CHAPTER 35

TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

ORIGINS OF TIDES

3500. Introduction Newton’s universal law of gravitation governs both the

orbits of celestial bodies and the tide-generating forces
Tides are the periodic motion of the waters of the sea which occur on them. The force of gravitational attraction
due to changes in the attractive forces of the Moon and Sun between any two masses, m1 and m2, is given by:
upon the rotating Earth. Tides can either help or hinder a
mariner. A high tide may provide enough depth to clear a Gm 1 m 2
bar, while a low tide may prevent entering or leaving a F = --------------------
2
harbor. Tidal current may help progress or hinder it, may set d
the ship toward dangers or away from them. By
understanding tides and making intelligent use of where d is the distance between the two masses, and G is the
predictions published, the navigator can plan an universal gravitational constant which depends upon the
expeditious and safe passage through tidal waters. units employed. This law assumes that m1 and m2 are point
masses. Newton was able to show that homogeneous
3501. Tide and Current spheres could be treated as point masses when
determining their orbits.
The rise and fall of tide is accompanied by horizontal However, when computing differential gravitational forces,
movement of the water called tidal current. It is necessary the actual dimensions of the masses must be taken into
to distinguish clearly between tide and tidal current, for the account.
relation between them is complex and variable. For the sake Using the law of gravitation, it is found that the orbits
of clarity mariners have adopted the following definitions: of two point masses are conic sections about the
Tide is the vertical rise and fall of the water, and tidal barycenter of the two masses. If either one or both of the
current is the horizontal flow. The tide rises and falls, the masses are homogeneous spheres instead of point masses,
tidal current floods and ebbs. The navigator is concerned the orbits are the same as the orbits which would result if all
with the amount and time of the tide, as it affects access to of the mass of the sphere were concentrated at a point at the
shallow ports. The navigator is concerned with the time, center of the sphere. In the case of the Earth-Moon system,
speed, and direction of the tidal current, as it will affect his both the Earth and the Moon describe elliptical orbits about
ship’s position, speed, and course. their barycenter if both bodies are assumed to be
Tides are superimposed on nontidal rising and homogeneous spheres and the gravitational forces of the
falling water levels, caused by weather, seismic events, Sun and other planets are neglected. The Earth-Moon
or other natural forces. Similarly, tidal currents are barycenter is located 74/100 of the distance from the center
superimposed upon non-tidal currents such as normal of the Earth to its surface, along the line connecting the
river flows, floods, and freshets. Earth’s and Moon’s centers. See Figure 3502a.
Thus the center of mass of the Earth describes a very
3502. Causes of Tides small ellipse about the Earth-Moon barycenter, while the
center of mass of the Moon describes a much larger ellipse
The principal tidal forces are generated by the Moon about the same barycenter. If the gravitational forces of the
and Sun. The Moon is the main tide-generating body. Due other bodies of the solar system are neglected, Newton’s
to its greater distance, the Sun's effect is only 46 percent of law of gravitation also predicts that the Earth-Moon
the Moon's. Observed tides will differ considerably from barycenter will describe an orbit which is approximately
the tides predicted by equilibrium theory because size, elliptical about the barycenter of the Sun-Earth-Moon
depth, and configuration of the basin or waterway, friction, system. This barycentric point lies inside the Sun. See
land masses, inertia of water masses, Coriolis acceleration, Figure 3502b.
and other factors are neglected in this theory. Nevertheless,
the equilibrium theory is sufficient to describe the 3503. The Earth-Moon-Sun System
magnitude and distribution of the main tide-generating
forces across the surface of the Earth. The fundamental tide-generating force on the Earth has

561
562 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

Figure 3502a. Earth-Moon barycenter.

Figure 3502b. Orbit of Earth-Moon barycenter (not to scale).

two interactive but distinct components. The tide-generat- it is also much farther away.
ing forces are differential forces between the gravitational Using Newton’s second law of motion, we can calcu-
attraction of the bodies (Earth-Sun and Earth-Moon) and late the differential forces generated by the Moon and the
the centrifugal forces on the Earth produced by the Earth’s Sun affecting any point on the Earth. The easiest calculation
orbit around the Sun and the Moon’s orbit around the Earth. is for the point directly below the Moon, known as the sub-
Newton’s Law of Gravitation and his Second Law of Mo- lunar point, and the point on the Earth exactly opposite,
tion can be combined to develop formulations for the known as the antipode. Similar calculations are done for
differential force at any point on the Earth, as the direction the Sun.
and magnitude are dependent on where you are on the If we assume that the entire surface of the Earth is cov-
Earth’s surface. As a result of these differential forces, the ered with a uniform layer of water, the differential forces
tide generating forces Fdm (Moon) and Fds (Sun) are in- may be resolved into vectors perpendicular and parallel to
versely proportional to the cube of the distance between the the surface of the Earth to determine their effect. See Figure
bodies, where: 3503a.
The perpendicular components change the mass on
GM m R e GM s R e which they are acting, but do not contribute to the tidal ef-
F dm = --------------------- ; F ds = -------------------
d 3 ds3 fect. The horizontal components, parallel to the Earth’s
m
surface, have the effect of moving the water in a horizontal
direction toward the sublunar and antipodal points until an
equilibrium position is found. The horizontal components
where Mm is the mass of the Moon and Ms is the mass of of the differential forces are the principal tide-generating
the Sun, Re is the radius of the Earth and d is the distance to forces. These are also called tractive forces. Tractive
the Moon or Sun. This explains why the tide-generating forces are zero at the sublunar and antipodal points and
force of the Sun is only 46/100 of the tide-generating force along the great circle halfway between these two
of the Moon. Even though the Sun is much more massive, points. Tractive forces are maximum along the small
circles located 45°
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 563

from the sublunar point and the antipode. Figure 3503b note that the Moon transits approximately every 24 hours
and 50 minutes. Since there are two bulges of water on the
equator, one at the sublunar point and the other at the anti-
pode, the observer will also see two high tides during this
interval with one high tide occurring when the Moon is
overhead and another high tide 12 hours 25 minutes later
when the observer is at the antipode. He will also experi-
ence a low tide between each high tide. The theoretical
range of these equilibrium tides at the equator will be less
than 1 meter.
In theory, the heights of the two high tides should be
equal at the equator. At points north or south of the equator,
an observer would still experience two high and two low
Figure 3503a. Differential forces along a great circle
tides, but the heights of the high tides would not be as great
connecting the sublunar point and antipode.
as they are at the equator. The effects of the declination of
the Moon are shown in Figure 3503d, for three cases, A, B,
shows the tractive forces across the surface of the Earth.
and C.

A. When the Moon is on the plane of the equator, the

forces are equal in magnitude at the two points on
the same parallel of latitude and 180° apart in
longitude.
B. When the Moon has north or south declination, the
forces are unequal at such points and tend to cause
an inequality in the two high waters and the two
low waters each day.
C. Observers at points X, Y, and Z experience one
high tide when the Moon is on their meridian, then
another high tide 12 hours 25 minutes later when at
X', Y', and Z'. The second high tide is the same at
X' as at X. High tides at Y' and Z' are lower than
high tides at Y and Z.

Figure 3503b. Tractive forces across the surface of the The preceding discussion pertaining to the effects of
Earth. the Moon is equally valid when discussing the effects of
the Sun, taking into account that the magnitude of the so-
Equilibrium will be reached when a bulge of water has lar effect is smaller. Hence, the tides will also vary
formed at the sublunar and antipodal points such that the according to the Sun’s declination and its varying distance
tractive forces due to the Moon’s differential gravitational from the Earth. A second envelope of water representing
forces on the mass of water covering the surface of the the equilibrium tides due to the Sun would resemble the
Earth are just balanced by the Earth’s gravitational attrac- envelope shown in Figure 3503c except that the heights of
tion (Figure 3503c). the high tides would be smaller, and the low tides corre-
Now consider the effect of the rotation of the Earth. If spondingly not as low. The theoretical tide at any place
the declination of the Moon is 0°, the bulges will lie on the represents the combination of the effects of both the Moon
equator. As the Earth rotates, an observer at the equator will and Sun.

FEATURES OF TIDES

3504. General Features the tide begins to rise slowly at first, but at an increasing
rate until it is about halfway to high water. The rate of rise
At most places the tidal change occurs twice daily. The then decreases until high water is reached, and then the rise
tide rises until it reaches a maximum height, called high ceases.
tide or high water, and then falls to a minimum level called The falling tide behaves in a similar manner. The peri-
low tide or low water. od at high or low water during which there is no apparent
The rate of rise and fall is not uniform. From low water, change of level is called stand. The difference in height be-
564 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

Figure 3503c. Theoretical equilibrium configuration due to Moon’s differential gravitational forces. One bulge of the water
envelope is located at the sublunar point, the other bulge at the antipode.

Figure 3503d. Effects of the declination of the Moon.

tween consecutive high and low waters is the range. more readily to daily or diurnal forces, others to semidi-
Figure 3504 is a graphical representation of the rise and urnal forces, and others almost equally to both. Hence,
fall of the tide at New York during a 24-hour period. The tides are classified as one of three types, semidiurnal, di-
curve has the general form of a variable sine curve. urnal, or mixed, according to the characteristics of the
tidal pattern.
3505. Types of Tide In the semidiurnal tide, there are two high and two
low waters each tidal day, with relatively small differences
A body of water has a natural period of oscillation, in the respective highs and lows. Tides on the Atlantic coast
dependent upon its dimensions. None of the oceans is a of the United States are of the semidiurnal type, which is il-
single oscillating body; rather each one is made up of lustrated in Figure 3505a by the tide curve for Boston
several separate oscillating basins. As such basins are Harbor.
acted upon by the tide-producing forces, some respond In the diurnal tide, only a single high and single low
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 565

Figure 3505b. Diurnal tide.

Figure 3504. The rise and fall of the tide at New York,
water occur each tidal day. Tides of the diurnal type occur
shown graphically.
along the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico, in the Java
Sea, the Gulf of Tonkin, and in a few other localities. The
tide curve for Pei-Hai, China, illustrated in Figure 3505b, is
an example of the diurnal type.
In the mixed tide, the diurnal and semidiurnal oscilla-
tions are both important factors and the tide is characterized
by a large inequality in the high water heights, low water
heights, or in both. There are usually two high and two low
waters each day, but occasionally the tide may become di-
urnal. Such tides are prevalent along the Pacific coast of the
United States and in many other parts of the world. Exam-
ples of mixed types of tide are shown in Figure 3505c. At

Figure 3505a Semidiurnal tide

Figure 3505c. Mixed tide.

Los Angeles it is typical that the inequalities in the high and 3506. Solar Tide
low waters are about the same. At Seattle the greater in-
equalities are typically in the low waters, while at Honolulu The natural period of oscillation of a body of water
it is the high waters that have the greater inequalities. may accentuate either the solar or the lunar tidal oscilla-
tions. Though as a general rule the tides follow the Moon,
566 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

the relative importance of the solar effect varies in different new or full, the effect of the Sun is to cause the tidal bulge
areas. There are a few places, primarily in the South Pacific to either lag or precede the Moon (Figure 3508c). These ef-
and the Indonesian areas, where the solar oscillation is the fects are called priming and lagging the tides.
more important, and at those places the high and low waters Thus, when the Moon is at the point in its orbit nearest
occur at about the same time each day. At Port Adelaide, the Earth (at perigee), the lunar semidiurnal range is
Australia the solar and lunar semidiurnal oscillations are increased and perigean tides occur. When the Moon is
equal and nullify one another at neaps. farthest from the Earth (at apogee), the smaller apogean
tides occur. When the Moon and Sun are in line and pulling
3507. Special Tidal Effects together, as at new and full Moon, spring tides occur (the
term spring has nothing to do with the season of year);
As a wave enters shallow water, its speed is decreased. when the Moon and Sun oppose each other, as at the
Since the trough is shallower than the crest, it is retarded quadratures, the smaller neap tides occur. When certain of
more, resulting in a steepening of the wave front. In a few these phenomena coincide, perigean spring tides and
estuaries, the advance of the low water trough is so much apogean neap tides occur.
retarded that the crest of the rising tide overtakes the low, These are variations in the semidiurnal portion of the
and advances upstream as a breaking wave called a bore. tide. Variations in the diurnal portion occur as the Moon
Bores that are large and dangerous at times of large tidal and Sun change declination. When the Moon is at its
ranges may be mere ripples at those times of the month maximum semi-monthly declination (either north or south),
when the range is small. Examples occur in the Petitcodiac tropic tides occur in which the diurnal effect is at a
River in the Bay of Fundy, and at Haining, China, in the maximum. When it crosses the equator, the diurnal effect is
Tsientang Kaing. The tide tables indicate where bores a minimum and equatorial tides occur.
occur. When the range of tide is increased, as at spring tides,
Other special features are the double low water (as at there is more water available only at high tide; at low tide
Hoek Van Holland) and the double high water (as at there is less, for the high waters rise higher and the low wa-
Southampton, England). At such places there is often a ters fall lower at these times. There is more water at neap
slight fall or rise in the middle of the high or low water pe- low water than at spring low water. With tropic tides, there
riod. The practical effect is to create a longer period of stand is usually more depth at one low water during the day than
at high or low tide. The tide tables list these and other pecu- at the other. While it is desirable to know the meanings of
liarities where they occur. these terms, the best way of determining the height of the
tide at any place and time is to examine the tide predictions
3508. Variations in Range for the place as given in the tide tables, which take all these
effects into account.
Though the tide at a particular place can be classified
as to type, it exhibits many variations during the month 3509. Tidal Cycles
(Figure 3508a). The range of the tide varies according to the
intensity of the tide-producing forces, though there may be Tidal oscillations go through a number of cycles. The
a lag of a day or two between a particular astronomic cause shortest cycle, completed in about 12 hours and 25 minutes
and the tidal effect. for a semidiurnal tide, extends from any phase of the tide to
The combined lunar-solar effect is obtained by adding the next recurrence of the same phase. During a lunar day
the Moon’s tractive forces vectorially to the Sun’s trac- (averaging 24 hours and 50 minutes) there are two highs
tive forces. The resultant tidal bulge will be predominantly and two lows (two of the shorter cycles) for a semidiurnal
lunar with modifying solar effects upon both the height of tide. The Moon revolves around the Earth with respect to
the tide and the direction of the tidal bulge. Special cases of the Sun in a synodical month of about 29 1/2 days,
interest occur during the times of new and full Moon (Fig- commonly called the lunar month. The effect of the phase
ure 3508b). With the Earth, Moon, and Sun lying variation is completed in one-half of a synodical month or
approximately on the same line, the tractive forces of the about 2 weeks as the Moon varies from new to full or full
Sun are acting in the same direction as the Moon’s tractive to new.
forces (modified by declination effects). The resultant tides The effect of the Moon’s declination is also repeated in
are called spring tides, whose ranges are greater than one-half of a tropical month of 27 1/3 days, or about every
average. 2 weeks. The cycle involving the Moon’s distance requires
Between the spring tides, the Moon is at first and third an anomalistic month of about 27 1/2 days. The Sun’s
quarters. At those times, the tractive forces of the Sun are declination and distance cycles are respectively a half year
acting at approximately right angles to the Moon’s tractive and a year in length.
forces. The results are tides called neap tides, whose ranges An important lunar cycle, called the nodal period or
are less than average. Metonic cycle (after Greek philosopher Meton, fifth
With the Moon in positions between quadrature and century B.C., who discovered the phenomenon) is 18.6
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 567

Figure 3508a. Monthly tidal variations at various places.

years (usually expressed in round figures as 19 years). For Earth’s rotation. Since the Earth’s axis is tilted 23.5 degrees
a tidal value, particularly a range, to be considered a true with respect to the plane of its revolution around the sun,
mean, it must be either based upon observations extended the combined effect is that the Moon’s declination varies
over this period of time, or adjusted to take account of from 28.5 degrees to 18.5 degrees in a cycle lasting 18.6
variations known to occur during the nodal period. years. For practical purposes, the nodal period can be con-
The nodal period is the result of axis of the Moon’s ro- sidered as the time between the Sun and Moon appearing in
tation being tilted 5 degrees with respect to the axis of the precisely the same relative positions in the sky.
568 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

Figure 3508b. (A) Spring tides occur at times of new and

full Moon. Range of tide is greater than average since solar
and lunar tractive forces act in same direction. (B) Neap
ties occur at times of first and third quarters. Range of tide
is less than average since solar and lunar tractive forces act
at right angles.

3510. Time of Tide

Since the lunar tide-producing force has the greatest

effect in producing tides at most places, the tides “follow
the Moon.” Because the Earth rotates, high water lags
behind both upper and lower meridian passage of the Moon.
The tidal day, which is also the lunar day, is the time
between consecutive transits of the Moon, or 24 hours and
50 minutes on the average. Where the tide is largely
semidiurnal in type, the lunitidal interval (the interval Figure 3508c. Priming and lagging the tides.
between the Moon’s meridian transit and a particular phase
3511. Tides and Water Levels Online Tutorial
of tide) is fairly constant throughout the month, varying
somewhat with the tidal cycles. There are many places,
An excellent online tutorial created by NOAA’s Na-
however, where solar or diurnal oscillations are effective in
upsetting this relationship. The interval generally given is tional Ocean Service is available via the link provided in
the average elapsed time from the meridian transit (upper or Figure 3511. Topics in this tutorial include: What are Tides,
lower) of the Moon until the next high tide. This may be
called mean high water lunitidal interval or corrected (or
mean) establishment. The common establishment is the
average interval on days of full or new Moon, and approx-
imates the mean high water lunitidal interval.
In the ocean, the tide may be in the nature of a
progressive wave with the crest moving forward, a stationary
or standing wave which oscillates in a seesaw fashion, or a Figure 3511. NOAA’s Tides and Water Levels tutorial.
combination of the two. Consequently, caution should be http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_tides/
used in inferring the time of tide at a place from tidal data for
nearby places. In a river or estuary, the tide enters from the What Causes Tides; Gravity, Inertia and Bulges; Changing
sea and is usually sent upstream as a progressive wave so that Angles and Tides, Frequency of Tides, Tidal Variations,
the tide occurs progressively later at various places upstream. and Types and Causes of Tidal Cycles.
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 569

TIDAL DATUMS

3512. Low Water Datums tum, which is a mathematical quantity developed as part of
a geodetic system used for horizontal positioning. There are
A tidal datum is a given average tide level from which a number of tidal levels of reference that are important to
heights of tides and overhead clearances are measured. It is the mariner. See Figure 3512.
a vertical datum, but is not the same as vertical geodetic da-

Figure 3512. Variations in the ranges and heights of tide where the chart sounding datum is Indian Spring Low Water.

The most important level of reference is the sounding depth.

datum shown on charts. The sounding datum is sometimes By international agreement, the level used as chart
referred to as the reference plane to distinguish it from datum should be low enough so that low waters do not fall
ver-tical geodetic datum. Since the tide rises and very far below it. At most places, the level used is one
falls continually while soundings are being taken during determined from a mean of a number of low waters (usually
a hy-drographic survey, the tide is recorded during the over a 19 year period); therefore, some low waters can be
survey so that soundings taken at all stages of the tide can expected to fall below it. The following are some of the
be reduced to a common sounding datum. Soundings on datums in general use.
charts show depths below a selected low water datum Mean low water (MLW) is the average height of all
(occasionally mean sea level), and tide predictions in low waters at a given place. About half of the low waters
tide tables show heights above and below the same level. fall below it, and half above.
The depth of water available at any time is obtained by Mean low water springs (MLWS), usually shortened
adding algebraically the height of the tide at the time in to low water springs, is the average level of the low waters
question to the charted
570 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

that occur at the times of spring tides. MWL) is used, and is the average of the hourly heights
Mean lower low water (MLLW) is the average height observed over a period of time and adjusted to a 19-year
of the lower low waters of each tidal day. period. In the United States, a Low Water Datum (LWD) is
Tropic lower low water (TcLLW) is the average used in those coastal areas that have transitioned from tidal
height of the lower low waters (or of the single daily low to non-tidal (e.g. Laguna Madre, Texas and Pamlico Sound,
waters if the tide becomes diurnal) that occur when the North Carolina) and is simply 0.5 foot below a computed
Moon is near maximum declination and the diurnal effect is MLW. For the Great Lakes, the United States and Canada
most pronounced. This datum is not in common use as a tid- use a separate LWD for each lake, which is designed to
al reference. ensure that the actual water level is above the datum most
Indian spring low water (ISLW), sometimes called of the time during the navigation season. Lake levels vary
Indian tide plane or harmonic tide plane, is a low water by several feet over a period of years.
datum that includes the spring effect of the semi-diurnal Inconsistencies of terminology are found among charts
portion of the tide and the tropic effect of the diurnal por- of different countries and between charts issued at different
tion. It is about the level of lower low water of mixed tides times.
at the time that the Moon’s maximum declination coincides Large-scale charts usually specify the datum of sound-
with the time of new or full Moon. ings and may contain a tide note giving mean heights of the
Mean lower low water springs (MLLWS) is the av- tide at one or more places on the chart. These heights are in-
erage level of the lower of the two low waters on the days tended merely as a rough guide to the change in depth to be
of spring tides. expected under the specified conditions. They should not be
Some lower datums used on charts are determined used for the prediction of heights on any particular day,
from tide observations and some are determined arbitrarily which should be obtained from tide tables.
and later referred to the tide. Most of them fall close to one
or the other of the following two datums.
3513. High Water Datums
Lowest normal low water is a datum that approx-
imates the average height of monthly lowest low waters, Heights of terrestrial features are usually referred on
discarding any tides disturbed by storms.
nautical charts to a high water datum. This gives the
Lowest low water is an extremely low datum. It mariner a margin of error when passing under bridges,
conforms generally to the lowest tide observed, or even overhead cables, and other obstructions. The one used on
somewhat lower. Once a tidal datum is established, it is
charts of the United States, its territories and possessions,
sometimes retained for an indefinite period, even though it
and widely used elsewhere, is mean high water (MHW),
might differ slightly from a better determination from later
which is the average height of all high waters over a 19 year
observations. When this occurs, the established datum may
period. Any other high water datum in use on charts is
be called low water datum, lower low water datum, etc.
likely to be higher than this. Other high water datums are
These datums are used in a limited area and primarily for
mean high water springs (MHWS), which is the average
river and harbor engineering purposes. Examples are
Boston Harbor Low Water Datum and Columbia River level of the high waters that occur at the time of spring
Lower Low Water Datum. tides; mean higher high water (MHHW), which is the
average height of the higher high waters of each tidal day;
Some sounding datums are based on the predicted tide
rather than an average of observations. A British sounding and tropic higher high water (TcHHW), which is the
datum that may be adopted internationally is the Lowest average height of the higher high waters (or the single daily
Astronomical Tide (LAT). LAT is the elevation of the low- high waters if the tide becomes diurnal) that occur when the
est water level predicted in a 19-year period. Canadian Moon is near maximum declination and the diurnal effect is
coastal charts use a datum of Lower Low Water, Large Tide most pronounced. A reference merely to “high water”
(LLWLT) which is the average of the lowest low waters, leaves some doubt as to the specific level referred to, for the
one from each of the 19 years of predictions. height of high water varies from day to day. Where the
Figure 3512 illustrates variations in the ranges and range is large, the variation during a 2 week period may be
heights of tides in a locality such as the Indian Ocean, considerable.
where predicted and observed water levels are referenced to Because there are periodic and apparent secular trends
a chart sounding datum that will always cause them to be in sea level, a specific 19 year cycle (the National Tidal
additive relative to the charted depth. Datum Epoch) is issued for all United States datums. The
In areas where there is little or no tide, various other National Tidal Datum Epoch officially adopted by the
datums are used. For the Black Sea for instance, Mean Sea National Ocean Service is presently 1983 through 2001.
Level (MSL, sometimes referred to as Mean Water Level or The Epoch is reviewed for revision every 20 -25 years.
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 571

TIDAL CURRENTS

3514. Tidal and Nontidal Currents opposite directions with an instant or short period of little
or no current, called slack water, at each reversal of the
Horizontal movement of water is called current. It current. During the flow in each direction, the speed varies
may be either “tidal” and “nontidal.” Tidal current is the from zero at the time of slack water to a maximum, called
periodic horizontal flow of water accompanying the rise strength of flood or ebb, about midway between the slacks.
and fall of the tide. Nontidal current includes all currents Reversing currents can be indicated graphically, as in
not due to the tidal movement. Nontidal currents include the Figure 3515b, by arrows that represent the speed of the
permanent currents in the general circulatory system of the current at each hour. The flood is usually depicted above
oceans as well as temporary currents arising from meteoro- the slack waterline and the ebb below it. The tidal current
logical conditions. The current experienced at any time is curve formed by the ends of the arrows has the same charac-
usually a combination of tidal and nontidal currents. teristic sine form as the tide curve. In illustrations and for
certain other purposes it is convenient to omit the arrows
3515. General Features and show only the curve.

Offshore, where the direction of flow is not restricted

by any barriers, the tidal current is rotary; that is, it flows
continuously, with the direction changing through all points
of the compass during the tidal period. This rotation is
caused by the Earth’s rotation, and unless modified by local
conditions, is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The speed
usually varies throughout the tidal cycle, passing through
two maximums in approximately opposite directions, and
two minimums about halfway between the maximums in
time and direction. Rotary currents can be depicted as in
Figure 3515a, by a series of arrows representing the
direction and speed of the current at each hour. This is Figure 3515b. Reversing tidal current.
sometimes called a current rose. Because of the elliptical
pattern formed by the ends of the arrows, it is also referred A slight departure from the sine form is exhibited by
to as a current ellipse. the reversing current in a strait that connects two different
tidal basins, such as the East River, New York. The tides at
the two ends of a strait are seldom in phase or equal in
range, and the current, called hydraulic current, is
generated largely by the continuously changing difference
in height of water at the two ends. The speed of a hydraulic
current varies nearly as the square root of the difference in
height. The speed reaches a maximum more quickly and
remains at strength for a longer period than shown in Figure
3515b, and the period of weak current near the time of slack
is considerably shortened.
The current direction, or set, is the direction toward
which the current flows. The speed is sometimes called the
drift. The term “velocity” is often used as the equivalent of
“speed” when referring to current, although strictly
speaking “velocity” implies direction as well as speed. The
Figure 3515a. Rotary tidal current. Times are hours before term “strength” is also used to refer to speed, but more often
and after high and low tide at Nantucket Shoals. The to greatest speed between consecutive slack waters. The
bearing and length of each arrow represents the hourly movement toward shore or upstream is the flood, the
direction and speed of the current. movement away from shore or downstream is the ebb. In a
purely semidiurnal current unaffected by nontidal flow, the
In rivers or straits, or where the direction of flow is flood and ebb each last about 6 hours and 13 minutes. But
more or less restricted to certain channels, the tidal current if there is either diurnal inequality or nontidal flow, the
is reversing; that is, it flows alternately in approximately durations of flood and ebb may be quite unequal.
572 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS
3516. Types of Tidal Current

Tidal currents, like tides, may be of the semidiurnal,

diurnal, or mixed type, corresponding to a considerable
degree to the type of tide at the place, but often with a
stronger semidiurnal tendency.

Figure 3516b. Changes in a current of the mixed type. Note

that each day as the inequality increases, the morning
slacks draw together in time until on the 17th the morning
flood disappears. On that day the current ebbs throughout
the morning.

Figure 3516a. Several types of reversing current. The

pattern changes gradually from day to day, particularly for
mixed types, passing through cycles. Figure 3516c. Rotary tidal current with diurnal inequality.
Times are in hours referred to tides (higher high, lower low,
lower high, and higher low) at Swiftsure Bank.
The tidal currents in tidal estuaries along the Atlantic
coast of the United States are examples of the semidiurnal cent passages in Puget Sound and various passages between
type of reversing current. Along the Gulf of Mexico coast, the Aleutian Islands. Figure 3516a shows several types of
such as at Mobile Bay entrance, they are almost purely di- reversing current. Figure 3516b shows how the flood disap-
urnal. At most places, however, the type is mixed to a
pears as the diurnal inequality increases at one station.
greater or lesser degree. At Tampa and Galveston entrances
there is only one flood and one ebb each day when the Offshore rotary currents that are purely semidiurnal
Moon is near its maximum declination, and two floods and repeat the elliptical pattern each tidal cycle of 12 hours
two ebbs each day when the Moon is near the equator. and 25 minutes. If there is considerable diurnal inequality,
Along the Pacific coast of the United States there are gen- the plotted hourly current arrows describe a set of two el-
erally two floods and two ebbs every day, but one of the lipses of different sizes during a period of 24 hours and 50
floods or ebbs has a greater speed and longer duration than minutes, as shown in Figure 3516c, and the greater the di-
the other, the inequality varying with the declination of the urnal inequality, the greater the difference between the
Moon. sizes of the two ellipses. In a completely diurnal rotary
The inequalities in the current often differ considerably current, the smaller ellipse disappears and only one ellipse
from place to place even within limited areas, such as adja- is produced in 24 hours and 50 minutes.
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 573

3517. Tidal Current Periods and Cycles

Tidal currents have periods and cycles similar to those

of the tides, and are subject to similar variations, but flood
and ebb of the current do not necessarily occur at the same
times as the rise and fall of the tide.
The speed at flood or ebb strength increases and
decreases during the 2 week period, month, and year along
with the variations in the range of tide. Thus, the stronger
spring and perigean currents occur near the times of new
and full Moon and near the times of the Moon’s perigee, or
at times of spring and perigean tides; the weaker neap and
apogean currents occur at the times of neap and apogean
tides. Tropic currents with increased diurnal speeds or with
larger diurnal inequalities in speed occur at times of tropic
tides and equatorial currents with a minimum diurnal effect
occur at times of equatorial tides.
As with the tide, a mean value represents an average Figure 3518a. Effect of nontidal current on the rotary tidal
obtained from a 19 year series. Since a series of current current of Figure 3515a.
observations is usually limited to a few days, and seldom
covers more than a month or two, it is necessary to adjust
the observed values, usually by comparison with tides at a
nearby place, to obtain such a mean.

3518. Effect of Nontidal Flow

The current existing at any time is seldom purely tidal,

but usually includes also a nontidal current that is due to
drainage, oceanic circulation, wind, or other causes. The
method in which tidal and nontidal currents combine is best
explained graphically, as in Figure 3518a and Figure
3518b. The pattern of the tidal current remains unchanged,
but the curve is shifted from the point or line from which the Figure 3518b. Effect of nontidal current on the reversing
currents are measured, in the direction of the nontidal cur- tidal current of Figure 3515b.
rent, and by an amount equal to it. It is sometimes more
convenient graphically merely to move the line or point of advance the time of one slack, and to retard the following
origin in the opposite direction. Thus, the speed of the current one. If the speed of the nontidal current exceeds that of the
flowing in the direction of the nontidal current is increased reversing tidal current, the resultant current flows continu-
by an amount equal to the magnitude of the nontidal cur- ously in one direction without coming to a slack. In this
rent, and the speed of the current flowing in the opposite case, the speed varies from a maximum to a minimum and
direction is decreased by an equal amount. back to a maximum in each tidal cycle. In Figure 3518b, the
In Figure 3518a, a nontidal current is represented both horizontal line A represents slack water if only tidal cur-
in direction and speed by the vector AO. Since this is great- rents are present. Line B represents the effect of a 0.5 knot
er than the speed of the tidal current in the opposite nontidal ebb, and line C the effect of a 1.0 knot nontidal
direction, the point A is outside the ellipse. The direction ebb. With the condition shown at C there is only one flood
and speed of the combined tidal and nontidal currents at any each tidal day. If the nontidal ebb were to increase to ap-
time is represented by a vector from A to that point on the proximately 2 knots, there would be no flood, two
curve representing the given time, and can be scaled from maximum ebbs and two minimum ebbs occurring during a
the graph. The strongest and weakest currents may no lon- tidal day.
ger be in the directions of the maximum and minimum of
the tidal current. If the nontidal current is northwest at 0.3 3519. Time of Tidal Current and Time of Tide
knot, it may be represented by BO, and all hourly directions
and speeds will then be measured from B. If it is 1.0 knot,
At many places where current and tide are both
it will be represented by AO and the actual resultant hourly
semidiurnal, there is a definite relationship between times
directions and speeds will be measured from A, as shown
of current and times of high and low water in the locality.
by the arrows.
Current atlases and notes on nautical charts often make use
574 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

of this relationship by presenting for particular locations, across the channel from shore to shore. On the average, the
the direction and speed of the current at each succeeding current turns earlier near shore than in midstream, where
hour after high and low water, at a place for which tide the speed is greater. Differences of half an hour to an hour
predictions are available. are not uncommon, but the difference varies and the
Where there is considerable diurnal inequality in tide relationship may be nullified by the effect of nontidal flow.
or current, or where the type of current differs from the type The speed of the current also varies across the channel,
of tide, the relationship is not constant, and it may be usually being greater in midstream or midchannel than near
hazardous to try to predict the times of current from times shore, but in a winding river or channel the strongest
of tide. Note the current curve for Unimak Pass in the currents occur near the concave shore, or the outside corner
Aleutians in Figure 3516a. It shows the current as predicted of the curve. Near the opposite (convex) shore the currents
in the tidal current tables. Predictions of high and low are weak or eddying.
waters in the tide tables might have led one to expect the
current to change from flood to ebb in the late morning,
3522. Variation with Depth
whereas actually the current continued to run flood with
some strength at that time.
Since the relationship between times of tidal current In tidal rivers the subsurface current acting on the lower
and tide is not the same everywhere, and may be variable at portion of a ship’s hull may differ considerably from the
the same place, one should exercise extreme caution in surface current. An appreciable subsurface current may be
using general rules. The belief that slacks occur at local present when the surface movement appears to be practically
high and low tides and that the maximum flood and ebb slack, and the subsurface current may even be flowing with
occur when the tide is rising or falling most rapidly may be appreciable speed in the opposite direction to the surface
approximately true at the seaward entrance to, and in the current.
upper reaches of, an inland tidal waterway. But generally In a tidal estuary, particularly in the lower reaches
this is not true in other parts of inland waterways. When an where there is considerable difference in density from top
inland waterway is extensive or its entrance constricted, the to bottom, the flood usually begins earlier near the bottom
slacks in some parts of the waterway often occur midway than at the surface. The difference may be an hour or two,
between the times of high and low tide. Usually in such or as little as a few minutes, depending upon the estuary,
waterways the relationship changes from place to place as the location in the estuary, and freshet conditions. Even
one progresses upstream, slack water getting progressively when the freshwater runoff becomes so great as to prevent
closer in time to the local tide maximum until at the head of the surface current from flooding, it may still flood below
tidewater (the inland limit of water affected by a tide) the the surface. The difference in time of ebb from surface to
slacks occur at about the times of high and low tide. bottom is normally small but subject to variation with time
and location.
3520. Relationship Between Speed of Current and
The ebb speed at strength usually decreases gradually
Range of Tide
from top to bottom, but the speed of flood at strength often
is stronger at subsurface depths than at the surface.
The speed of the tidal current is not necessarily
consistent with the range of tide. It may be the reverse. For
example, currents are weak in the Gulf of Maine where the 3523. Tidal Current Observations
tides are large, and strong near Nantucket Island and in
Nantucket Sound where the tides are small. However, at Observations of current are made with sophisticated
any one place the speed of the current at strength of flood electronic current meters. Current meters are suspended
and ebb varies during the month in about the same from a buoy or anchored to the bottom with no surface
proportion as the range of tide, and this relationship can be marker at all. Very sensitive current meters measure and
used to determine the relative strength of currents on any record deep ocean currents; these are later recovered by
given day. triggering a release mechanism with a signal from the
surface. Untended current meters either record data
3521. Variation Across an Estuary internally or send it by radio or satellite to a base station on
ship or land. The period of observation varies from a few
In inland tidal estuaries the time of tidal current varies hours to few years.

TIDE AND CURRENT PREDICTION

3524. Tidal Height Predictions reference level, sometimes referred to as the reference
plane, or vertical datum. This vertical tidal datum is not the
To measure the height of tides, hydrographers select a same as the vertical geodetic datum. Soundings shown on
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 575

the largest scale charts are the vertical distances from this 3526. Meteorological Effects
datum to the bottom. At any given time the actual depth is
this charted depth plus the height of tide. In most places the The foregoing discussion of tidal behavior assumes
reference level is some form of low water. But all low normal weather conditions. However, sea level is also
waters at a given place are not the same height, and the affected by wind and atmospheric pressure. In general,
selected reference level is seldom the lowest tide occurring onshore winds raise the level and offshore winds lower it,
at the place. When lower tides occur, these are indicated in but the amount of change varies at different places. During
the tide tables by a negative sign. Thus, at a spot where the periods of low atmospheric pressure, the water level tends
charted depth is 15 feet, the actual depth is 15 feet plus the to be higher than normal. For a stationary low, the increase
tidal height. When the tide is three feet, the depth is in elevation can be found by the formula
15 + 3 = 18 feet. When it is -1 foot, the depth is 15 - 1 = 14 R0=0.01(1010 - P),
feet. The actual depth can be less than the charted depth. In in which R0 is the increase in elevation in meters and P is
an area where there is a considerable range of tide (the the atmospheric pressure in hectopascals. This is equal
difference between high water and low water), the height of approximately to 1 centimeter per hectopascal depression,
tide might be an important consideration when using or about 13.6 inches per inch depression. For a moving low,
soundings to determine if the vessel is in safe water. the increase in elevation is given by the formula
The heights given in the tide tables are predictions, and R0
when assumed conditions vary considerably, the R = ---------------
2
predictions shown may be considerably in error. Heights 1–C ------
gh
lower than predicted can be anticipated when the
atmospheric pressure is higher than normal, or when there
in which R is the increase in elevation in feet, R0 is the
is a persistent strong offshore wind. The greater the range
increase in meters for a stationary low, C is the rate of
of tide, the less reliable are the predictions for both height motion of the low in feet per second, g is the acceleration
and current. due to gravity (32.2 feet per second per second), and h is the
depth of water in feet.
3525. Tidal Heights Where the range of tide is very small, the meteoro-
logical effect may sometimes be greater than the normal
The nature of the tide at any place can best be tide. Where a body of water is large in area but shallow,
determined by observation. The predictions in tide tables and high winds can push the water from the windward to the lee
the tidal data on nautical charts are based upon detailed shore, creating much greater local differences in water
observations at specific locations, instead of theoretical levels than occurs normally, and partially or completely
predictions. masking the tides. The effect is dependent on the configu-
Tidal elevations are usually observed with a contin- ration and depth of the body of water relative to the wind
uously recording gage. A year of observations is the direction, strength and duration.
minimum length desirable for determining the harmonic
constants used in prediction. For establishing mean sea level 3527 Tidal Current Predictions
and long-term changes in the relative elevations of land and
sea, as well as for other special uses, observations have been Tidal currents are due primarily to tidal action, but
made over periods of 20, 30, and even 120 years at important other causes are often present. The Tidal Current Tables
locations. Observations for a month or less will establish the give the best prediction of total current. Following heavy
rains or a drought, a river’s current prediction may be
type of tide and suffice for comparison with a longer series of
considerably in error. Set and drift may vary considerably
observations to determine tidal differences and constants.
over different parts of a harbor, because differences in
Mathematically, the variations in the lunar and solar bathymetry from place to place affect current. Since this is
tide-producing forces, such as those due to changing phase, usually an area where small errors in a vessel’s position are
distance, and declination, are considered as separate crucial, a knowledge of predicted currents, particularly in
constituent forces, and the harmonic analysis of reduced visibility, is important. Strong currents occur
observations reveals the response of each constituent of the mostly in narrow passages connecting larger bodies of
tide to its corresponding force. At any one place this water. Currents of more than 5 knots are sometimes
response remains constant and is shown for each encountered at the Golden Gate in San Francisco, and
constituent by harmonic constants which are in the form currents of more than 13 knots sometimes occur at Seymour
of a phase angle for the time relation and an amplitude for Narrows, British Columbia.
the height. Harmonic constants are used in making In straight portions of rivers and channels, the strongest
technical studies of the tide and in tidal predictions on currents usually occur in the middle of the channel. In
computers. curved portions the swiftest currents (and deepest water)
576 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

usually occur near the outer edge of the curve. Counter- coasts. The greatest tidal effects are usually encountered in
currents and eddies may occur on either side of the main estuaries, bays, and other coastal indentations. A vessel
current of a river or narrow passage, especially near proceeding along an indented coast may encounter a set
obstructions and in bights. toward or away from the shore; a similar set is seldom
In general, the range of tide and the velocity of tidal experienced along a straight coast.
current are at a minimum in the open ocean or along straight

PUBLICATIONS FOR PREDICTING TIDES AND CURRENTS

3528. Tide Tables • Table 4 is a sunrise-sunset table at five-day intervals for

various latitudes from 76°N to 60°S (40°S in one
Usually, tidal information is obtained from tide and volume).
tidal current tables, or from specialized computer software • Table 5 provides an adjustment to convert the local mean
or calculators. However, if these are not available, or if they time of Table 4 to zone or standard time.
do not include information at a desired place, the mariner
may be able to obtain locally the mean high water For the East Coast and West Coast volumes, each
lunitidal interval. The approximate time of high water can contains a Table 6, a moonrise and moonset table; Table 7
be found by adding either interval to the time of transit for conversion from feet to centimeters; Table 8, a table of
(either upper or lower) of the Moon. Low water occurs estimated tide prediction accuracies; a glossary of terms;
and an index to stations. Table 9, an explanation and table
approximately 1/4 tidal day (about 6h 12m) before and after
of the lowest and highest astronomical tide and other
the time of high water. The actual interval varies somewhat
datums. Each table is preceded by a complete explanation.
from day to day, but approximate results can be obtained in
Sample problems are given where necessary. The inside
this manner. Similar information for tidal currents
back cover of each volume contains a calendar of critical
(lunicurrent interval) is seldom available.
astronomical data to help explain the variations of the tide
The National Ocean Service (NOS) has traditionally
during each month and throughout the year.
published hard copy tide tables and tidal current tables.
Tide and tidal current data continue to be updated by NOS,
3529. Tide Predictions for Reference Stations
but hardcopy publication has been transferred to private
companies working with NOS data.
For each day, the date and day of week are given, and
Tidal data for various parts of the world is published
the time and height of each high and low water are listed in
in 4 volumes by the National Ocean Service. These vol-
chronological order. Although high and low waters are not
umes are:
labeled as such, they can be distinguished by the relative
• Central and Western Pacific Ocean and Indian heights given immediately to the right of the times. If two
Ocean high tides and two low tides occur each tidal day, the tide is
• East Coast of North and South America (including semidiurnal. Since the tidal day is longer than the civil day
Greenland) (because of the revolution of the Moon eastward around the
• Europe and West Coast of Africa Earth), any given tide occurs later each day. Because of
• West Coast of North and South America (including later times of corresponding tides from day to day, certain
the Hawaiian Islands) days have only one high water or only one low water.

A small separate volume, the Alaskan Supplement, is 3530. Tide Predictions for Subordinate Stations
also published.
For each subordinate station listed, the following
Each volume has 5 common tables:
information is given:
• Table 1 contains a complete list of the predicted times
and heights of the tide for each day of the year at a 1. Number. The stations are listed in geographical order
number of places designated as reference stations. and assigned consecutive numbers. Each volume
• Table 2 gives tidal differences and ratios which can be contains an alphabetical station listing correlating the
used to modify the tidal information for the reference station with its consecutive number to assist in finding
stations to make it applicable to a relatively large number the entry in Table 2.
of subordinate stations. 2. Place. The list of places includes both subordinate and
• Table 3 provides information for finding the reference stations; the latter are in bold type.
approximate height of the tide at any time between high 3. Position. The approximate latitude and longitude are
water and low water. given to assist in locating the station. The latitude is
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 577

north or south, and the longitude east or west, for any given time. This method will also quickly show at
depending upon the letters (N, S, E, W) next above the what time a given depth of water will occur. Figure 3531a
entry. These may not be the same as those at the top of shows the OPNAV form used to calculate heights of tides.
the column. Figure 3531b shows the importance of calculating tides in
4. Differences. The differences are to be applied to the shallow water.
predictions for the reference station, shown in capital
letters above the entry. Time and height differences are
given separately for high and low waters. Where OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73)
differences are omitted, they are either unreliable or HT OF TIDE

unknown. Date
5. Ranges. Various ranges are given, as indicated in the
Location
tables. In each case this is the difference in height
Time
between high water and low water for the tides indicated.
6. Mean tide level. This is the average between mean low Ref Sta
and mean high water, measured from chart datum. HW Time Diff
LW Time Diff
The time difference is the number of hours and
minutes to be applied to the reference station time to find HW Ht Diff
the time of the corresponding tide at the subordinate station. LW Ht Diff
This interval is added if preceded by a plus sign (+) and
subtracted if preceded by a minus sign (-). The results Ref Sta
obtained by the application of the time differences will be HW/LW Time
in the zone time of the time meridian shown directly above HW/LW Time Diff
the difference for the subordinate station. Special Sub Sta
conditions occurring at a few stations are indicated by HW/LW Time
footnotes on the applicable pages. In some instances, the
corresponding tide falls on a different date at reference and Ref Sta
HW/LW Ht
subordinate stations.
HW/LW Ht Diff
Height differences are shown in a variety of ways. For
Sub Sta
most entries, separate height differences in feet are given HW/LW Ht
for high water and low water. These are applied to the
height given for the reference station. In many cases a
Rise
ratio is given for either high water or low water, or both. Duration
The height at the reference station is multiplied by this Fall
ratio to find the height at the subordinate station. For a few Near
Time Fm
stations, both a ratio and difference are given. In this case Tide
the height at the reference station is first multiplied by the Range of Tide
ratio, and the difference is then applied. An example is
Ht of Neap Tide
given in each volume of tide tables. Special conditions are
Corr Table 3
indicated in the table or by footnote. For example, a
footnote indicates that “Values for the Hudson River Ht of Tide
above George Washington Bridge are based upon Charted Depth
averages for the six months May to October, when the Depth of Water
fresh-water discharge is a minimum.” Draft
Clearance
3531. Finding Height of Tide at any Time

Table 3 provides means for determining the approxi-

Figure 3531a. OPNAV 3530/40 Tide Form.
mate height of tide at any time. It assumes that plotting
height versus time yields a sine curve. Actual values may
vary from this. The explanation of the table contains direc- 3532. Tidal Current Tables
tions for both mathematical and graphical solutions.
Though the mathematical solution is quicker, if the vessel’s Tidal Current Tables are somewhat similar to Tide
ETA changes significantly, it will have to be done for the Tables, but the coverage is less extensive. NOS publishes 2
new ETA. Therefore, if there is doubt about the ETA, the volumes on an annual basis: Atlantic Coast of North
graphical solution will provide a plot of predictions for sev- America, and Pacific Coast of North America and Asia.
eral hours and allow quick reference to the predicted height Each of the two volumes is arranged as follows:
578 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

Figure 3531b. Height of tide required to pass clear of charted obstruction.

Each volume also contains current diagrams and tables show this information.
instructions for their use. Explanations and examples are
given in each table. 3534. Tidal Current Predictions for Subordinate
Stations
• Table 1 contains a complete list of predicted times of
maximum currents and slack water, with the velocity of
For each subordinate station listed in Table 2 of the
the maximum currents, for a number of reference
tidal current tables, the following information is given:
stations.
• Table 2 gives differences, ratios, and other information 1. Number: The stations are listed in geographical
related to a relatively large number of subordinate order and assigned consecutive numbers, as in the
stations. tide tables. Each volume contains an alphabetical
• Table 3 provides information to determine the current’s station listing correlating the station with its
velocity at any time between entries in tables 1 and 2. consecutive number to assist in locating the entry in
• Table 4 gives duration of slack, or the number of minutes Table 2.
the current does not exceed stated amounts, for various 2. Place: The list of places includes both subordinate
maximum velocities. and reference stations, the latter given in bold type.
• Table 5 (Atlantic Coast of North America only) gives 3. Position: The approximate latitude and longitude
information on rotary tidal currents. are given to assist in locating the station. The
latitude is north or south and the longitude east or
The volumes also contain general descriptive west as indicated by the letters (N, S, E, W) next
information on wind-driven currents, combination currents, above the entry. The current given is for the center
and information such as Gulf Stream currents for the east of the channel unless another location is indicated
coast and coastal currents on the west coast. by the station name.
4. Time difference: Two time differences are
3533. Tidal Current Prediction for Reference Stations tabulated. One is the number of hours and minutes
to be applied to the tabulated times of slack water
For each day, the date and day of week are given; at the reference station to find the times of slack
current information follows. If the cycle is repeated waters at the subordinate station. The other time
twice each tidal day, currents are semidiurnal. On most difference is applied to the times of maximum
days there are four slack waters and four maximum current at the reference station to find the times of
currents, two floods (F) and two ebbs (E). However, the corresponding maximum current at the
since the tidal day is longer than the civil day, the subordinate station. The intervals, which are added
corresponding condition occurs later each day, and on or subtracted in accordance with their signs,
certain days there are only three slack waters or three include any difference in time between the two
maximum currents. At some places, the current on some stations, so that the answer is correct for the
days runs maximum flood twice, but ebbs only once, a standard time of the subordinate station. Limited
minimum flood occurring in place of the second ebb. The application and special conditions are indicated by
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 579

footnotes.
5. Velocity ratios: Speed of the current at the subor- OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73)
VEL OF CURRENT
dinate station is the product of the velocity at the
reference station and the tabulated ratio. Separate Int Between Slack and
Desired Time
ratios may be given for flood and ebb currents. Spe- Int Between Slack and
cial conditions are indicated by footnotes. Max Current

6. Average Speeds and Directions: Minimum and Max Current

maximum velocities before flood and ebb are listed Factor Table 3

for each station, along with the true directions of Velocity

the flow. Minimum velocity is not always 0.0 Direction
knots.
Figure 3535. OPNAV 3530/40 Tide Form.
3535. Finding Velocity of Tidal Current at any Time determining the approximate velocity at any time. Direc-
tions are given in an explanation preceding the table. Figure
Table 3 of the tidal current tables provides means for 3535 shows the OPNAV form used for current prediction.

3536. Duration of Slack Water

OPNAV 3530/40 (4-73)
VEL OF CURRENT
The predicted times of slack water listed in the tidal
Date current tables indicate the instant of zero velocity. There is
Location a period each side of slack water, however, during which
Time the current is so weak that for practical purposes it may be
Ref Sta considered negligible. Table 4 of the tidal current tables
Time Diff
gives, for various maximum currents, the approximate
Stack Water period of time during which currents not exceeding 0.1 to
Time Diff 0.5 knots will be encountered. This period includes the last
Max Current of the flood or ebb and the beginning of the following flood
or ebb; that is, half of the duration will be before and half
Vel Ratio after the time of slack water.
Max Flood
Vel Ratio
When there is a difference between the velocities of the
Max Ebb maximum flood and ebb preceding and following the slack
for which the duration is desired, it will be sufficiently
Flood Dir accurate to find a separate duration for each maximum
velocity and average the two to determine the duration of
Ebb Dir
the weak current.
Of the two sub-tables of Table 4, Table A is used for all
Ref Sta
Stack Water Time places except those listed for Table B; Table B is used for
Time Diff
just the places listed and the stations in Table 2 which are
referred to them.
Local Sta
Stack Water Time
3537. Additional Tide Prediction Publications
Ref Sta Max
Current Time NOS also publishes a special Regional Tide and Tidal
Time Diff Current Table for New York Harbor to Chesapeake Bay,
Local Sta Max and a Tidal Circulation and Water Level Forecast Atlas for
Current Time
Delaware River and Bay.

Ref Sta Max

Current Vel 3538. Tidal Current Charts
Vel Ratio
Local Sta Max
Tidal Current charts present a comprehensive view of
Current Vel the hourly velocity of current in different bodies of water.
They also provide a means for determining the current’s ve-
locity at various locations in these waters. The arrows show
Figure 3535. OPNAV 3530/40 Tide Form. the direction of the current; the figures give the speed in
580 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS

knots at the time of spring tides. A weak current is defined these uses, a number of “velocity lines” are provided. When
as less than 0.1 knot. These charts depict the flow of the tid- the appropriate line is transferred to the correct part of the
al current under normal weather conditions. Strong winds diagram, the current to be encountered during passage is in-
and freshets, however, may cause nontidal currents, consid- dicated along the line.
erably modifying the velocity indicated on the charts.
Tidal Current charts are provided for Boston Harbor,
Charleston Harbor SC, Long Island Sound and Block Island
Sound, Narragansett Bay, Narragansett Bay to Nantucket
Sound, Puget Sound (Northern Part), Puget Sound (South-
ern Part), Upper Chesapeake Bay, and Tampa Bay.
The tidal current’s velocity varies from day to day as a
function of the phase, distance, and declination of the
Moon. Therefore, to obtain the velocity for any particular
day and hour, the spring velocities shown on the charts
must be modified by correction factors. A correction table
given in the charts can be used for this purpose.
All of the charts except Narragansett Bay require the
use of the annual Tidal Current Tables. Narragansett Bay
requires use of the annual Tide Tables.

3539. Current Diagrams

A current diagram is a graph showing the velocity of

the current along a channel at different stages of the tidal
current cycle. The current tables include diagrams for
Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket Sounds (one diagram);
East River, New York; New York Harbor; Delaware Bay
and River (one diagram); and Chesapeake Bay. These
diagrams are no longer published by NOS, but are available
privately and remain useful as they are not ephemeral.
On Figure 3539, each vertical line represents a given
instant identified by the number of hours before or after
slack water at The Narrows. Each horizontal line represents
a distance from Ambrose Channel entrance, measured
along the usually traveled route. The names along the left
margin are placed at the correct distances from Ambrose
Channel entrance. The current is for the center of the chan-
nel opposite these points. The intersection of any vertical
line with any horizontal line represents a given moment in
the current cycle at a given place in the channel. If this in- Figure 3539. Current diagram for New York Harbor.
tersection is in a shaded area, the current is flooding; if in
an unshaded area, it is ebbing. The velocity can be found by If the transferred velocity line is partly in a flood cur-
interpolation between the numbers given in the diagram. rent area, all ebb currents (those increasing the ship’s
The given values are averages. To find the value at any velocity) are given a positive sign (+), and all flood currents
time, multiply the velocity found from the diagram by the a negative sign (-). A separate ratio should be determined
ratio of maximum velocity of the current involved to the for each current (flood or ebb), and applied to the entries for
maximum shown on the diagram. If the diurnal inequality that current. In the Chesapeake Bay, it is common for an
is large, the accuracy can be improved by altering the width outbound vessel to encounter three or even four separate
of the shaded area to fit conditions. The diagram covers 1 currents during passage. Under the latter condition, it is
1/2 current cycles, so that the right 1/3 duplicates the left good practice to multiply each current taken from the dia-
1/3. gram by the ratio for the current involved.
Use Table 1 or 2 to determine the current for a single If the time of starting the passage is fixed, and the
station. The current diagrams are intended for use in either current during passage is desired, the starting time is
of two ways: to determine a favorable time for passage identified in terms of the reference tidal cycle. The velocity
through the channel and to find the average current to be ex- line is then drawn through the intersection of this vertical
pected during a passage through the channel. For both of time line and the horizontal line through the place. The
 TIDES AND TIDAL CURRENTS 581

average current is then determined in the same manner as constants available for locations, the prediction equation,
when the velocity line is located as described above. and digital versions of Table 2 in the Tide Tables to produce
even more products for the navigator’s use. Since NOS has
3540. Computer Predictions published the data, even inexpensive navigation electronics
such as handheld GPS receivers and plotters for small craft
Until recently, tidal predictions were compiled only on navigation often include graphic tide tables.
mainframe or minicomputers and then put into hardcopy
Emerging applications include integration of tidal pre-
table form for the mariner. There are several types of
diction with positioning systems and vessel traffic systems
commercial software available now for personal computers
(PC’s) that provide digital versions of the NOS tide tables which are now moving towards full use of GPS. In addition,
and also graph the tidal heights. The tabular information some electronic chart systems are already able to integrate
and graphs can be printed for the desired locations for pre- tide prediction information. Many of these new systems
voyage planning. There are also several types of specialized will also use real-time water level and current information.
hand-held calculators and tide clocks that can be used to Active research also includes providing predictions of total
predict tides for local areas. water level that will include not only the tidal prediction
Newer versions of PC software use the actual harmonic component, but also the weather-related component.