UNIT 10

WRITING STYLE

Academic writing is formal and structured. It should

communicate clearly and unambiguously. This guide will
provide advice on writing with clarity, precision and
structure. As different subject areas have their own
conventions, do refer to programmer handbooks for
specialist guidance. You can also look at publications, such
as research journals, in your area to see their writing style. If
English is not your first language, you should access more
information and activities on academic writing.
Write formally and with clarity
Writing should be formal, but it does not need to be
pompous. To maintain formality,

There are various colloquialisms and shortened forms to

avoid:
Avoid shortened forms:
Shouldn't, it's for it is
Avoid popular phrases or clichés such as:
at the end of the day; in a nutshell; when it comes to the
crunch
Replace with: finally, in summary, in a crisis
Avoid casual everyday words such as really, okay,
maybe.

One recent poll of students at a US university found that an

average student in the class would write 42 pages for class
in a semester but more than 500 pages of email. In our
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everyday lives we are used to communicating by writing
texts, emails and notes. These have their own conventions,
such as using abbreviations ("txt"), using symbols (" :>)"),
figures (4 rather than four) and not writing in sentences.
When writing formal essays and reports we have to take
extra care that our texting and emailing habits do not creep
in by accident.

Correct use of grammar and punctuation are important.

They show that you care about your work and have adopted
a disciplined attitude to writing academically. They also help
to make sure your meaning is understood. Most common
mistakes by inexperienced writers include: incomplete
sentences; the wrong use of semicolons and colons; the
wrong use of apostrophes; nouns and verbs where
singular /plural do not agree; and inconsistent use of tenses.

Good writing makes a point clearly and may illustrate it to

help the reader's understanding. To avoid rambling, plan the
points that you wish to convey and the evidence that you
will use to illustrate. Include only necessary detail.

When presenting a point of view, such as a line of argument

for an essay, decide on the main points that you want to
communicate. Plan one main point per paragraph. A
paragraph can be planned (like a mini- essay) as follow:

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Sentence introducing the point

1. Sentence making the point with necessary detail.

2. Illustration of point using reference: research
example, case study, figures, etc.
3. Critical analysis of point
4. Sentence summing up the point and showing how it
addresses the question or contributes to your
argument.

Where abbreviations and acronyms are required to avoid

repetition, ensure that, on first mention, the unabbreviated
term appears together with the abbreviation or acronym, for
example:

First mention: "An article in the AJPh (American Journal of

Philology) reported..."

Subsequent mention: "Writing in the AJPh,

Brown concluded that..."

Write concisely and with precision

Do not be tempted to use complex language or expressions

that are not your own, just to make your writing appear
"academic". Use straightforward language. Your reader
needs to understand the information or ideas that you are
conveying.

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Communicate succinctly without losing vital information or
meaning. It is often easier to write fluently and then to edit
out unnecessary words and phrases.

Some editing tips to reduce word-count:

Go through a paragraph that you have written and cross out

any words, or phrases or even a sentence that may be
unnecessary. (Or 'grey it out' – change the text colour of the
words you might remove to light grey.) Read it again to see
if you have lost anything essential to the information or
meaning. If you have not, then delete it permanently.

Replace phrases with single words meaning the same:

The researcher wanted to find out / The researcher

enquired

Some academic writing, such as scientific research

methodology, needs to be precise. A reader may need to
have all the information required to understand exact
conditions of a scientific study and to replicate it. Using
simple sentences can be helpful.

Avoid using non-quantifiable descriptions, such as :

The company's production rate was high./The company
produced 16,00 units per week.
The wind was strong./The wind measured 6 on the Beaufort
scale.

Writing with a purpose

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Academic writing has a purpose.It may provide background
information, the results of other peoples' research, the
critique of other peoples' research, your own research
findings, your own ideas based on academic research
conducted by others, etc. It may be a combination of a few
of these.

 Decide on your purpose and what you intend to

convey.If there is a brief follow it.If there is a given
question, make sure that you answer what has been
asked. Write down your main points.( Mind-mapping
can help with this.)

 Decide on the audience for whom you are writing. If

you are writing a university assignment, pretend that
you are writing for an intelligent colleague from a
related academic field, rather than for your professor
who knows everything

For most subject areas the writing is expected to be

objective. For this the first person (I, we, me, my) should be
avoided.

So     I analyzed the data    becomes   The data was

analyzed

However, writing passively isn't always suitable. For

instance, if you are asked to write a reflective piece, you will
need to refer to your own actions and experiences. The

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important thing is to consider the purpose of your writing -
that will help you to decide how to write it.

Write to a structure

Structure is important in academic writing - it helps to make

your ideas clear, guides the reader's comprehension and
can strengthen your arguments. Some academic writing,
such as scientific reports, has a given structure. Just find
out what is required under each heading and keep to it.
Other writing (such as essays) requires the writer to select
and organize the material they are writing and so develop a
structure.

Usually in the introduction the writer sets out the structure

so that the reader knows what to expect and the order in
which it will be presented. The order in which information is
presented should be logical so that the reader can follow the
thinking, ideally with just one point or idea per paragraph. In
addition the ideas should flow or be linked so that the reader
is drawn through an explanation or argument, rather than
stopping and starting at each new point. The conclusion to
the piece should draw together all the points or ideas and
come to a conclusion.

Effective proof reading

Your written work may be interesting, well structured and

informed. Yet it may still make a bad impression because of
poor proof reading.

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Part of your assessment will usually relate to the standard of
your written English. It's important to pay attention to things
like tenses, gender, plurals and the structure of your
sentences, especially if you have rewritten or moved
sections of your work. It's easy to lose marks - but it's also
easy to make sure you don't.

This brief guide offers ten brief tips to help you to proof read
your work as effectively as possible.

Please note: we cannot proof read your work for you, or

recommend professional proof reading services. It is always
better for you to learn how to do your own proof reading, as
only you know what you were trying to say - also you will not
learn from your mistakes if you just pay someone else to
correct it. It may be useful to see the University's policy on
the use of editorial and proof-reading services. Scroll to the
bottom of the page for some more links, including some for
students for whom English is not their first language.

Ten tips for better proof reading

1. Print it off - it's much more difficult to read onscreen

and there's always the temptation to start doing
major rewrites.

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2. Leave it a day - if you can, leave sometime between
finishing your full draft and proof reading. It's easier
to read critically when it's not so fresh in your mind.
3. Read aloud - small errors of expression and
punctuation are more likely to become obvious if you
read aloud.
4. Punctuate your reading - put pauses in for
punctuation when you read, timed differently for
different punctuation marks - so take a breath for
commas, come to a halt for full stops. This is a good
way to see if your sentences are too long or too
short.
5. Take it slowly - if you have time to do a really
thorough proofing, first read each sentence in a
paragraph one at a time to make sure each makes
sense. Then read the whole paragraph. Finally, when
you've read all the paragraphs, read the whole essay
through.
6. Take care with cut and paste - if you decide to
move things about, don't forget to check the whole
sentence again afterwards to make sure all the
tenses, genders and plurals agree. Using the
grammar check tool in Microsoft Word can help
to prevent any errors.
7. Learn punctuation rules - make sure you know how
to use commas, apostrophes, colons and semi-
colons. For more on this, see our guide to
Punctuation.
8. Check your referencing - always check your course
handbook for preferred conventions - if you have to
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 reference something that's not covered there, be
consistent. See our pages on  Reading, note-taking
and referencing for more.
9. Get another view - ask a friend to read through your
work and tell you if it makes sense (NOT correct it for
you). Offer to do the same for them. Especially good
if you can't leave time between writing and proofing -
another pair of eyes will be fresher.
10. Use your feedback - always read and learn from
your academic feedback. Use it to make a list of the
things you often get wrong. Look out for these
especially. They should start to disappear as you get
used to doing them right.

Planning and structuring your essay

This guide covers the first stages of writing an essay

including:

 Answering the question

 Generating ideas 
 Planning your essay
 Different methods of planning 

Answering the question

A very common complaint from lecturers and examiners is

that students write a lot of information but they just don't
answer the question. Don't rush straight into researching –

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give yourself time to think carefully about the question and
understand what it is asking.

Top tip:

Set the question in context – how does it fit with the key
issues, debates and controversies in your module and your
subject as a whole? An essay question often asks about a
specific angle or aspect of one of these key debates. If you
understand the context it makes your understanding of the
question clearer.

Is the question open-ended or closed? If it is open-

ended you will need to narrow it down. Explain how and
why you have decided to limit it in the introduction to your
essay, so the reader knows you appreciate the wider
issues, but that you can also be selective. If it is a closed
question, your answer must refer to and stay within the
limits of the question (i.e. specific dates, texts, or countries).

Underlining key words – This is a good start point for

making sure you understand all the terms (some might need
defining); identifying the crucial information in the question;
and clarifying what the question is asking you to do
(compare & contrast, analyse, discuss). But make sure you
then consider the question as a whole again, not just as a
series of unconnected words.

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Re-read the question – Read the question through a few
times. Explain it to yourself, so you are sure you know what
it is asking you to do.

Try breaking the question down into sub-questions –

What is the question asking? Why is this important? How
am I going to answer it? What do I need to find out first,
second, third in order to answer the question? This is a
good way of working out what important points or issues
make up the overall question – it can help focus your
reading and start giving your essay a structure. However, try
not to have too many sub-questions as this can lead to
following up minor issues, as opposed to the most important
points.

Generating ideas

Before reading - This is a really valuable stage which many

people miss out, but it makes your reading and planning
much easier. Before rushing into your reading, note down
your initial thoughts about the question - a spider diagram or
mind map is good for this.

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The kinds of things to note briefly are:
-  What you already know about the topic – from lectures,
seminars, general knowledge.
-  Things you don't know about the topic, but need to find
out in order to answer the question.
-  Initial responses or answers to the question – what you
think your conclusion might possibly be.
This helps you start formulating your argument and direction
for answering the question. It also helps you focus your
reading, as you can pinpoint what you need to find out and
go straight to the parts of books, chapters, articles that will
be most relevant.
After reading - After your reading, it is often good to
summarise all your findings on a page – again, a spider
diagram can help with this.
Bringing together the key points from your reading helps
clarify what you have found out, and helps you find a
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pathway through all the ideas and issues you have
encountered. If you include brief details of authors and page
nos. for key information, it can act as a quick at-a-glance
guide for finding the evidence you need to support your
points later.
It also helps you see how your initial response to the
question might have changed or become more
sophisticated in light of the reading you've done. It leads
into planning your essay structure.

Why plan?

 Planning your essay makes it much more likely that

you will end up with a coherent argument.

 It enables you to work out a logical structure and an

end point for your argument before you start writing.

 It means you don't have to do this type of complex

thinking at the same time as trying to find the right
words to express your ideas.

 It helps you to commit yourself to sticking to the

point!

You need to work out what to include, and what can be left
out. It is impossible to cover everything in an essay, and
your markers will be looking for evidence of your ability to
choose material and put it in order. Brainstorm all your
ideas, then arrange them in three or four groups. Not

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everything will fit so be prepared to discard some points
(you can mention them briefly in your introduction).

Outline what you are going to include in each section:

Introduction: Address the question, show why it's

interesting and how you will answer it.

Main Body: Build your argument. Put your groups of ideas

in a sequence to make a persuasive argument. One main
point in each paragraph.

Conclusion: Summarise your arguments and evidence,

and show how they answer the original question.

Writing a summary - Some people plan best once they

have written something, as this helps clarify their thinking. If
you prefer to write first, try summarising the central idea of
your essay in a few sentences. This gives you a clear
direction for working out how you are going to break it down
into points supported by evidence. You can then use one of
the methods below to write a more detailed plan.

Which planning method suits you?

Spider diagrams / visual plans - These are sometimes

known as mind maps. This kind of plan gets all the main
ideas down on a page with key words and phrases round
the central question. You can then order your ideas by
numbering the arms of the spider diagram. This method is

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flexible and creative, so is good to use first even if you like
to order your points in linear form afterwards.

Bullet points / linear plans - This type of plan lists the

main points using bullet points or numbers. It can be a brief
outline of the main point per paragraph, or a more detailed
plan with sub-points and a note of the evidence to support
each point (e.g. source and page no.).

Top tip:

If you know you tend to write too much, cut down the
number of individual points in your plan. If you find it difficult
to write enough, expand on some of your points with sub-
points in the planning stage.

No plan is perfect, so be prepared for your ideas to change

as you write your essay. However, once you have an initial
plan it is much easier to adapt it and see where new things
fit if your thinking does change.

Writing your essay

This guide covers stages and issues involved in writing up
your essay, including:
 Writing introductions
 Writing conclusions
 Writing the main body sections
 Getting started and keeping going

Introductions and conclusions

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Introductions and conclusions are not just the bits tagged on
to the ends of your essay. They form a conceptual
framework which the reader will need to understand your
arguments. Always keep your reader in mind when writing
the beginning and ending to your essay:
What do they need to know at the start so they become
interested in reading your essay and can follow the rest of
your argument?
What do you want to leave them with as the main message
of your essay at the end?
The best introductions and conclusions tell the reader
exactly what they need to know to understand the main
body of the essay.

Writing your introduction
An introduction gives your reader a way in to your essay. It
is like consulting the map before starting on a journey; it
situates the journey in the surrounding landscape, and it
identifies the main route.
You can think of an introduction as covering what / why /
how:
 What the question is about – explain your interpretation
of the question and what it is asking you to do.
 Why the question is important – put the question into
context and identify the main issues that are raised by
the question.
 How you are going to answer it – let the reader know
what you are going to cover in your essay in order to
answer the question.
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 If you want to narrow down a very open-ended question,
tell your reader that you are doing this in your
introduction. Explain briefly that you are aware of the
many issues raised by the question, but that you are
only going to focus on one or two in detail…and why you
have chosen these particular aspects.

For example:
 "To what extent do you agree that regional inequalities in
the UK are persistent and widening?"
 What the question is about: The links between
geographical location and distribution of resources &
wealth in the UK.
 Why this is important: Because some regions in the
UK are more prosperous and better resourced than
others – Why is this? What causes the inequalities
between regions?
How I am going to answer it: Have to narrow down
"regional" and also "inequalities" – so compare the
unemployment rates, average salaries, and job
opportunities in Oxfordshire and Lancashire as a case
study.

Conclusions

Reading a conclusion should be like looking at a photograph

after coming back from the journey; it should capture the
essence of the journey and allow people to reflect on where
they have been.

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You will need to summarize the main points of your
argument, relate these points back to the question, and
show the answer you have reached. Think about what your
reader knows now that they didn't know at the beginning.
If your essay question asks you to come to a judgment, for
example "To what extent…" or "How far do you agree…",
this is the place to clearly outline your reasoned judgment. It
doesn't have to be a straight agreement or disagreement,
but it is better to have a well reasoned side to your
argument, instead of trying to combine every viewpoint into
a muddled whole.
It is good practice not to introduce any new information in a
conclusion, as the main task here is to close the framework
of your discussion by referring back to the questions opened
up in your introduction. However it is sometimes appropriate
to look forwards and speculate about future developments
or trends. In many disciplines the speculative paragraph
comes just before the conclusion.
Your conclusion should leave the reader with a clear picture
of your main argument, and also leave them feeling positive
about your ideas.

Don't end your conclusion with:

- an apology, or a sentence that dwells on the
incompleteness of your argument. For example, avoid
finishing with, "If I had more time, I would also have
covered…". You may wish to raise some limitations in the
conclusion, but do this in the middle of the concluding

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paragraph, and then end on a strong, positive sentence,
such as "It has clearly been shown that…"
- a rhetorical question. You may believe that it leaves the
reader thinking deeply about your argument. However, it
just leaves the reader unsatisfied, as they expect you to
come up with an answer to the question that you have
raised.

Writing the main body

In the main body of your essay, you will be developing the
ideas and arguments you have outlined in your introduction.
You need to integrate your own ideas with evidence from
your reading and other research, and critical analysis. (See
Develop your essay writing for more on this.)
 It's better to discuss fewer things in more depth.
Organize your writing in three or four groups of related
arguments to keep your overall argument coherent and
under control.
 Write in paragraphs and think of each one as a mini-
essay with its own introductory sentence (what this
paragraph is about) and concluding sentence (what was
said in this paragraph).
 Keep your essay question in front of you and keep in
mind your end point - the main message that your essay
is working towards.
 Make it clear how your arguments and evidence relate to
the essay title and be ruthless in discarding anything that
isn't relevant. Irrelevant information can actively lose you
marks!
 Get started and keep going
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 If you've made a plan (see Planning & structuring your
essay for tips on how to do this), you will have a good
idea of what you are going to include in your essay. That
may not make it any easier to start writing!

You might either:

 Start with your introduction. This can help you to get
your ideas sorted, and give you a reason to stick with
your plan.
or...
 Leave your introduction until you've written the whole
essay, then go back and add it later. Instead start with
the paragraph or section you feel most confident about
and build up from there.
If you get stuck when writing your essay, it is often because
you are not clear what your main ideas are yet. Take a step
back and explain in simple terms what you are trying to get
across. It often helps to explain your ideas to a friend, as
putting things into words start untangling your thoughts.
Your friend can tell you the parts of your argument that they
don't understand, and these are the points you need to
clarify. (You can always do the same for them when they
come to write their essay.)
If you know you take ages crafting each sentence, allow
yourself to write a rough draft just to get all the ideas down.
In this draft, types quickly without editing as you go along.
Don't worry about the exact choice of words at this stage; it
is much easier to work out the phrasing when you have all
the points on paper.

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Develop your essay writing
This guide looks at ways you can develop your essay
writing practices, including:
 Good academic writing style
 Integrating evidence and your own ideas
 Critical analysis
 Editing and proof reading
Academic writing style
Academic essays should be written in a formal style. Avoid:
 clichés ("the flaws in this argument stand out like a sore
thumb")
 contractions ("don't", "aren't", "it's")
 phrases that sound like speech ("well, this bit is really
fascinating")
 subjective descriptions ("this beautiful sculpture")

Use the first person "I" only where appropriate (e.g. when
writing up your own experience or professional case study).
Where possible use the third person, for example "It can be
argued"instead of "I think"

Use plain language - you don't have to search for a more

"academic-sounding" word when a simple one will do.
Markers are looking for clear and accurate expression of
ideas, not jargon or confusing language. Shorter sentences
are usually clearer than long complex ones, but make sure it
is a whole sentence and not just a clause or phrase.

Integrating evidence and your own ideas

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Your argument is your reasoned answer to the essay
question, supported by evidence. The books, articles, and
research material that you read for your essay provide this
evidence to back up your points. The way in which you
select and interpret the evidence, and explain why it
answers the question, is where you demonstrate your own
thinking.

For each point that you make in your essay, you need to
support it with evidence. There are many different kinds of
evidence, and the type you use will depend on what is
suitable for your subject and what the essay question is
asking you to do.

For example, you might back up a point using a theory (one

kind of evidence) then show how this theory applies to a
specific example in real life (another kind of evidence).

A model for a paragraph that includes evidence and

your own ideas:

1. Introduce your point (your own words)

2. Add the evidence to support your point (quoted or
paraphrased evidence that needs to be referenced)
3. Explain how and why this evidence supports your
point and what you think of it (your own interpretation
and critical thinking)
4. Explain how the point helps answer the question
(your own argument)

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As you get more experienced with essay writing, you will
want to adapt this model to suit the structure and shape of
your ideas.

Critical analysis
Critical analysis is a key skill for writing essays at university;
it allows you to assess the various ideas and information
that you read, and decide whether you want to use them to
support your points.
It is not a mysterious skill that is only available to advanced
students; it is something we do every day when assessing
the information around us and making reasoned decisions,
for example whether to believe the claims made in TV
adverts. Nor does it always mean disagreeing with
something you also need to be able to explain why you
agree with arguments.

Critical analysis involves:

- Carefully considering an idea and weighing up the
evidence supporting it to see if it is convincing.
- Then being able to explain why you find the evidence
convincing or unconvincing.
It helps if you ask yourself a series of questions about the
material you are reading.
Try using these questions to help you think critically:
 Who is the author and what is their viewpoint or bias?
 Who is the audience and how does that influence the
way information is presented?
 What is the main message of the text?

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 What evidence has been used to support this main
message?
 Is the evidence convincing; are there any counter-
arguments?
 Do I agree with the text and why do I agree or disagree?

Editing and proofreading

You might have had enough of your work by now, and be
hoping to just hand it in! However, it's worth taking some
time to check it over. Markers often comment that more time
spent on editing and proofreading could have really made a
difference to the final mark.

Editing
Editing involves checking whether all your points are in the
right order and that they are all relevant to the question.
Be ruthless at this stage – if the information isn't directly
answering the question, cut it out! You will get many more
marks for showing you can answer the question than you
will for an unordered list of everything you know about a
topic.

Put yourself in the reader's position – can they follow the

points you are making clearly? You know what you are
trying to say, but will your reader? Are there gaps in your
reasoning to be explained or filled?

Proofreading
Identifying your own mistakes and correcting them is an
important part of academic writing: this is what you do when
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you proofread. Ideally leave a day between finishing your
essay and proofreading it. You won't be so close to your
work, so you will see your errors more easily. Try reading
your essay aloud, as this will slow you down, make you
focus on each word, and show you when your sentences
are too long
It can help to have a friend read through your work but
developing your own proofreading skills is better. Your
friend won't always be available!

Some ways to get more critical analysis into your

essays

Avoid unnecessary description – only include general

background details and history when they add to your
argument, e.g. to show a crucial cause and effect. Practice
distinguishing between description (telling what happened)
and analysis (judging why something happened).

Interpret your evidence – explain how and why your

evidence supports your point. Interpretation is an important
part of critical analysis, and you should not just rely on the
evidence "speaking for itself".

Be specific - avoid making sweeping generalizations or

points that are difficult to support with specific evidence. It is
better to be more measured and tie your argument to
precise examples or case studies.

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Use counter-arguments to your advantage – if you find
viewpoints that go against your own argument, don't ignore
them. It strengthens an argument to include an opposing
viewpoint and explain why it is not as convincing as your
own line of reasoning.

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