University of Engineering & Technology

Peshawar
NAME: ATIF KHAN

REG NO: 19GICIV0653

DEPAT: CIVIL ENGINERRING

SEMSETER: THIRD (SECTION E)

ASSIGNMENT NO: 02 (Home)

SUBJECT: MECHANICS OF SOLID -1 (THEORY)

TEACHER: Eng. AWAIS AHMED

DATE: Dec,28.2020

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 QUESTION NO: 01
Q1) Draw a typical stress-strain curve of mild steel. Label the graph and
Explain different important points/parts of the stress-strain curve.

ANSWER:
CONCEPT OF STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL:
Generally mild steel rods are highly
preferred for many construction purposes. As it has high tensile strength when used
with concrete, knowing the behaviour of mild steel rod under loading helps in
choosing for better use. This behaviour of a mild steel rod under loading can be
analysed using stress strain curve for mild steel rod.
The stress strain curve for mild steel consists of strain along the x-axis and stress
along the y-axis. Stress strain curve for mild steel consists of various stages such as

➢ Proportional Limit.
➢ Elastic Limit.
➢ Upper Yield.
➢ Lower Yield.
➢ Ultimate Stress.
➢ Breaking Point.

Stress Strain Curve For Mild Steel

If the stress is applied gradually to a mild steel rod, the strain also gradually increased
that is represented in point ‘A’ In this stage when stress is removed from the rod the
strain returns to ‘0’. Thus the ‘0’ to ‘A’ points is called as proportional limit.

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In this limit the stress is directly proportional to strain { σ ∝ e }, that means the steel
rod obeys ‘Hooke’s law’. In this stage the proportionality is expressed as ‘E’, thus

Here, E = Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity.

Thus, Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to a strain of the mild steel
rod. The unit of young’s modulus is N/mm².

The increase of stress to the point ‘B’, the strain also increased proportionally it is
called as elastic limit. In this stage, if the applied stress is removed the strain returns
to an original position that is rod gains to original shape. The stress increased beyond
the elastic limit; the material undergoes deformation. Which means the permanent
extension occurs and the mild steel rod does not regain its original shape even after
the stress is removed. This is expressed as ‘C’ to ‘D’ point in the graph which is called
as yield point.
In Point ‘C’ at which maximum stress is required for a rod to undergo deformation is
called as upper yield point. In point ‘D’ of which minimum stress is required for a rod
to undergo deformation is called as lower yield point. The increase of stress beyond
this limit increases strain gradually to a point. This point is ‘E’ which is called
as ultimate stress or ultimate strength point. Ultimate stress is the maximum stress
the rod can withstand; thus, this portion is called a strain hardening.
Further increase of stress beyond the ultimate stress, the localized reduction occurs
in the cross-sectional area of the rod which is the weakest point of the material. This
is called as necking stage that means a breaking point stage. At this stage the mild
steel rod breaks, thus the curve drops to the point ‘F’. Resultant curve obtained is the
stress strain curve for mild steel rod.
Under the action of load the point ‘A’ to ‘B’ is elastic region and point ‘B’ to ‘F’ is the
plastic region of mild steel rod. Similarly, if you plot the stress strain curve for any
material you can determine the yield strength, ultimate strength and the breaking
point of the material. Strain curve for mild steel and other materials.

Stress Strain Curve Explanation

Stress strain curve is a behaviour of material when it is subjected to load. In this
diagram stresses are plotted along the vertical axis and as a result of these stresses,
corresponding strains are plotted along the horizontal axis. As shown below in the
stress strain curve.

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From the diagram one can see the different mark points on the curve. It is because,
when a ductile material like mild steel is subjected to tensile test, then it passes
various stages before fracture.
These stages are;

➢ Proportional Limit
➢ Elastic Limit
➢ Yield Point
➢ Ultimate Stress Point
➢ Breaking Point

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT

Proportional limit is point on the curve up to which the value of stress and strain
remains proportional. From the diagram point P is the called the proportional limit
point or it can also be known as limit of proportionality. The stress up to this point
can be also be known as proportional limit stress.
Hook’s law of proportionality from diagram can be defined between point OP. It is
so, because OP is a straight line which shows that Hook’s law of stress strain is
followed up to point P.
ELASTIC LIMIT

Elastic limit is the limiting value of stress up to which the material is perfectly elastic.
From the curve, point E is the elastic limit point. Material will return back to its
original position, If it is unloaded before the crossing of point E. This is so, because
material is perfectly elastic up to point E.

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YIELD STRESS POINT

Yield stress is defined as the stress after which material extension takes place more
quickly with no or little increase in load. Point Y is the yield point on the graph and
stress associated with this point is known as yield stress.

ULTIMATE STRESS POINT

Ultimate stress point is the maximum strength that material have to bear stress
before breaking. It can also be defined as the ultimate stress corresponding to the
peak point on the stress strain graph. On the graph point U is the ultimate stress
point. After point U material have very minute or zero strength to face further stress.

BREAKING STRESS (POINT OF RUPTURE)

Breaking point or breaking stress is point were strength of material breaks. The
stress associates with this point known as breaking strength or rupture strength. On
the stress strain curve, point B is the breaking stress point.

EXPLORING THE STRESS/ STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL:

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN:
When steel is curved, it is important to keep the stress-
strain curve ratio for mild steel in mind. Below is a stress-strain graph that reviews
the properties of steel in detail.
If tensile force is applied to a steel bar, it will have some elongation. If the force is
small enough, the ratio of the stress and strain will remain proportional. This can be
seen in the graph as a straight line between zero and point A – also called the limit of
proportionality. If the force is greater, the material will experience elastic
deformation, but the ratio of stress and strain will not be proportional. This is
between points A and B, known as the elastic limit.

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Beyond the elastic limit, the mild steel will experience plastic deformation. This starts
the yield point – or the rolling point – which is point B, or the upper yield point. As
seen in the graph, from this point on the correlation between the stress and strain is
no longer on a straight trajectory. It curves from point C (lower yield point), to D
(maximum ultimate stress), ending at E (fracture stress).
Now, we’ll look at each individual measure on the graph above and explain how
each is derived.

• STRESS: If an applied force causes a change in the dimension of the material,

then the material is in the state of stress. If we divide the applied force (F) by
the cross-sectional area (A), we get the stress.

The symbol of stress is σ (Greek letter sigma). For tensile (+) and compressive (-)
forces. The standard international unit of stress is the pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1
N/m2. The formula to derive the stress number is σ = F/A.
For tensile and compressive forces, the area taken is perpendicular to the applied
force. For sheer force, the area is taken parallel to the applied force. The symbol for
shear stress is tau (τ).

• STRAIN: Strain is the change in the dimension (L-L0) with respect to the
original. It is denoted by the symbol epsilon (ε). The formula is ε = (L-L0) / L0.
For a shear force, strain is expressed by γ (gamma)

• ELASTICITY: Elasticity is the property of the material which enables the

material to return to its original form after the external force is removed.

• PLASTICITY: This is a property that allows the material to remain deformed

without fracture even after the force is removed.

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The definitions below are important for understanding the Stress-Strain interactions
as seen in the graph.

• HOOKE’S LAW: Within the proportional limit (straight line between zero and
A), strain is proportionate to stress.

• Young’s modulus of elasticity: Within the proportional limit, stress = E ×

strain. E is a proportionality constant known as the modulus of elasticity
or Young’s modulus of elasticity. Young’s modulus is a measure of the ability
of a material to withstand changes in length when under lengthwise tension
or compression. E has the same unit as the unit of stress because the strain is
dimensionless. The formula is E = σ / ε Pa.

• Modulus of Resilience: The area under the curve which is marked by the
yellow area. It is the energy absorbed per volume unit up to the elastic limit.
The formula for the modulus of resilience is 1/2 x σ x ε = 0.5 x (FL/AE).

• Modulus of toughness: This is the area of the whole curve (point zero to E).
Energy absorbed at unit volume up to breaking point.

Chicago Metal Rolled Products sets the industry standard for adherence to the stress

REFERNCE:
1. https://mechtics.com/design/strength-of-material/stress-strain-curve-
for-mild-steel-with-defination-of-stress-and-strain/
2. http://mechanicalinventions.blogspot.com/2016/06/stress-strain-graph-
for-mild-steel.html
3. https://www.cmrp.com/blog/faq/analysis-design/exploring-stress-
strain-curve-mild-steel.html

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 QUESTION NO: 02
Q)2 Enumerate various scenarios/cases of non-uniform stress distribution in
solids. Explain with the help of examples why simple stress definition cannot
be used in such cases.

ANSWER:
❖ This is a member subjected to an axial load along a single axis.

Consider an arbitrary plane BE inclined with an angle θ in anticlockwise direction

with BC. The stress distribution on any arbitrary plane varies with the angle θ
which results in non-uniform stress distribution on a solid body which is subjected
to an external load at only one axis.
❖ A member subjected to a load at both sides.

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In this stress distribution depends on the inclination of arbitrary plane.so the stress
distribution keeps on changing as the inclination of plane BE changes with face BC
results in non-uniform distribution.

❖ When the member is subjected to load at both axes and pass a shear load at
complementary planes.

With respect to the arbitrary plane inclination this also gives non uniform stress distribution.

❖ A member is subjected to a tensile load.

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A = area of cross section 1 to 1”

A” = area of cross section 2 to 2”

Engineering stress = original load ÷ original area = P÷A

True stress = original load ÷ true area = P÷A”

So, when the member is subjected to tensile force it elongates the true area of the
cross section of member reduces in order to keep the constant volume. As length
increases area of the cross section decreases. So thus, the true stress is always non
uniform.

❖ The non-uniform bending stress distribution in a beam.

flexural formula,

F=MY÷I, …. Bending stress

The bending stress distribution on the beam section is non uniform which varies as moment
according to given loading condition.

1.4 Elasticity and Plasticity

The stress-strain diagrams described in the preceding section illustrate the behaviour
of various materials as they are loaded statically in tension or compression. Now let

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us consider what happens when the load is slowly removed, and the material is
unloaded. Assume, for instance, that we apply a load to a tensile specimen so that
the stress and strain go from O to A on the stress-strain curve in Figure 9. Suppose
further that, when the load is removed, the material follows exactly the same curve
back to the origin O. This property of a material, by which it returns to its original
dimensions during unloading, is called elasticity, and the material itself is said to be
elastic. Note that the stress-strain curve from O to A need not be linear in order for
the material to be elastic

Now let us suppose that we load this same material to a much higher level, so that
point B is reached on the stress-strain diagram, see Figure 9. In this case, when
unloading occurs, the material follows line BC on the diagram. This unloading line
typically is parallel to the initial portion of the loading curve; that is line BC is parallel
to a tangent to the stress-strain curve at O. When point C is reached, the load has
been entirely removed, but a residual strain, or permanent strain, OC remains in the
material. The corresponding residual elongation of the bar is called the permanent
set. Of the total strain OD developed during loading from O to B, the strain CD has
been recovered elastically and the strain OC remains as a permanent strain. Thus,
during unloading the bar returns partially to its original shape; hence, the material is
said to be partially elastic.

When a bar is being tested, the load can be increased from zero to some small
selected value and then removed. If there is no permanent set (that is, if the
elongation of the bar returns to zero) then the material is elastic up to the stress
represented by the selected value of the load. This process of loading and unloading
can be repeated for successively higher values of load. Eventually, a stress will be
reached such that not all the strain is recovered during unloading. By this procedure,
it is possible to determine the stress at the upper limit of the elastic region; for
instance, it could be the stress at point E in Figure 9. This stress is known as the
elastic limit of the material.

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Many materials, including most metals, have linear regions at the beginning of their
stress-strain curves (see Figures 2 and 4). As explained in a previous section, the
upper limit of this linear region is defined by the proportional limit. Usually the
elastic limit is slightly above, or nearly the same as, the proportional limit. Hence, for
many materials the two limits are assigned the same numerical value. In the case of
mild steel, the yield stress is also very close to the proportional limit, so that for
practical purposes the yield stress, the elastic limit, and the proportional limit are
assumed to be equal. Of course, this situation does not hold for all materials. Rubber
provides the outstanding example of a material that is elastic far beyond the
proportional limit.

The characteristic of a material by which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond those

at the elastic limit is known as plasticity. Thus, on the stress-strain curve in Figure 9,
we have an elastic region followed by a plastic region. When large deformations
occur in a ductile material loaded into the plastic region, the material is said to
undergo plastic flow.

If the material remains within the elastic range, it can be loaded, unloaded, and
loaded again without significantly changing the behaviour. However, when loaded
into the plastic range, the internal structure of the material is altered and its
properties change. For instance, we have already observed that a permanent strain
exists in the specimen after unloading from the plastic region (Figure 9).

Now suppose that the material is reloaded after such an unloading (Figure 10). The
new loading begins at point C on the diagram and continues upward to B, the point
at which unloading began during the first loading cycle. The material then follows the
original stress-strain diagram toward point F. During the second loading, the material
behaves in a linear manner from C to B, hence the material has a higher proportional
limit and a higher yield stress than before. Thus, by stretching a material, it is
possible to raise the yield point, although the ductility is reduced because the
amount of yielding from B to F is less than from E to F.

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The stress-strain diagrams previously described are obtained from tension tests
involving only static loading of the specimens; hence, the passage of time did not
enter into our discussions. However, some materials develop additional strains over
long periods of time and are said to creep. This phenomenon can manifest itself in a
variety of ways. For instance, let us suppose that a vertical bar (Figure 11) is loaded
by a constant force P. When the load is applied initially, the bar elongates by an
amount d0. Let us assume that this loading and the corresponding elongation take
place during a time interval of duration t0. Subsequent to time t0, the load remains
constant. However, due to creep, the bar may gradually lengthen, as shown in Figure
11, even though the load does not change. This behaviour occurs with many
materials, although sometimes the change is too small to be of concern.

As a second example of creep, consider a wire that is stretched between two

immovable supports so that it has an initial tension stress s0, (Figure 12). Again, we
will denote the time during which the wire is loaded initially as t0 (Figure 12). With
the elapse of time, the stress in the wire gradually diminishes, eventually reaching a
constant value, even though the supports at the ends of the wire do not move. This
process, which is a manifestation of creep, is called relaxation of the material.

Creep is usually more important at high temperatures than at ordinary

temperatures; hence, it must be considered in the design of engines, furnaces, and
other structures that operate at elevated temperatures for long periods of time.

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However, materials such as steel, concrete, and wood creep slightly even at
atmospheric temperatures. Therefore, it is sometimes necessary to compensate for
creep effects in ordinary structures.

For example, creep of concrete can create "waves" in bridge decks because of
sagging between the supports. One remedy is to construct the deck with an upward
camber, which is an initial deflection above the horizontal, so that, when creep
occurs, the spans lower to the level position.

1.5 Linear Elasticity and Hooke's Law

Most structural materials have an initial region on the stress-strain diagram in which
the material behaves both elastically and linearly. An example is the region from the
origin O up to the proportional limit at point A on the stress-strain curve for
structural steel (see Figure 2). Other examples are the regions below both the
proportional limits and the elastic limits on the diagrams of Figures 4 through 8.
When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship between
stress and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic. This type of behaviour is extremely
important in engineering because many structures and machines are designed to
function at low levels of stress in order to avoid permanent deformations from
yielding or plastic flow. Linear elasticity is a property of many solid materials,
including metals, wood, concrete, plastics, and ceramics.

The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or
compression can be expressed by the equation

(5)

in which E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus of elasticity for the

material. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain diagram in the
linearly elastic region, and its value depends upon the particular material being used.
The units of E are the same as the units of stress, inasmuch as strain is dimensionless.
Hence, the units of E are psi or ksi in USCS units and pascals in SI units.

The equation commonly known as Hooke's law, for the famous English
scientist Robert Hooke (1635-1703). Hooke was the first person to investigate the
elastic properties of materials, and he tested such diverse materials as metal, wood,
stone, bones, and sinews. He measured the stretching of long wires supporting
weights and observed that the elongations "always bear the same proportions one to
the other that the weights do that make them." Thus, Hooke established the linear
relationship between the applied load and the resulting elongation.

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Equation (5) applies only to ordinary tension and compression; for more complicated
states of stress, a generalized Hooke's law is required. In calculations, tensile stress
and strain are usually considered as positive, and compressive stress and strain as
negative.

The modulus of elasticity E has relatively large values for materials that are very stiff,
such as structural metals. Steel has a modulus of approximately 30,000 ksi or 200 GA;
for aluminium, E equals approximately 10,600ksi or 70 GPa. More flexible materials
have a lower modulus; a typical value for wood is 1,600 ksi or 11 GPa. Representative
values of E are typically listed in most Strength of Materials textbooks. For most
materials, the value of E in compression is the same as in tension.

REFERNCE:
1. http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/section_1_strength_of
_materials.html
2. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osuniversityphysics/chapter/12-3-
stress-strain-and-elastic-modulus/
3. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00410-020-01750-9

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