FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTING & COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

UNIT V – 2 Marks

FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS

Handling of Character Strings – User-defined Functions – Definitions –

Declarations - Call by reference – Call by value – Structures and Unions –
Pointers – Arrays – The Preprocessor – Developing a C Program : Some
Guidelines.

1. What is meant by Recursive function?

If a function calls itself again and again, then that function is called
Recursive function.

2. What is an array?

An array is a group of similar data types stored under a common name. int
a[10];

Here a[10] is an array with 10 values.

3. What is a Pointer? How a variable is declared to the pointer? (MAY

2009)

Pointer is a variable which holds the address of another variable.

Pointer Declaration:

datatype *variable-name;

Example:

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int *x, c=5;

x=&a;

4. What are the uses of Pointers?

· Pointers are used to return more than one value to the function

· Pointers are more efficient in handling the data in arrays

· Pointers reduce the length and complexity of the program

· They increase the execution speed

· The pointers saves data storage space in memory

5. What is the output of the program?

main() junk(int i, int j)

{{

int i=5;j=2; i=i*j; junk(i,j); j=i*j; printf(“\n %d %d”,i,j); }

Output:

1. 2

2.

6. What are * and & operators means?

„*‟ operator means „value at the address‟

„&‟ operator means „address of‟

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7. What is meant by Preprocessor?

Preprocessor is the program, that process our source program before the
compilation.

8. How can you return more than one value from a function?

A Function returns only one value. By using pointer we can return more than
one value.

9. Is it possible to place a return statement anywhere in ‘C’ program?

Yes. The return statement can occur anywhere.

10. What are the main elements of an array declaration?

· Array name

· Type and

· Size

11. List the header files in ‘C’ language.

<stdio.h> contains standard I/O functions

<ctype.h> contains character handling functions

<stdlib.h> contains general utility functions

<string.h> contains string manipulation functions

<math.h> contains mathematical functions

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<time.h> contains time manipulation functions

12. What are the steps involved in program development life cycle?

1. Program Design

2. Program Coding

3. Program Testing & Debugging

13. What are the types of errors occurred in C program?

1. Syntax errors

2. Runtime errors

3. Logical errors

4. Latent errors

14. What is testing?

Testing is the process of executing the program with sample or tested data.

15. What are the types of testing?

· Human testing

· Computer based testing

16. How do you define enumerated data type?

enum mar_status

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{ single,married,widow }; enum mar_status person1,person2;
person1=married;

Here the person1 is assigned to value zero.

17. What is meant by debugging?

Debugging is the process of locating and isolating the errors.

18. Specify any five syntax error messages.

· Missing semicolon

· Missing braces

· Missing quotes

· Improper comment characters

· Undeclared variables

19. What are the pre-processor directives?

· Macro Inclusion

· Conditional Inclusion

· File Inclusion

20. What is dynamic memory allocation?

Allocating the memory at run time is called as dynamic memory allocation.

21. What are the various dynamic memory allocation functions?

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malloc() - Used to allocate blocks of memory in required size of bytes.

free() - Used to release previously allocated memory space.

calloc() - Used to allocate memory space for an array of elements.

realloac() - Used to modify the size of the previously allocated memory

space.

22. What is the deference between declaring a variable and defining a

variable?

· Declaring a variable means describing its type to the compiler but not
allocating any space for it.

· Defining a variable means declaring it and also allocating space to hold the
variable.

A variable Can also be initialized at the time it is defined. To put it simply, a

declaration says to the compiler,

· “Some where in the program there will be a variable with this name, and this
is the kind of data

· Type it is.” On the other hand, a definition says, “Right here is this variable
with this name and

· This data type”. Note that a variable can be declared any number of times,
but it must be defied

· Exactly once. For this reason, definitions do not belong in header files,
where they might get #included into more than one place in a program.

23. Why does n++ execute than n=n+1?

The expression n++ requires a single machine instruction such as INR to

carry
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out the increment operation whereas; n+1 requires more instructions to carry
out this operation.

24. Why is it necessary to give the size of an array in an array

declaration?

When an array is declared, the compiler allocates a base address and

reserves enough space in the memory for all the elements of the array. The
size is required to allocate the required space. Thus, the size must be
mentioned.

25. Where in memory are variables stored?

Variables can be stored in several places in memory, depending on their

lifetime.

(1) Variables that are defined outside any function (whether of global or file
static scope), and variables that are defined inside a function as static
variables, exist for the lifetime of the program‟s execution. These variables are
stored in the data segment. The data segment is a fixed-size area in memory
set aside for these variables.

(2) Variables that are the arguments functions exist only during the execution
of that function. These variables are stored on the stack. The stack is an area
of memory that starts out as small and

grows automatically up to some predefined limit.

(3) The third area is the one that does not actually store variables but can be
used to store data pointed to by variables. Pointer variables that are assigned
to the result of a call to the function malloc() contain the address of a
dynamically allocated area of memory. This memory is in an area called the
heap.

26. What is an heap memory?

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The heap is another area that starts out as small and grows, but it grows only
when

the programmer explicitly calls malloc() or other memory allocation functions,

such as calloc(). The heap can share a memory segment with either the data
segment or the stack, or

it can have its own segment, it all depends on the compiler options and
operating system. The heap, like the stack, has a limit on how much it can
grow, and the same rules apply as to how that limit is determined.

27. What is the difference between an array and pointer?

Difference between arrays and pointers are as follows.

Array Pointer
1.Array allocates space 1.Pointer is explicitly assigned to point to

automatically. an allocated space.

2.It cannot be resized. 2.It can be resized using realloc ().

3.It cannot be reassigned. 3.Pointers can be reassigned.

4.Size of(array name) gives the 4.Sezeof(pointer name) returns the

number of bytes occupied by the number of bytes used to store the pointer
array. variable.

27. What is the purpose of the function main()? (MAY 2009)

The function main () invokes other functions within it. It is the first function
to be called when the program starts execution.

Some salient points about main() are as follows:

1. It is the starting function .

2. It returns an int value to the environment that called the program.

3. Recursive call is allowed for main() also.

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4. It is a user-defined function.

5. Program exection ends when the closing brace of the function main() is
reached.

6. It has two arguments (a) argument count and (b)argument vector

(reprensents strings passed.)

7. Any user-defined name can also be used as parameters for main() instead
of argc and argv

28. What is dangling pointer?

In C, a pointer may be used to hold the address of dynamically allocated

memory.

After this memory is freed with the free() function, the pointer itself will still
contain the address of the released block. This is referred to as a dangling
pointer. Using the pointer in this state is a serious programming error. Pointer
should be assigned NULL after freeing memory to avoid this bug.

29. Compare arrays and structures.

Comparison of arrays and structures is as follows.

Arrays Structures
An array is a collection of data A structure is a collection of data items of
items of same data type. different data types.

Arrays can only be declared. Structures can be declared and defined.

There is no keyword for arrays. The deyword for structures is struct.

An array name represents the A structrure name is known as tag. It is a

address of the starting element. shorthand notation of the declaration.

An array cannot have bit fields. A structure may contain bit fields.

30. Compare structures and unions.

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Structure Union
Every member has its own All members use the same memory.
memory.
The keyword used is union. Different
The keyword used is struct. interpretations for the same memory
location are possible.
All members occupy separate
memory location, hence different Conservation of memory is possible.
interpretations of the same
memory location are not possible.
Consumes more space compared
to union.

31. Is it better to use a macro or a function?

Macros are more efficient (and faster) than function, because their
corresponding code is inserted directly at the point where the macro is called.
There is no overhead involved in using a macro like there is in placing a call to
a function.

However, macros are generally small and cannot handle large, complex
coding constructs. In cases where large, complex constructs are to handled,
functions are more suited, additionally; macros are expanded inline, which
means that the code is replicated for each occurrence of a macro.

32. List the characteristics of Arrays.

All elements of an array share the same name, and they are distinguished
form one

another with help of an element number.

Any particular element of an array can be modified separately without

disturbing other elements.

33. What are the types of Arrays?

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1.One-Dimensional Array

2. Two-Dimensional Array

3. Multi-Dimensional Array

34. What is the use of ‘\0’ character?

When declaring character arrays (strings), „\0‟ (NULL) character is

automatically added

at end. The „\0‟ character acts as an end of character array.

35. Define sscanf() and sprint() functions.

The sscanf():

This function allows to read character from a character Array and writes to
another array. Similar to scanf(), but instead of reading from standard input, it
reads from an array.

The sprintf():

This function writes the values of any data type to an array of characters.

36. Define Strings.

Strings:

The group of characters, digit and symnbols enclosed within quotes is called
as Stirng

(or) character Arrays. Strings are always terminated with „\0‟ (NULL)
character. The compiler automatically adds „\0‟ at the end of the strings.
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Example:

char name[]={„C‟,‟O‟,‟L‟,‟L‟,‟E‟,‟G‟,‟E‟,‟E‟,‟\0‟};

The character of a string are stored in contiguous memory locations as

follows:

C O L L E G E \0

1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007

37. What is the use of ‘typedef’’?

It is used to create a new data using the existing type. Syntax: typedef data
type name;

Example:

typedef int hours: hours hrs;/* Now, hours can be used as new datatype */

38. What is ‘C’ functions? Why they are used?

A function is a self-contained block (or) a sub-program of one or more

statements that

performs a special task when called. To perform a task repetitively then it is

not necessary to re-write the particular block of the program again and again.
The function defined can be used for any number of times to perform the task.

39. Differentiate library functions and User-defined functions.

Library Functions User-defined Functions

a) Library functions are pre- a) The User-defined functions are the

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defined set of functions defined by the user according to
his/her requirement.
functions that are defined in C
b) User can use this type of function.
libraries.
User can also modify this function.
b) User can only use the
function but cannot change (or)
modify this function.

40. What are the steps in writing a function in a program.

a) Function Declaration (Prototype declaration):

Every user-defined functions has to be declared before the main(). b)

Function Callings:

The user-defined functions can be called inside any functions like main(),
user-defined function, etc.

c) Function Definition:

The function definition block is used to define the user-defined functions with
statements.

41. What is a use of ‘return’ Keyword?

The „return‟ Keyword is used only when a function returns a value.

42. Give the syntax for using user-defined functions in a program.

Syntax for using user-defined functions in a program

Syntax:

function declaration; function definition;

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main() main()

{ {

====== ======
function calling; (or) function calling;
====== ======
} }
function definition;

43. Classify the functions based on arguments and return values.

Depending on the arguments and return values, functions are classified into
four types.

a) Function without arguments and return values.

b) Function with arguments but without return values. c) Function without

arguments but with return values. d) Function with arguments and return
values.

44. Distinguish between Call by value Call by reference.

Call by value Call by reference.

a) In call by value, the value of a) In call by reference, the address of
actual
actual argurment values is passed to
agreements is passed to the formal argument values.
formal arguments and the
operation is done on formal b) Formal arguments values are pointers
arguments. to the actual argument values.

b) Formal arguments values are c) Since Address is passed, the changes

photocopies of actual arguments made in the both arguments values are
values. permanent.

c) Changes made in formal

arguments valued do not affect
the actual arguments values.
Comments
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 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTING & COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

UNIT V – 16 Marks

FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS

1. What are functions? Explain the types of functions in detail with an

example program for each type.

A function is a self contained block or a sub program of one or more

statements

that performs a special task when called.

Types:

· Library Functions

· User Defined functions

(a) Function Declaration

returntype function-name(Parameters);

Example:

int square(int, int);

(b) Function calling

function-name(actual parameters);

Example:

int square(a,b);

(c) Function Definition:

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returntype function-name(formal parameters)

Example:

local variable declaration;

statement 1; statement 2; return(value);

void square(int a, int b)

printf(“%d”,(a*b));

Example for functions:

· Addition of two numbers where addition is a separate function

· Program using function for evaluating Fibonacci series.

2. Define arrays. Explain the array types with an example program for
each type.

Arrays are data structures which hold multiple variables of the same data
type. Consider the case where a programmer needs to keep track of a
number of people within an organization. So far, our initial attempt will be to
create a specific variable for each user.

This might look like,

int name1 = 101; int name2 = 232; int name3 = 231;

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It becomes increasingly more difficult to keep track of this as the number of
variables increase. Arrays offer a solution to this problem. An array is a multi-
element box, a bit like a filing cabinet, and uses an indexing system to find
each variable stored within it. In C, indexing starts at zero. Arrays, like other
variables in C, must be declared before they can be used. The replacement of
the above example using arrays looks like,

int names[4]; names[0] = 101; names[1] = 232; names[2] = 231; names[3] = 0;

We created an array called names, which has space for four integer variables.
You may also see that we stored 0 in the last space of the array. This is a
common technique used by C programmers to signify the end of an array.
Arrays have the following syntax, using square brackets to access each
indexed value (called an element).

x[i]

so that x[5] refers to the sixth element in an array called x. In C, array

elements start with 0. Assigning values to array elements is done by,

x[10] = g; and assigning array elements to a variable is done by, g = x[10];

In the following example, a character based array named word is declared,

and each element is assigned a character. The last element is filled with a
zero value, to signify the end of the character string (in C, there is no string
type, so character based arrays are used to hold strings). A printf statement is
then used to print out all elements of the array.

/* Introducing array's, 2 */

#include <stdio.h>

main()

char word[20]; word[0] = 'H'; word[1] = 'e'; word[2] = 'l'; word[3] = 'l'; word[4] =
'o'; word[5] = 0;

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printf("The contents of word[] is -->%s\n", word );

DECLARING ARRAYS

Arrays may consist of any of the valid data types. Arrays are declared along
with all other variables in the declaration section of the program.

/* Introducing array's */

#include <stdio.h>

main()

int numbers[100]; float averages[20]; numbers[2] = 10;

--numbers[2];

printf("The 3rd element of array numbers is %d\n", numbers[2]);

The above program declares two arrays, assigns 10 to the value of the 3rd
element of array numbers, decrements this value ( --numbers[2] ), and finally
prints the value. The number of elements that each array is to have is
included inside the square brackets

ASSIGNING INITIAL VALUES TO ARRAYS

The declaration is preceded by the word static. The initial values are enclosed
in braces,

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

main()
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{

int x;

static int values[] = { 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 };

static char word[] = { 'H','e','l','l','o' };

for( x = 0; x < 9; ++x )

printf("Values [%d] is %d\n", x, values[x]);

MULTI DIMENSIONED ARRAYS

Multi-dimensioned arrays have two or more index values which specify the
element in the array.

multi[i][j];

In the above example, the first index value i specifies a row index, whilst j
specifies a column index.

DECLARATION

int m1[10][10];

static int m2[2][2] = { {0,1}, {2,3} };

sum = m1[i][j] + m2[k][l];

NOTE the strange way that the initial values have been assigned to the two-
dimensional array m2. Inside the braces are,

{ 0, 1 },

{ 2, 3 }

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Remember that arrays are split up into row and columns. The first is the row,
the second is the column. Looking at the initial values assigned to m2, they
are,

m2[0][0] = 0 m2[0][1] = 1 m2[1][0] = 2 m2[1][1] = 3

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

main()

static int m[][] = { {10,5,-3}, {9, 0, 0}, {32,20,1}, {0,0,8} };

int row, column, sum;

sum = 0;

for( row = 0; row < 4; row++ )

for( column = 0; column < 3; column++ ) sum = sum + m[row][column];

printf("The total is %d\n", sum );

CHARACTER ARRAYS [STRINGS]

Consider the following program,

#include <stdio.h>

main()

static char name1[] = {'H','e','l','l','o'}; static char name2[] = "Hello";

printf("%s\n", name1);

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printf("%s\n", name2);

The difference between the two arrays is that name2 has a null placed at the
end of the string, ie, in name2[5], whilst name1 has not. To insert a null at the
end of the name1 array, the initialization can be changed to,

static char name1[] = {'H','e','l','l','o','\0'};

Consider the following program, which initialises the contents of the character
based array word during the program, using the function strcpy, which
necessitates using the include file string.h

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

main()

char word[20];

strcpy( word, "hi there." );

printf("%s\n", word );

3. Explain the standard string functions with example to support each

type.

Strings:

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The group of characters, digits and symbols enclosed within quotes is called
as strings or character arrays. Strings are always terminated with „\0‟
character(NULL).

Example:

char name[ ] = {‘H’,’E’,’L’,’L’,’O’};

Standard String Functions:

· strlen( )

· strcpy( )

· strncpy( )

· stricmp( )

· strcmp( )

· strncmp( )

· strcat( )

· strrev( ) etc.,

Example program:

· To read and display a string.

· Program to count the number of lines, words and characters in a text.

4. What are pointers? When and why they are used? Explain in detail
with sample programs. (JAN 2009/MAY 2009)

Pointer variable is needed to store the memory address of any variable.

Denoted by

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(*) asterisk.

Pointer Declaration: Syntax:

datatype *variable-name;

Exmaple:

int *a;

· Pointers and Arrays

· Pointers and Strings

· Pointer as function arguments

· Pointer too pointer

Example program:

· To add two numbers through variables and their pointers.

· To assign a pointer value to another variable.

5. Describe in detail about the Preprocessors in C. (MAY 2009)

THE PREPROCESSOR

The define statement is used to make programs more readable, and allow the

inclusion of macros. Consider the following examples,

#define TRUE 1 /* Do not use a semi-colon , # must be first character on line

*/

#define FALSE 0

#define NULL 0

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#define AND &

#define OR |

#define EQUALS ==

game_over = TRUE;

while( list_pointer != NULL )

................

MACROS

Macros are inline code which are substituted at compile time. The definition of
a macro, which accepts an argument when referenced,

#define SQUARE(x) (x)*(x)

y = SQUARE(v);

In this case, v is equated with x in the macro definition of square, so the

variable y is assigned the square of v. The brackets in the macro definition of
square are

necessary for correct evaluation.

The expansion of the macro becomes y = (v) * (v);

Naturally, macro definitions can also contain other macro definitions,

#define IS_LOWERCASE(x) (( (x)>='a') && ( (x) <='z') )

#define TO_UPPERCASE(x) (IS_LOWERCASE (x)?(x)-'a'+'A':(x))

while(*string) {

*string = TO_UPPERCASE (*string);

++string;

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}

CONDITIONAL COMPILATIONS

These are used to direct the compiler to compile/or not compile the lines that

follow

#ifdef NULL

#define NL 10

#define SP 32

#endif

In the preceding case, the definition of NL and SP will only occur if NULL has

been defined prior to the compiler encountering the #ifdef NULL statement.
The scope of a definition may be limited by

#undef NULL

This renders the identification of NULL invalid from that point onwards in the
source file.

Typedef

This statement is used to classify existing C data types, eg,

typedef int counter; /* redefines counter as an integer */

counter j, n; /* counter now used to define j and n as integers */

typedef struct {

int month, day, year;

} DATE;

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DATE todays_date; /* same as struct date todays_date */

ENUMERATED DATA TYPES

Enumerated data type variables can only assume values which have been
previously

declared.

enum month { jan = 1, feb, mar, apr, may, jun, jul, aug, sep, oct, nov, dec };

enum month this_month;

this_month = feb;

In the above declaration, month is declared as an enumerated data type. It

consists of a set of values, jan to dec. Numerically, jan is given the value 1,
feb the value 2, and so on. The variable this_month is declared to be of the
same type as month, then is assigned the value associated with feb.
This_month cannot be assigned any values outside those specified in the
initialization list for the declaration of month.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

main()

char *pwest = "west",*pnorth = "north", *peast="east", *psouth = "south";

enum location { east=1, west=2, south=3, north=4};

enum location direction;

direction = east;

if( direction == east )

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printf("Cannot go %s\n", peast);

The variables defined in the enumerated variable location should be assigned

initial

values.

DECLARING VARIABLES TO BE REGISTER BASED

Some routines may be time or space critical. Variables can be defined as

being register based by the following declaration,

register int index;

DECLARING VARIABLES TO BE EXTERNAL

Here variables may exist in separately compiled modules, and to declare that
the

variable is external,

extern int move_number;

This means that the data storage for the variable move_number resides in
another source

module, which will be linked with this module to form an executable program.
In using a variable across a number of independently compiled modules,
space should be allocated in only one module, whilst all other modules use
the extern directive to access the variable.

NULL STATEMENTS

These are statements which do not have any body associated with them.

/* sums all integers in array a containing n elements and initializes */

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/* two variables at the start of the for loop */

for( sum = 0, i = 0; i < n; sum += a[i++] )

/* Copies characters from standard input to standard output until EOF is

reached */

for( ; (c = getchar ()) != EOF; putchar (c));

COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS

It is possible to pass arguments to C programs when they are executed. The

brackets which follow main are used for this purpose. argc refers to the
number of arguments passed, and argv[] is a pointer array which points to
each argument which is passed to main. A simple example follows, which
checks to see if a single argument is supplied on the command line when the
program is invoked.

#include <stdio.h>

main( int argc, char *argv[] )

if( argc == 2 )

printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);

else if( argc > 2 )

printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");

else

printf("One argument expected.\n");

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Note that *argv[0] is the name of the program invoked, which means that

*argv[1] is

a pointer to the first argument supplied, and *argv[n] is the last argument. If no
arguments

are supplied, argc will be one. Thus for n arguments, argc will be equal to n +
1. The program is called by the command line, myprog argument1.

6. Brief call by value and call by reference in detail. (MAY 2009)

Call by value:

In call by value the value of the actual arguments are passed to the formal
arguments and the operation is done on formal arguments.

Example program:

· To send two integer values using “call by value”.

Call by reference:

In call by reference the address of actual argument values are passed to

formal argument values.

Example program:

· To send a value by reference to user defined function.

7. Discuss about function prototypes in detail. (or)

Explain about the different parameter passing methods with examples

(JAN2009)

· Function with arguments and return type.

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· Function without arguments and return type.

· Function with arguments and no return type.

· Function without arguments and return type.

8. Define Structures. Explain structures in detail. (JAN 2009 / MAY 2009)

A structure is a collection of one or more variables of different data types

grouped together under a single name. It contains different data types.

Syntax:

struct struct-name

type variable 1; type variable 2; type variable n;

} structure_variables;

Example:

struct student

char name[25];

int rollno;

int m1,m2,m3,total;

float avg;

}s1,s2;

· Structure within structure

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· Array of structures

· Pointers to structures

· Structures and functions

Example program:

· To define a structure and read the member variable values from user.

· To copy structure elements from one object to another object.

9. Define Union. Explain Union in detail. (JAN 2009)

Union is a collection of variables similar to structure. The union requires bytes

that are equal to number of bytes required for the largest number.

Example:

union student

char name[20];

int rollno,m1,m2,m3,tot;

float avg;

}s1;

Union of structure

Union can be nested with another union.

Example program:

· Program to use structure within union. Display the contents of structure

elements.
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Prepered by Lenin Raja B.E(Dual) M.E.,(Research scholar Karpagam University)
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