before Increment Object e1:

Value of x
is:0 Object e1: Value of x
is:0
Before Increment Object e1:
Value of x
is:1

Object e1:
Value of x is: 1

In the above example we have created 2 objects e1 and e2 f class Exforsys. The
operator ++ is overloaded and the function is defined outside the class Exforsys.
When the program starts the constructor Exforsys of the class Exforsys initialize
the values as zero and so when the values are displayed for the objects e1 and e2 it is
displayed as zero.
When the object ++e1 and ++e2 is called the operator overloading function
gets applied and thus value of x gets incremented for each object separately. So now
when the values are
displayed for objects e1 and e2 it is incremented once each and gets printed as
one for each object e1 and e2.

This is how unary operators get overloaded. We will see in detail how to
overload binary operators in next section.

Overloading through Friend Functions

Need for Friend Function:

when a data is declared as private inside a class, then it is not accessible from
outside the class. A function that is not a member or an external class will not be able
to access the private data. A programmer may have a situation where he or she would
need to access
private data from non-member functions and external classes. For handling such
cases, the concept of Friend functions is a useful tool.
What is a Friend Function?
A friend function is used for accessing the non-public members of a class. A
class can allow non-member functions and other classes to access its own private data,
by making them
friends. Thus, a friend function is an ordinary function or a member of another
class.
How to define and use Friend Function in C++:
The friend function is written as any other normal function, except the function
declaration of these functions is preceded with the keyword friend. The friend function
must have the class to which it is declared as friend passed to it in argument.

Some important points to note while using friend functions in C++:

The keyword friend is placed only in the function declaration of the friend
function and not in the function definition.
It is possible to declare a function as friend in any number of classes.
When a class is declared as a friend, the friend class has access to the private
data of the class that made this a friend.
A friend function, even though it is not a member function, would have the
rights to access the private members of the class.
It is possible to declare the friend function as either private or public.
The function can be invoked without the use of an object. The friend
function has its argument as objects, seen in example below.
Example to understand the friend function:

#inc
lude
clas
s
exfo
rsys
{
p
r
i
v
a
t
e
:
i
n
t
a
,
b
;
p
u
b
l
i
c
:
v
o
i
d

t
e
s
t
(
)
{
a=100;
b=200;
}
friend int compute(exforsys e1)

//Friend Function Declaration with keyword friend and with the

object of class exforsys to which it is friend passed to it
};

int compute(exforsys e1)

 {
//Friend Function Definition which has access to
private data return int(e1.a+e2.b)-5;
}

main()
{
e
x
f
o
r
s
y
s
e
;
e
.t
e
s
t
(
)
;
cout<<"The result is:"<<COMPUTE(E);
//Calling of Friend Function with object as argument.
}

The output of the above program is

The result is:295

The function compute() is a non-member function of the class exforsys. In

order to make this function have access to the private data a and b of class exforsys , it
is created as a friend function for the class exforsys. As a first step, the function
compute() is declared as friend in the class exforsys as:

friend int compute (exforsys e1)

The keyword friend is placed before the function. The function definition is
written as a normal function and thus, the function has access to the private data a and b
of the class exforsys. It is declared as friend inside the class, the private data values a
and b are added, 5
is subtracted from the result, giving 295 as the result. This is returned by the
function and thus the output is displayed as shown above.

Friend Function Overload

 The concept operator overloading and friend function are supported
by Java by defaault only + operator is overloaded over string .

For example ---

String
abc ;
String
s1
Hello ;
String s2 Geek
Interview ; abc
s1+s2;
Sop(abc);
would print Hello Geek Interview

Overloading the Assignment Operator

The operators available in C++ programming language are:

Assignment Operator denoted by =

Arithmetic operators denoted by +, -, *, /, %

Compound assignment Operators denoted by +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=,
<<=, &=, ^=, |=

Increment and Decrement operator denoted by ++, --

Relational and equality operators denoted by ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=

Logical operators denoted by !, &&, ||

Conditional operator denoted by ?

Comma operator denoted by ,

Bitwise Operators denoted by &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>

Explicit type casting operator

sizeof()
Assignment Operator
This is denoted by symbol =. This operator is used for assigning a value to a
variable. The left of the assignation operator is known as the lvalue (left value), which
must be a variable. The right of the assignation operator is known as the rvalue (right
value). The rvalue can be a constant, a variable, the result of an operation or any
combination of these.

For
exa
mpl
e: x
= 5;

By following the right to left rule the value 5 is assigned to the variable x in
the above assignment statement.
Arithmetic operators
The operators used for arithmetic operation sin C++ are:

+ For addition

- For subtraction

* For multiplication

/ For division

% For modulo
Compound assignment Operators
This operator is used when a programmer wants to update a current value by
performing operation on the current value of the variable.
For example:
O
l
d

+
=

n
e
w

i
s
equal to
Old = old + new
Compound assignment operators function in a similar way the other operators
+=, -=, *=,
/=,
%=, >>=, <<=, &=, ^=, |= function.
Increment and Decrement Operator
The increment operator is denoted by ++ and the decrement operator by --. The
function of the increment operator is to increase the value and the decrement operator is
to decrease the value. These operators may be used as either prefix or postfix. A Prefix
operator is written before the variable as ++a or –a. A Postfix operator is written after
the variable as a++ or a--.
The Functionality of Prefix and Postfix Operators
In the case that the increment or decrement operator is used as a prefix ( ++a or
–a), then the value is respectively increased or decreased before the result of the
expression is evaluated.
Therefore, the increased or decreased value, respectively, is considered in the outer
expression. In the case that the increment or decrement operator is used as a postfix
(a++ or
a--), then the value stored in a is respectively increased or decreased after being
evaluated.

Therefore, the value stored before the increase or decrease operation is

evaluated in the outer expression.

For Example:

y=3;

x=++y; //Prefix : Here Value of x becomes 4

But for the postfix operator namely as below:

y=3 //Postfix : Here Value of x is 3 and

Value of y is 4 x=y++;

Relational and Equality Operators

These operators are used for evaluating a comparison between two expressions.
The value returned by the relational operation is a Boolean value (true or false
value).
The operators used for this purpose in C++ are:

== Equal to

!= Not equal to

> Greater than

< Less than

 >= Greater than or equal to

<= Less than or equal to

we can overload assignment operator as a normal...

If the operation modifies the state of the class object it operates on it must
be a member function not a friend function Thus all operator such as * + etc
are naturally defined as member functions not friend functions Conversely
if the operator does not modify any of its operands but needs only a
representation of the object it does not have to be a member function and
often less confusing. This is the reason why binary operators are often
implemented as friend functions such as + * - etc..

Why friend function cannot be used to overload the assignment

operator?

A friend function is a non-member function of the class to which it has been

defined as friend.Therefore it just uses the functionality( or the functions and
data ) of the class so. it wont consists the inplementation for that class.(any)

we can overload assignment operator as a normal function.But we can not

overload assignment operator as friend function why?

Because assignment operator is one of the default method provided by the class.

Type Conversion

What is Type Conversion

It is the process of converting one type into another. In other words
converting an expression of a given type into another is called type casting.

How to achieve this

There are two ways of achieving the type conversion namely:

Automatic Conversion otherwise called as Implicit

Conversion Type casting otherwise
called as Explicit Conversion
Automatic Conversion otherwise called as Implicit Conversion
This is not done by any conversions or operators. In other words value gets
automatically converted to the specific type in which it is assigned.

Let us see this with an example:

 #include
<io
stre
am.
h>
voi
d
main()
{
Shor
t
x=60
00;
int
y;
y=x;
}
In the above example the data type short namely variable x is converted to
int and is assigned to the integer variable y.
So as above it is possible to convert short to int, int to float and so on.
Type casting otherwise called as Explicit Conversion
Explicit conversion can be done using type cast operator and the general syntax
for doing
this is
datatype (expression);
Here in the above datatype is the type which the programmer wants the
expression to gets changed as

In C++ the type casting can be done in either of the two ways mentioned
below namely: C-style casting
C++-style casting

The C-style casting takes the

synatx as (type) expression
This can also be used in C++.
Apart from the above the other form of type casting that can be used
specifically in C++ programming language namely C++-style casting is as
below namely:
type (expression)

This approach was adopted since it provided more clarity to the C++
programmers rather

t
h
a
n
t
h
e
C-style casting.
Say for instance the as per C-
style casting (type) firstVariable
* secondVariable
is not clear but when a programmer uses the C++ style casting it is much more
clearer as below
type (firstVariable) * secondVariable
Let us see the concept of type casting in C++ with a small
example: #include
<io
stre
am.
h>
voi
d
main()
{
i
n
t

a
;

f
l
o
a
t

b
,
c
;
cout<< ―Enter the
value of a:‖; cin>>a;
cout<< ―n Enter the
value of b:‖; cin>>b;
c=float(a)+b;
cout<<‖n
T
h
e

v
a
l
u
e

o
f

i
s
:
‖
<
<
c
;
}

The output of the above program is

E
n
t
e
r

t
h
e

v
a
l
u
e

o
f

a
:
10
E
n
t
e
r
 t
h
e

v
a
l
u
e

o
f

b
:
12.5
The value of c is: 22.5
In the above program a is declared as integer and b and c are declared as float.
In the type conversion statement namely

c = float(a)+b;

The variable a of type integer is converted into float type and so the value 10 is
converted as 10.0 and then is added with the float variable b with value 12.5 giving a
resultant float variable

c with value as 22.5

Explicit Constructor
Explicit Constructor

Explicit constructor is actually a parameterized constructor which

takes some parameters in order to create instance of a class.

E.g. Class Sample

Sample [a b]

The explicit keyword in C++ is used to declare explicit constructors. Explicit

constructors are simply constructors that cannot take part in an implicit conversion.
Consider the following example:

class Array
{
public:
Array(size
_t count);
 // etc.

};
explicit B (const A& aObj)

But explicit on a constructor with multiple arguments has no effect, since such
constructors cannot take part in implicit conversions. However, explicit will have an
effect if a constructor has multiple arguments and all but one of the arguments has a
default value.

For Example:
The code

Code: Cpp
#include<ios
tream.h>

class A
{
int
da
ta
1;
int
da
ta
2;
ch
ar
*
na
m
e;

public:
A(int a, int b=10, char* c = "mridula"):data1(a), data2(b), name(c)
{
cout<<"A::Const
rucor... "; };

friend void
display(A obj);
};

void display(A obj)

{
cout<<"Valud of data1 in obj := "<<
obj.data1<<endl; cout<<"Valud of data2 in
 obj := "<< obj.data2<<endl; cout<<"Valud
of name in obj := "<< obj.name<<endl;
}

int main()
{
//Call display with A
object i.e. a1
display(100);

return (0);
}

Output:

----------
./a.out
A::Con
strucor
...
Valud of data1 in obj :=
100 Valud of data2 in
obj := 10 Valud of name
in obj := mridula

In this example, though we have multiple argument constructor

A(int a, int b=10, char* c = "mridula") (all defaulted argument but one), but
still there seems to be an implicit conversion happening from type int to A's object.

As said above, it is better to use explicit for such constructor declaration too to
avoid any such implicit conversions.

Declare the multiple argumented constructor in the above example as

below to avoid implicit conversion:

explicit A(int a, int b=10, char* c = "mridula");

UNIT III ADVANCED PROGRAMMING 9 Templates, Generic Programming, and STL-
Inheritance-Exceptions-OOP Using C++.

INHERITANCE:
Let us start by defining inheritnace. A very good website for finding computer science
definitions is http://www.whatis.com. The definitions in this article are stolen from
that website.
Definition:
Inheritance
Inheritance is the concept that when a class of object is defined, any subclass that is
defined can inherit the definitions of one or more general classes. This means for the
programmer that an object in a subclass need not carry its own definition of data and
methods that are generic to the class (or classes) of which it is a part. This not only
speeds up program development; it also ensures an inherent validity to the defined
subclass object (what works and is consistent about the class will also work for
the subclass).
The simple example in C++ is having a class that inherits a data member from its parent
class.
class A
{
public:
integer d;
};
class B : public A
{
public:
};

The class B in the example does not have any direct data member does it? Yes, it
does. It

inherits the data member d from class A. When one class inherits from another, it

acquires all of its methods and data. We can then instantiate an object of class B and
call

into that data member.

void func()
{
B b;
b.d =
10; };

TYPES OF INHERITANCE:
1. Single Inheritance
2. Multiple Inheritance
3. Multilevel Inheritance
4. Hierarchial Inheritance

1. Single Inheritance - One base class and one derived class.

 2. Multiple Inheritance - A class is derived from more than one base classes
3. Multilevel Inheritance - A sub class inherits from a class which inherits from
another
class.
4. Hierarchical Inheritance - More than one subclass inherited from a single base
class.
Multiple inheritance (C++ only)

You can derive a class from any number of base classes. Deriving a class
from more than one direct base class is called multiple inheritance.

In the following example, classes A, B, and C are direct base classes for the
derived class X:
class A { /*
... */ }; class
B { /* ... */
}; class C {
/* ... */ };
class X : public A, private B, public C { /* ... */ };

The following inheritance graph describes the inheritance relationships of

the above example. An arrow points to the direct base class of the class at the tail of
the arrow:

The order of derivation is relevant only to determine the order of default

initialization by constructors and cleanup by destructors.

A direct base class cannot appear in the base list of a derived class more than
 once:

class B1 { /* ... */ }; // direct base class

class D : public B1, private B1 { /* ... */ }; // error

However, a derived class can inherit an indirect base class more than once, as
shown
in the following example:

class L { /* ... */ }; // indirect

base class class B2 : public L {
/* ... */ };
class B3 : public L { /* ... */ };
class D : public B2, public B3 { /* ... */ }; // valid

In the above example, class D inherits the indirect base class L once through
class B2 and once through class B3. However, this may lead to ambiguities
because two subobjects
of class L exist, and both are accessible through class D. You can avoid this
ambiguity by referring to class L using a qualified class name. For
example:
You can also avoid this ambiguity by using the base specifier virtual to
declare a base class, as described in Derivation (C++ only).
 VIRTUAL BASE CLASSES (C++ ONLY)

Suppose you have two derived classes B and C that have a common base class A,
and you also have another class D that inherits from B and C. You can declare the
base class A
as virtual to ensure that B and C share the same subobject of A.

In the following example, an object of class D has two distinct subobjects of class
L,
one through class B1 and another through class B2. You can use the keyword
virtual in front of the base class specifiers in the base lists of classes B1 and B2 to
indicate that only one subobject of type L, shared by class B1 and class B2, exists.
For example:

class L { /* ... */ }; // indirect

base class class B1 : virtual
public L { /* ... */ }; class B2 :
virtual public L { /* ... */ };
class D : public B1, public B2 { /* ... */ }; // valid
Using the keyword virtual in this example ensures that an object of class D
inherits only one subobject of class L.
A derived class can have both virtual and nonvirtual base classes. For example:

class V { /* ... */ };
class B1 : virtual public V { /*
... */ }; class B2 : virtual
public V { /* ... */ }; class B3
: public V { /* ... */ };
class X : public B1, public B2, public B3 {
/* ... */ };
In the above example, class X has two subobjects of class V, one that is shared by
classes
B1
and B2 and one through class B3.

VIRTUAL FUNCTIONS:
C++ matches a function call with the correct function definition at
compile time known as static binding

the compiler can match a function call with the correct function
definition at run time known as dynamic binding.
declare a function with the keyword virtual if you want the compiler to use
dynamic binding for that specific function.
Example:
class A {
public:
 virtual void f() { cout << "Class A"
<< endl; } };
class B:
public A {
public:
void f(int) { cout << "Class B"
<< endl; } };
class C:
public B {
public:
void f() { cout << "Class C"
<< endl; } };

―Pure‖ly Virtual: A virtual function declared with no definition

base class contains no implementation at all

class containing a pure virtual function is an abstract class
similar to Java interfaces
cannot instantiate from abstract classes enforces
a design through inheritance hierarchy inherited
classes must define implementation

Example:

class A {
public:
virtual void f() = 0; // pure
virtual };
class B: public A
{ public:
void f() { cout << "Class B" << endl;
} };
class C: public B
{ public:
void f() { cout << "Class C" << endl;
} };
Run Time Type Information (RTTI)
Always exists in OOP: a prerequisite for dynamic binding
Accessible to programmer?
Not necessarily in statically typed languages
Many things can be done without it!
Almost always in dynamically typed languages
Without it, it is impossible to be sure that an object will recognize a
message! In LST, RTTI is the information accessible from the instance_of
pointer Dynamic binding and casting:
Dynamic Typing: no constraints on the values stored in a variable.
– Usually implies reference semantics
•
 Run‐time type information: dynamic type is

•
associated with the value.
–
–
};
Dynamic casting:
•
Casting operator is for polymorphic object casting ,so that it can cast from one object
to another object.
•
Dynamic cast is also called as safe cast.it succeeds only when the pointer or
reference being cast is an object of the target type or derived type from it.
•
The syntax is written as dynamic cast<ToobjectptrOr ref>(FromobjectPtrOrRef)
 •
If we have a base class and a derived class,casting from derived pointer to base
pointer always succeeds.The casting from base pointer to derived can be succeed only
if base is actually pointing to an object of derived one.
Rtti and templates:
•
If we want to test the type of the actual variable and try to provide validations
according to the type we can use RTTI for that.

Cross casting:

It refers to casting from derived to proper base class when there are multiple
base classes in case of multiple inheritance.
The dynamic_cast feature of C++ affords another kind of solution -- cross
casting. Consider the following code.
class A {public: virtual ~A();};
class C : public A, public B
{}; A* ap = new C;
B* bp = dynamic_cast<B*>(ap);
Notice that classes A and are completely unrelated. Now when we create an
instance of C we can safely upcast it to an . However, we can now take that pointer to
A and it to a pointer to a B. This works because the A pointer ‗ ap ‘ really points at
a C object; and C derives from B Thus, we have cast accross the inheritance
hierarchy between completely unrelated classes. It should be noted that this will
not work with regular casts since they will not be able to do the address arithmetic
to get the pointer to B correct.
For example: B*
bp = (B*)ap;
While this will compile without errors , it will not generate working code. The value
of ‗ bp ‘ will not actually point to the B part of C. Rather it will still point at the A
part of C.

This will lead to undefined

behavior Down casting:
rectangle::rectangle(float h, float w, int c, int l):pr(c, l)
{
height =
h; width =
w; xpos =
0; ypos =
0; };
void main()
{
rectangle rc(3.0, 2.0, 1, 3);
C++ statements;
 UNIT IV OVERVIEW OF JAVA 9 Data types, variables and arrays, operators, control
statements, classes, objects, methods – Inheritance

IOSTREAM LIBRARY
-
In Module 5 you have learned the formatted I/O in C by calling various
standard functions. In this Module we will discuss how this formatted I/O implemented in
C++ by using member functions and stream manipulators.
-
The header files used for formatted I/O in C++ are:
Header file
iostream.h
• Provide basic information required for all stream I/O operation such as cin, cout,
cerr and clog correspond to standard input stream, standard output stream, and
standard unbuffered and buffered error streams respectively.
iomanip.h
• Contains information useful for performing formatted I/O with parameterized stream
manipulation.
fstream.h
• Contains information for user controlled file processing
operations. strstream.h
• Contains information for performing in-memory formatting or in-core formatting.
This resembles file processing, but the I/O operation is performed to and from character
arrays rather than files.
stdiostrem.h
• Contains information for program that mixes the C and C++ styles of I/O.
iostream library
- The compilers that fully comply with the C++ standard that use the template
based header files won‘t need the .h extension. Please refer to Module 23 for more
information.
- The iostream class hierarchy is shown below. From the base class ios, we have
a derived class:

Class
istream
•
Class for stream input operation.
ostream
•
Class for stream output operation.
ios derived classes
-
So, iostream support both stream input and output. The class hierarchy
is shown below.
 Left and Right Shift Operators
- We have used these operators in most of the Modules in this Tutorial for C++ codes.
- The left shift operator (<<) is overloaded to designate stream output and is called
stream insertion operator.
- The right shift operator (>>) is overloaded to designate stream input and is
called stream extraction operator.
-
These operators used with the standard stream object (and with other
user defined stream objects) is listed below:
Operators
cin
•
Object of istream class, connected to the standard input device, normally the
keyboard.
cout
•
Object of ostream class, connected to standard output device, normally the display
screen.
- For file processing C++ uses (will be discussed in another Module) the following classes:
Class
•
ifstream
To perform file input operations.
•
ofstream
For file output operation.
•
fstream
For file input/output operations.
Stream output program example:
//string output using <<
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <iostream.h>
void main(void)
{
cout<<"Welcome to C++ I/O module!!!"<<endl;
cout<<"Welcome to ";
cout<<"C++ module 18"<<endl;
//endl is end line stream manipulator
//issue a new line character and flushes the output buffer
//output buffer may be flushed by cout<<flush; command
system("pause");
}
get() and getline() Member Functions of Stream Input
- For the get() function, we have three versions.
1. get() without any arguments, input one character from the designated streams including
 whitespace and returns this character as the value of the function call. It will
return EOF when end of file on the stream is encountered. For example:
2. cin.get();
3. get() with a character argument, inputs the next character from the input stream
including whitespace. It return false when end of file is encountered while returns a
reference to the istream object for which the get member function is being invoked. For example:
4. char ch;
5. cin.get(ch);
7. get() with three arguments, a character array, a size limit and a delimiter (default
value ‗‘). It reads characters from the input stream, up to one less than the specified

maximum number of characters and terminates or terminates as soon as the

delimiter is read.
For example: char
namevar[30];
...
cin.get(namevar, 30);
//get up to 29 characters and inserts null
//at the end of the string stored in variable
//namevar. If a delimiter is found,
//the read terminates. The delimiter
//is left in the stream, not stored
//in the array.
4. getline() operates like the third get() and insert a null character after the line
in the character array. It removes the delimiter from the stream, but does not store it in
the character array.
Program examples:
//End of file controls depend on system
//Ctrl-z followed by return key - IBM PC
//Ctrl-d - UNIX and MAC
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <iostream.h>
void main(void)
{
char p;
cout <<"Using member functions get(), eof() and put()"
<<"---------------------------------------------"<<endl;
cout<<"Before any input, cin.eof() is "<<cin.eof()<<endl;
cout<<"Enter a line of texts followed by end of file control: "<<endl; while((p =
cin.get()) !=EOF)
cout.put(p);
cout<<"some text input, cin.eof() is "<<cin.eof()<<endl; system("pause");
}

Program example:
//Using read(), write() and gcount() member functions
#include <stdlib.h>
 #include <iostream.h>
const int SIZE = 100;
void main(void)
{
char buffer[SIZE];
cout<<"Enter a line of
text:"<<endl; cin.read(buffer,45);
cout<<"The line of text entered was:
"<<endl; cout.write(buffer, cin.gcount());
//The gcount() member function returns www.tenouk.com
//the number of unformatted characters last extracted
cout<<endl;
system("pause");
}

Stream Manipulators
-
Used to perform formatting, such as:
▪ Setting field width.
▪ Precision.
▪ Unsetting format flags.
▪ Flushing stream.
▪ Inserting newline in the output stream and flushing the stream.
▪ Inserting the null character in the output stream.
▪ Skipping whitespace.
▪ Setting the fill character in field.
Stream Base
-
For stream base we have:
Operator/function
•
hex
To set the base to hexadecimal, base 16.
•
oct
To set the base to octal, base 8.
•
dec
To reset the stream to decimal.
•
setbase()
Changing the base of the stream, taking one integer argument of 10, 8 or 16 for decimal,
base 8 or base 16 respectively. setbase() is parameterized stream manipulator by taking
argument, we have to include iomanip.h header file.
Table 18.5: Stream base operator and function.
Program example:
//using hex, oct, dec and setbase stream
 manipulator #include <stdlib.h>
#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h>
void main(void)
{
int p;
cout<<"Enter a decimal number:"<<endl;
cin>>p;
cout<<p<< " in hexadecimal is: "
<<hex<<p<<''
<<dec<<p<<" in octal is:
" <<oct<<p<<''
<<setbase(10) <<p<<" in decimal is: "
<<p<<endl;
cout<<endl;
system("pause"); www.tenouk.com
}
Floating-point Precision
- Used to control the number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
- Use setprecision() or precision().
- precision 0 restores to the default precision of 6 decimal points.
//using precision and setprecision
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h> #include
<math.h> void main(void)
{
double theroot = sqrt(11.55);
cout<<"Square root of 11.55 with various"<<endl;
cout<<" precisions"<<endl; cout<<"---------------------------
------"<<endl; cout<<"Using 'precision':"<<endl;
for(int poinplace=0; poinplace<=8; poinplace++)
{
cout.precision(poinplace);
cout<<theroot<<endl;
}
cout<<"'setprecision':"<<endl;
for(int poinplace=0; poinplace<=8; poinplace++)
cout<<setprecision(poinplace)<<theroot<<endl;
system("pause");
}
Field Width
- Sets the field width and returns the previous width. If values processed are smaller than the
field width, fill characters are inserted as padding. Wider values will not be truncated.
- Use width() or setw(). For example:
cout.width(6); //field is 6 position wide
Program example:
//using width member function #include
<iostream.h> #include <stdlib.h>
void main(void)
{
int p = 6;
char string[20];
cout<<"Using field width with setw() or width()"<<endl;
cout<<"----------------------------------------"<<endl; cout<<"Enter
a line of text:"<<endl;
cin.width(7); while
(cin>>string)
{
cout.width(p++);
cout<<string<<endl;
cin.width(7);
//use ctrl-z followed by return key or ctrl-d to exit
}
system("pause");
}
Stream Format States
- Format state flag specify the kinds of formatting needed during the stream operations.
- Available member functions used to control the flag setting are: setf(), unsetf() and
flags().
- flags() function must specify a value representing the settings of all the flags.

- The one argument, setf() function specifies one or more ORed flags and ORs them with
the existing flag setting to form a new format state.
- The setiosflags() parameterized stream manipulator performs the same functions as the
setf.
- The resetiosflags() stream manipulator performs the same functions as the unsetf()
member function. For parameterized stream manipulators you need iomanip.h header file.
- Format state flags are defined as an enumeration in class ios.

Format state flags

ios::skipws
Use to skip whitespace on input.
ios::adjustfield
Controlling the padding, left, right or internal.
ios::left
Use left justification.
ios::right
Use right justification.
ios::internal
Left justify the sign, right justify the magnitude.
ios::basefield
Setting the base of the numbers.
 ios::dec
Use base 10, decimal.
ios::oct
Use base 8, octal.
ios::hex
Use base 16, hexadecimal.
ios::showbase
Show base indicator on output.
ios::showpoint
Shows trailing decimal point and zeroes.
ios::uppercase
Use uppercase for hexadecimal and scientific notation values.
ios::showpos
Shows the + sign before positive numbers.
ios::floatfield
To set the floating point to scientific notation or fixed format.
ios::scientific
Use scientific notation.
ios::fixed
Use fixed decimal point for floating-point numbers.
ios::unitbuf
Flush all streams after insertion.
ios::stdio
Flush stdout, stderr after insertion.
- skipws flags indicates that >> should skip whitespace on an input stream. The
default behavior of >> is to skip whitespace. To change this, use the unsetf(ios::skipws). ws
stream manipulator also can be used for this purpose.

Trailing Zeroes and Decimal Points

- ios::showpoint – this flag is set to force a floating point number to be output with its
decimal point and trailing zeroes. For example, floating point 88.0 will print 88 without
showpoint set and 88.000000 (or many more 0s specified by current precision) with
showpoint set.

///Using showpoint
//controlling the trailing zeroes and floating
points #include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main(void)
{
cout<<"Before using the ios::showpoint flag"
<<"------------------------------------"<<endl;
cout<<"cout prints 88.88000 as: "<<88.88000
<<"prints 88.80000 as: "<<88.80000
<<"prints 88.00000 as: "<<88.00000
 <<"using the ios::showpoint flag" <<"---------
--------------------------"<<endl;
cout.setf(ios::showpoint);
cout<<"cout prints 88.88000 as: "<<88.88000
<<"prints 88.80000 as: "<<88.80000
<<"prints 88.00000 as: "<<88.00000<<endl;
system("pause");
}

Justification
- Use for left, right or internal justification.
- ios::left – enables fields to be left-justified with padding characters to the right.
- ios::right – enables fields to be right-justified with padding characters to the left.
- The character to be used for padding is specified by the fill or setfill.
- internal – this flag indicates that a number‘s sign (or base if ios::showbase flag is set)
should be left-justified within a field, the number‘s magnitude should be right-justified and the
intervening spaces should be padded with the fill character.
- The left, right and internal flags are contained in static data member ios::adjustfield, so
ios::adjustfield argument must be provided as the second argument to setf when setting the
right, left or internal justification flags because left, right and internal are mutually exclusive.

//using setw(), setiosflags(), resetiosflags() manipulators //and setf and unsetf member functions
#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h>
#include <stdlib.h> void
main(void)
{
long p = 123456789L;
//L - literal data type qualifier for long...
//F - float, UL unsigned integer...
cout<<"The default for 10 fields is right justified:"
<<setw(10)<<p
<<"member function" <<"-----
----------------"
<<"setf() to set ios::left:"<<setw(10);
cout.setf(ios::left,ios::adjustfield);
cout<<p<<"unsetf() to restore the default:";
cout.unsetf(ios::left);
cout<<setw(10)<<p
<<"parameterized stream manipulators" <<"-------
--------------------------------" <<"setiosflags() to set
the ios::left:"
<<setw(10)<<setiosflags(ios::left)<<p
<<"resetiosflags() to restore the default:"
<<setw(10)<<resetiosflags(ios::left) <<p<<endl;
system("pause");
}
 Padding
- fill() – this member function specify the fill character to be used with adjusted field. If no value
is specified, spaces are used for padding. This function returns the prior padding
character.
- setfill() – this manipulator also sets the padding character.

//using fill() member function and setfill() manipulator

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h>
#include <stdlib.h> void
main(void)
{
long p = 30000;
cout<<p
<<" printed using the default pad character" <<"for
right and left justified and as hex" <<"with internal
justification." <<"----------------------------------------
----"; cout.setf(ios::showbase);
cout<<setw(10)<<p<<endl;
cout.setf(ios::left,ios::adjustfield);
cout<<setw(10)<<p<<endl;
cout.setf(ios::internal,ios::adjustfield);
cout<<setw(10)<<hex<<p<<"";
cout<<"Using various padding
character"<<endl; cout<<"---------------------------
----"<<endl; cout.setf(ios::right,ios::adjustfield);
cout.fill('#');
cout<<setw(10)<<dec<<p<<'';
cout.setf(ios::left,ios::adjustfield);
cout<<setw(10)<<setfill('$')<<p<<'';
cout.setf(ios::internal,ios::adjustfield);
cout<<setw(10)<<setfill('*')<<hex<<p<<endl;
system("pause");
}
Scientific Notation
- ios::scientific and ios::fixed flags are contained in the static member ios::floatfield
(usage similar to ios::adjustfield and ios::basefield).
- These flags used to control the output format of floating point numbers.
- The scientific flag – is set to force the output of a floating point number to display a
specific number of digits to the right of the decimal point (specified by the precision member
function).
- cout.setf(0, ios::floatfield) restores the system default format for the floating number
output.
Program example:
//Displaying floating number in system
 //default, scientific and fixed format
#include <iostream.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void main(void)
{
double p = 0.000654321, q = 9.8765e3;
cout<<"Declared variables" <<"--------
----------"
<<"0.000654321"<<''<<"9.8765e3"<<""; cout<<"Default format:"
<<"---------------"
<<p<<''<<q<<''<<endl;
cout.setf(ios::scientific,ios::floatfield);
cout<<"Scientific format:" <<"--------
----------"
<<p<<''<<q<<'';
cout.unsetf(ios::scientific);
cout<<"format after unsetf:" <<"---
-------------------------"
<<p<<''<<q<<endl;
cout.setf(ios::fixed,ios::floatfield);
cout<<"fixed format:" <<"----------
------" <<p<<''<<q<<endl;
system("pause");
}

File Handling

Opening a File: fopen

• We're able to create, modify, and access files easily from PHP.
Files are used to store customer data, store page hit counts, remember end-user
preferences, and a plethora of other things in web applications.
• The fopen function opens a file for reading or writing.

fopen (string filename, string mode,

[, int use_include_path
[, resource zcontext ]])

filename - name of the file including path mode -

how the file will be used read, write, etc
use_include_path - optional parameter that
can be set to 1 to specify
that you want to search for
the file in the PHP include
path
zcontext - not covered in these notes
 File Modes

•'r' - open for reading only

•'r+' - open for reading & writing
•'w' - open for writing only, create file if
necessary
•'w+' - open for reading and writing, create file
if necessary
•'a' - open for appending, (start writing at
end of file)
•'a+' - open for reading and writing
•'x' - create and open for writing only, if file
already exists fopen will fail
•'x+' - create and open for reading and
writing
•Note -------
different operating systems have different
line-ending conventions. When inserting a line-break into a text file you need to use the
correct line-ending character(s). Windows systems use , unix based systems use .
PHP has a constant PHP_EOL which holds the correct one for the system you are using.

File Open Examples

•In Windows, you can use a text-mode translation flag ('t'), which will translate to when
working with the file. To use this flag specify 't' as the last character of the mode parameter,
i.e.; 'wt'.

•Examples

-- open the file /home/file.txt for reading

$handle = fopen("/home/file.txt", "r");

# after this you'll refer to the file with the variable $handle

-- open a file for writing

$handle = fopen("/home/wrfile.txt","w");
# the file will be created if it doesn't exist,
if it does exist you will overwrite whatever is currently in the
file File Open Examples
•open a file for binary writing

$handle = fopen("/home/file.txt", "wb");

•In Windows you should be careful to escape any backslashes used in the path to the file
 $handle = fopen("c:\data\file.txt", "r");

•you can open files on another system

$handle = fopen("http://www.superduper.
com/file.txt", "r");

•can use ftp

$handle = fopen("ftp://user:password@
superduper.com/file.txt",
"r");
Reading Lines of Text: fgets
•The fgets function reads a string of text from a file.
fgets (resource handle [, int length]);

Pass this function the file handle to an open file, and an optional length. Reading ends
when length - 1 bytes have been read, on a newline (which is included in the return value), or on
encountering the end of file, whichever comes first. If no length is specified, the default length is
1024 bytes. (file.txt below)
Here
is
the
file.

$handle = fopen("file.txt","r");
while (!feof($handle))
{
$text = fgets ($handle);
}
fclose($handle);
Reading Characters: fgetc
•The fgetc function let's you read a single character from an open file.

Here's
the file
contents.

$fhandle = fopen("file.txt", "r");

while ($char = fgetc($fhandle))

{
if ($char == "")
{
$char = "<br />";
}
echo "$char";
}
 fclose($fhandle);
•Binary Reading: fread
•Files don't have to be read line by line, you can read a specified number of bytes (or until
the end-of-file is reached). The file is treated as a simple binary file of bytes.

fread (resource handle, int length);

Bytes are read up to the length specified or EOF is reached. On Windows systems, you
should open files for binary reading (mode 'rb') to work with fread. Adding 'b' to the mode
does no harm on other systems, it can be included for portability.

$handle = fopen("file.txt","rb");
$text = fread($handle, filesize("file.txt");

// the filesize function returns the no. of bytes

// in the file.

you can convert line endings to <br />

$br_text = str_replace("", "<br />", $text);
•Reading a Whole File: file_get_contents
•The file_get_contents function will read the entire contents of a file into a string. No
file handle is needed for this function.

$text = file_get_contents("file.txt");
$br_text = str_replace("","<br />",$text);

echo $br_text;

Careful with this function, for very large files, it can be a problem since the entire file
must be memory resident at one time.

Parsing a File

To make it easier to extract data from a file, you can format that file (using, for example,
tabs) and use fscanf to read your data from the file.
In general -----
fscanf ( resource handle, string format);
•Parsing a file: fscanf (cont.)
•This function takes a file handle, handle, and format, which describes the format of the
file you're working with. You set up the format in the same way as with sprintf, which was
discussed in Chapter 3. For example, say the following data was contained in a file names

tabs.txt, where the first and last names are separated by a tab.

George Washington
Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Jefferson
 $fh = fopen("tabs.txt", "rb");
while ($names = fscanf($fh, "%s%s"))
{
list($firstname,$lastname) = $names; echo
$firstname, " ", $lastname, "<br />";
}
fclose ($fh);
Writing to a File: fwrite
•Write to a file with fwrite.
fwrite (resource fh, string str [, int length]);
The fwrite function writes the contents of str to the file stream represented by fh.
The writing will stop after length bytes have been written or the end of the string is reached.
fwrite returns the number of bytes written or FALSE if there was an error. If
you're working on a Windows system the file must be opened with 'b' included in the
fopen mode parameter.

$fh = fopen("text.txt","wb");
$text = "Here.";
if (fwrite($fh, $text) == FALSE)
{
echo "Cannot write to text.txt.";
}
else {
echo "Created the file text.txt.";
}
fclose($fh);
Appending to a File: fwrite
•In this case open the file for appending, using the file mode 'a':

$fh = fopen("text.txt","ab");
Append this to text.txt:

And here is
more text.

$text = "here istext.";

if (fwrite($fh, $text) == FALSE)

{
echo "Cannot write to text.txt.";
}
else {
echo "Appended to the file text.txt.";
}
fclose($fh);
Writing a File at Once: file_put_contents
 •This function writes a string to a file, and here's how you use it in general:

file_put_contents (string filename, string data

[, int flags
[,resource context]]);

$text = "Here.";

if (file_put_contents("text.txt",$text) ==
FALSE)
{
echo "Cannot write to text.txt.";
}
else {
echo "Wrote to the file text.txt";
}

Random Access
This lesson is about using random access files in C and the following lesson will look at
working with text files. Apart from the simplest of applications, most programs have to read or
write files. Maybe it's just for reading a config file, or a text parser or something more
sophisticated. The basic file operations are

fopen - open a file- specify how its opened (read/write) and type (binary/text)

fclose - close an opened file

fread - read from a file

fwrite - write to a file

fseek/fsetpos - move a file pointer to somewhere in a file.

ftell/fgetpos - tell you where the file pointer is located.

There are two fundamental types of file: text and binary. Of these two, binary are generally
the simpler to deal with. As doing random access on a text file isn't something you need to do too
often, we'll stick with binary files for the rest of this lesson. The first four operations listed above are
for both text and random access files. The last two just for random access.
Random access means we can move to any part of a file and read or write data from it
without having to read through the entire file. Back thirty years ago, much data was stored
on large reels of computer tape. The only way to get to a point on the tape was by reading all the
way through the tape. Then disks came along and now we can read any part of a file directly.
Object Serialization
The C++ language provides a somewhat limited support for file processing. This is probably
based on the time it was conceived and put to use. Many languages that were developed after C++,
such as (Object) Pascal and Java provide a better support, probably because their
 libraries were implemented as the demand was made obvious. Based on this, C++ supports
saving only values of primitive types such as short, int, char double. This can be done by
using either the C FILE structure or C++' own fstream class.
Binary Serialization

Object serialization consists of saving the values that are part of an object, mostly the
value gotten from declaring a variable of a class. AT the current standard, C++ doesn't inherently
support object serialization. To perform this type of operation, you can use a technique
known as binary serialization.
When you decide to save a value to a medium, the fstream class provides the option to
save the value in binary format. This consists of saving each byte to the medium by aligning
bytes in a contiguous manner, the same way the variables are stored in binary numbers.
To indicate that you want to save a value as binary, when declaring the ofstream
variable, specify the ios option as binary. Here is an example:
#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Student
{
public:

char FullName[40];

char CompleteAddress[120];

char Gender;
 double Age;

bool LivesInASingleParentHome;

};

int main()
{
Student one;
strcpy(one.FullName, "Ernestine Waller");
strcpy(one.CompleteAddress, "824 Larson Drv, Silver Spring, MD
20910"); one.Gender = 'F';
one.Age = 16.50;
one.LivesInASingleParentHome
= true; ofstream
ofs("fifthgrade.ros", ios::binary);
return 0;
}
Writing to the Stream
The ios::binary option lets the compiler know how the value will be stored.
This declaration also initiates the file. To write the values to a stream, you can call the
fstream::write() method.
After calling the write() method, you can write the value of the variable to the
medium. Here is an example:
#include
<fstream>
#include
<iostream>
using
namespace
std; class
Student
{
public:
char FullName[40];
char
CompleteAddress[1
20]; char Gender;
double Age;
bool LivesInASingleParentHome;
};
int main()
{

Student one;
strcpy(one.FullName, "Ernestine Waller");
strcpy(one.CompleteAddress, "824 Larson Drv, Silver Spring, MD
 20910"); one.Gender = 'F';
one.Age = 16.50;
one.LivesInASingleParentHome
= true; ofstream
ofs("fifthgrade.ros", ios::binary);
ofs.write((char *)&one,
sizeof(one)); return 0;

}
Reading From the Stream
Reading an object saved in binary format is as easy as writing it. To read the
value, call the ifstream::read() method. Here is an example:
#include
<fstream>
#include
<iostream>
using
namespace
std; class
Student
{
public:
char FullName[40];
char
CompleteAddress[1
20]; char Gender;
double Age;
bool LivesInASingleParentHome;
};
int main()
{
/*
Student one;
strcpy(one.FullName, "Ernestine Waller");
strcpy(one.CompleteAddress, "824 Larson Drv, Silver Spring, MD
20910"); one.Gender = 'F';
one.Age = 16.50;
one.LivesInASingleParentHom
e = true;

ofstream ofs("fifthgrade.ros",
ios::binary); ofs.write((char
*)&one, sizeof(one));

*/
Student two;
ifstream ifs("fifthgrade.ros",
 ios::binary); ifs.read((char
*)&two, sizeof(two)); cout <<
"Student Information";
cout << "Student Name: " << two.FullName
<< endl; cout << "Address: " <<
two.CompleteAddress << endl; if(
two.Gender == 'f' || two.Gender == 'F' )
cout << "Gender: Female" << endl;
else if( two.Gender == 'm' ||
two.Gender == 'M' ) cout << "Gender:
Male" << endl;
else
cout << "Gender: Unknown"
<< endl; cout << "Age: " <<
two.Age << endl;
if( two.LivesInASingleParentHome == true )
cout << "Lives in a single parent home" << endl;
else

cout << "Doesn't live in a single parent home" << endl;

cout << "";
return 0;

NAMESPACE:

• Namespace: a naming context

• Conflicts are bad
• Make names unique within a namespace, make namespaces unique
• AC ++ namespace: contains classes, variables, constants, functions, etc.
• Names in a namespace are visible outside the namespace
• Example: a class is a namespace
class Example {
public:
void PublicFunction ();
private:
void PrivateFunction
(); };
• Both PublicFunction() and PrivateFunction() are visible outside the class, as
Example::PublicFunction() and Example::PrivateFunction()
• Need to distinguish between different items with the same name
• Example: two libraries both have a String class
• C solution: make the names different (Library1String and Library2String)
• Requires vendors to cooperate, and makes all names longer (kThemeWidgetCloseBox)
• Bad C++ solution: use dummy classes or structs to group names
struct Library1 {
static void Function1 ();
namespace Library1
{ class String;
}
Library1List.h:
namespace Library1
{ class List;
}
Using a namespace
namespace Library1
{ class String;
class List;
}
• Explicit qualification
void DoSomething ()
{
Library1::String string;
Library1::List list;
// ...
}
• using declaration
void DoSomething ()
{
using Library1::String;
using Library1::List;
String string;
List list;
// ...
}
• using directive
void DoSomething ()
{
using namespace Library1;
String string;
List list;
}
Nested namespaces
namespace Library1
{ namespace Part1 {
class String;
class List;
}
namespace Part2 {
class String;
class List;
class Array;
}
}
Ansi string objects

§
The ANSI string class implements a first-class character string data type that avoids
many problems
§
associated with simple character arrays ("C-style strings"). You can define a string
object very
§
simply, as shown in the following example

#include <string>
using namespace std;
...
string first_name =
"Bjarne"; string last_name;
last_name = "Stroustrup";
string names = first_name + " " +
last_name; cout << names << endl;
names = last_name + ", " + first
" + first_name;
cout << names << endl;

Member functions
§
The string class defines many member functions. A few of the basic ones
are described below:
§
A string object may defined without an initializing value, in which case its initial
§
value is an empty string (zero length, no characters):
§
string str1;
§
A string object may also be initialized with
§
� a string expression:
§
string str2 = str1;
§
string str3 = str1 + str2;
§
string str4 (str2); // Alternate form
§
� a character string literal:
 string str4 = "Hello there";

Standard Template Library

§
The standard template library (STL) contains
§
Containers
§
Algorithms
§
Iterators

§
A container is a way that stored data is organized in memory, for
example an array of elements.
§
Algorithms in the STL are procedures that are applied to containers to
process their data, for example search for an element in an array, or sort an array.
§
Iterators are a generalization of the concept of pointers, they point
to elements in a container, for example you can increment an iterator to
point to the next element in an array
 UNIT V EXCEPTION HANDLING 9 Packages and Interfaces, Exception
handling, Multithreaded programming, Strings, Input/Output

1.Function and Class Templates:

C++ Class Templates are used where we have multiple copies of code for
different data types with the same logic. If a set of functions or classes have the
same functionality for different data types, they becomes good candidates for
being written as Templates.
One good area where this C++ Class Templates are suited can be
container classes. Very famous examples for these container classes will
be the STL classes like vector, list etc.,
Once code is written as a C++ class template, it can support all data types.
Though very
useful, It is advisable to write a class as a template after getting a good
hands-on experience on the logic .
Declaring C++ Class Templates:
Declaration of C++ class template should start with the keyword
template. A parameter should be included inside angular brackets. The
parameter inside the angular brackets, can be either the keyword class or
typename.
This is followed by the class body declaration with the member
data and member functions. The following is the declaration for a
sample Queue class.
The keyword class highlighted in blue color, is not related to the
typename. This is a mandatory keyword to be included for declaring a
template class.
Defining member functions - C++ Class Templates:
If the functions are defined outside the template class body, they should
always be defined with the full template definition. Other conventions of writing
the function in C++ class templates are the same as writing normal c++
functions.
template < typename T> void MyQueue<T> ::Add(T const &d)
{
data.push_back(d);
}

template < typename T> void MyQueue<T>::Remove()

{
data.erase(data.begin( ) + 0,data.begin( ) + 1);
}

template < typename T> void MyQueue<T>::Print()

{
 std::vector
<int>::iteratr
It1; It1 =
data.begin();
for ( It1 = data.begin( ) ; It1 !=
data.end( ) ; It1++ ) cout << " " <<
*It1<<endl;

The Add function adds the data to the end of the vector. The remove
function removes the first element. These functionalities make this C++ class
Template behave like a normal Queue. The print function prints all the data using
the iterator.
Full Program - C++ Class Templates:
//C++_Class_Templates.cpp

template <typename T> void MyQueue<T> ::Add(T const &d)

{
data.push_back(d);
}

template <typename T> void MyQueue<T>::Remove()

{
data.erase(data.begin( ) + 0,data.begin( ) + 1);
}

template <typename T> void MyQueue<T>::Print()

{
std::vector
<int>::iterator
It1; It1 =
data.begin();
for ( It1 = data.begin( ) ; It1 !=
data.end( ) ; It1++ ) cout << " " <<
*It1<<endl;

}
//Usage for C++
class templates
void main()
{
Templates:

One C++ Class Template can handle different types of parameters.

Compiler generates classes for only the used types. If the template
is instantiated for int type, compiler generates only an int version for the c++
template class.

Templates reduce the effort on coding for different data types to a single
set of code.

Testing and debugging efforts are reduced.

Exeption Handling:
Exception handling is a mechanism that separates code that detects and
handles exceptional circumstances from the rest of your program. Note that an
exceptional circumstance is not necessarily an error.
When a function detects an exceptional situation, you represent this with
an object. This object is called an exception object. In order to deal with the
exceptional situation you throw the exception. This passes control, as well as the
exception, to a designated block of code in a direct or indirect caller of the
function that threw the exception. This block of code is called a handler. In a
handler, you specify the types of exceptions that it may process. The C++ run
time, together with the generated code, will pass control to the first appropriate
handler that is able to process the exception thrown. When this happens, an
exception is caught. A handler may rethrow an exception so it can be caught by
another handler.
The exception handling mechanism is made up of the following elements:

try blocks

catch blocks

throw expressions
Exception specifications (C++ only)

try blocks (C++ only)

You use a try block to indicate which areas in your program that might
throw exceptions you want to handle immediately. You use a function try block
to indicate that you want to detect exceptions in the entire body of a function.
The constructor of class A has a function try block with a member
initializer. Function f() has a function try block. The main() function contains a
try block.

>>-catch--(--exception_declaration--)--{--statements--}--------><

You can declare a handler to catch many types of exceptions. The

allowable objects that a function can catch are declared in the parentheses
following the catch keyword (the
exception_declaration). You can catch objects of the fundamental types,
base and derived class objects, references, and pointers to all of these types. You
can also catch const and volatile types. The exception_declaration cannot be an
incomplete type, or a reference or pointer to an incomplete type other than one of
the following:
You cannot define a type in an exception_declaration.
You can also use the catch(...) form of the handler to catch all thrown
exceptions that have not been caught by a previous catch block. The ellipsis in
the catch argument indicates that any exception thrown can be handled by this
handler.
If an exception is caught by a catch(...) block, there is no direct way to
access the object thrown. Information about an exception caught by catch(...) is
very limited.
You can declare an optional variable name if you want to access the
thrown object in the catch block.

A catch block can only catch accessible objects. The object caught must
have an accessible copy constructor.
throw expressions (C++ only)
You use a throw expression to indicate that your program has
encountered an exception. throw expression syntax

>>-throw--+-----------------------+----------------------------><
'-assignment_expression-'

The type of assignment_expression cannot be an incomplete type,

or a pointer to an incomplete type other than one of the following:

void*

const void*

volatile void*

const volatile void*

The assignment_expression is treated the same way as a function
argument in a call or the operand of a return statement.
If the assignment_expression is a class object, the copy constructor and
destructor of that object must be accessible. For example, you cannot throw a
class object that has its copy constructor declared as private.
Exception specifications (C++ only)
C++ provides a mechanism to ensure that a given function is limited to
throwing only a specified list of exceptions. An exception specification
at the beginning of any function
acts as a guarantee to the function's caller that the function will throw
only the exceptions contained in the exception specification.
For example, a function:
 void translate() throw(unknown_word,bad_grammar) { /* ... */ }
explicitly states that it will only throw exception objects whose types are
unknown_word or bad_grammar, or any type derived from unknown_word or
bad_grammar.
Exception specification syntax

>>-throw--(--+--------------+--)-------------------------------><
'-type_id_list-'

The type_id_list is a comma-separated list of types. In this list you

cannot specify an incomplete type, a pointer or a reference to an incomplete
type, other than a pointer to void, optionally qualified with const and/or
volatile. You cannot define a type in an exception specification.
A function with no exception specification allows all exceptions. A
function with an exception specification that has an empty
type_id_list, throw(), does not allow any
exceptions to be thrown.
Function f() can throw objects of types A or B. If the function tries to
throw an object of type C, the compiler will call unexpected() because type C has
not been specified in the function's exception specification, nor does it derive
publicly from A. Similarly, function g() cannot throw pointers to objects of type
C; the function may throw pointers of type A or pointers of objects that derive
publicly from A.
A function that overrides a virtual function can only throw exceptions
specified by the virtual function. The following example demonstrates this:
The compiler allows B::f() because the member function may throw only
exceptions of
type
int. The compiler would not allow C::f() because the member function
may throw any kind of exception. The compiler would not allow D::f() because
the member function can throw more types of exceptions (int, char, and double)
than A::f().
Implicitly declared special member functions (default constructors, copy
constructors, destructors, and copy assignment operators) have
exception specifications. An implicitly declared special member
function will have in its exception specification the types
declared in the functions' exception specifications that the special function
invokes. If any function that a special function invokes allows all exceptions,
then that special function allows all exceptions. If all the functions that a special
function invokes allow no exceptions, then that
special function will allow no exceptions. The following example
demonstrates this: class A {
public:
A() throw (int);
A(const
A&) throw
(float);
 ~A()
public B, public A { };
The following special functions in the above example have been
implicitly declared: C::C() throw (int, char);
C::C(const C&); // Can throw any type of
exception, including float C::~C() throw();
terminate() and unexpected()

Earlier in this issue the basic purposes of the terminate() and

unexpected() functions are described. In the past year the standards committee
has made several refinements to these functions.
The committee has confirmed that direct calls may be made to
these functions from application code. So for instance:
#include <exception>
if
(something_is_really_w
rong) std::terminate();
This will terminate the program without unwinding the stack and
destroying local (and finally static) objects. Alternatively, if you just throw an
exception that doesn't get handled, it is implementation- dependent whether the
stack is unwound before terminate() is called. (Most implementations will
likely support a mode wherein the stack is not unwound, so that you can debug
from the real point of failure).
Probably the main purpose of making direct calls to terminate() and
unexpected() will be to simulate possible error conditions in application testing,
especially when the application has established its own terminate and unexpected
handlers.
The committee has changed slightly the definition of what handlers are used
when terminate() or unexpected() are called. In most cases, they are now the
handlers in effect at
the time of the throw, which are not necessarily the current handlers. Usually
they are one and the same, but consider:
#include <exception>
The copy constructor for A is called as part of the throw operation in f(),
so by the time the C++ implementation determines that an unexpected handler
needs to be called, u2() is the
current handler. However, based on this recent change, it is the handler in
effect at the time of the throw - u1() - which gets called. On the other hand, if a
direct call to terminate() or unexpected() is made from the application, it is
always the current handler which gets called.
Some would argue that this kind of rule just adds complexity without much
benefit to already-complex C++ implementations, but others feel that if an
application is going to be
dynamically changing its terminate and unexpected handlers, retaining the
correct association is important.
In the next issue we'll talk about another clarification of terminate() and
unexpected(), this time related to the uncaught_exception() library function
introduced above.
Uncaught exceptions:
In the past few examples, there are quite a few cases where a function
assumes its caller (or another function somewhere up the call stack) will handle
the exception. In the following example, MySqrt() assumes someone will handle
the exception that it throws — but what
happens if nobody actually does?

Here‘s our square root program again, minus the try block in main():
#include "math.h" //
for sqrt() function
using namespace std;
A modular
square root
function double
MySqrt(double
dX)
{
// If the user entered a negative number, this is
an error condition if (dX < 0.0)
}
return sqrt(dX);
throw "Can not take sqrt of negative number"; // throw exception of type
char*
int main()
{
}

MySqrt() doesn‘t handle the exception, so the program stack unwinds and
control returns to main(). But there‘s no exception handler here either, so main()
terminates. At this point, we just terminated our application!
When main() terminates with an unhandled exception, the operating system will
generally notify you that an unhandled exception error has occurred. How it does
this depends on the operating system, but possibilities include printing an error
message, popping up an error dialog,
or simply crashing. Some OS‘s are less graceful than others.
Generally this is something you want to avoid
altogether!
Catch-all handlers
And now we find ourselves in a condundrum: functions can potentially throw
exceptions of any data type, and if an exception is not caught, it will propagate to
the top of your program and cause it to terminate. Since it‘s possible to call
functions without knowing how they are even
implemented, how can we possibly prevent this from happening?
Fortunately, C++ provides us with a mechanism to catch all types of
exceptions. This is known as a catch-all handler. A catch-all handler
works just like a normal catch block,
except that instead of using a specific type to catch, it uses the ellipses operator
(…) as the type to catch.