Course: CE F231 Fluid Mechanics 3 0 3

Fluid Mechanics
1

D E PA RT M E N T O F C I V I L E N G I N E E R I N G
BITS PILANI, RAJASTHAN

BY
DR. SHIBANI KHANRA JHA
AUGUST 2020
 What is Fluid Mechanics about?
2

It is an introductory course
 Covering fundamental aspects of fluid mechanics
 Especially the well established laws of conservation of
mass, energy and momentum
 Fluid Mechanics is a study of the behavior of fluids, either at rest (fluid
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics).
 The analysis is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics, which relate
continuity of mass and energy with force and momentum.
 An understanding of the properties and behavior of fluids at rest and in
motion is of great importance in engineering.
Why study Fluid Mechanics?
3

HYDRODYNAMICS
Why study Fluid Mechanics?
4

OCEANOGRAPHY
Why study Fluid Mechanics?
5

Geophysical Fluid
Mechanics
 Why study Fluid Mechanics?
6

Combustion, Chemically Reacting

Flows, Chemical Engineering
Why study Fluid Mechanics?
7

Chemical Reactors
Why study Fluid Mechanics?
8

Heat Transfer
 9

Pollution
Dispersion
 Why study Fluid Mechanics?
10

Environmental Fluid Mechanics

Why study Fluid Mechanics?
11
Why study Fluid Mechanics?
12

AERODYNAMICS
 Why study Fluid Mechanics?
13

Industrial Gas Turbine for Power Generation

Why study Fluid Mechanics?
14

JET (aerodynamic) NOISE

 Overview of the Course
15

 Basic Properties of Fluids (Lecture 1-2)

 Fluid at Rest-Pressure and its Effect (Lecture 3-7)
 Study of fundamentals of fluid flow and Kinematics of Fluid
Motion (Lecture 8-15)
 Flow Analysis using Control Volumes (Lecture 16-21)
 Fluids in Motion – The Bernoulli Equation (Lecture 22-25)
 Flow Analysis using Differential Methods (Lecture 26-29)
 Dimensional Analysis, modeling, and similitude (Lecture 30-33)
 Study of flow pattern through orifices and mouthpieces (Lecture
34-36)
 Study of flow pattern over notches and weirs (Lecture 37-39)
 Study of flow pattern through pipes (Lecture 40-43)
 Course: CE F231 Fluid Mechanics 3 0 3

Basic Properties of Fluids

17

Lecture 1, 2
D E PA R T M E N T O F C I V I L E N G I N E E R I N G
BITS PILANI, RAJASTHAN

BY
DR. SHIBANI KHANRA JHA
AUGUST 2015
 Topics to be Covered
18
 Characteristics of Fluids
 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity and Units
 Systems of Units

 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight

 Density
 Specific Weight
 Specific Gravity

 Ideal Gas Law

 Viscosity
 Compressibility of Fluids
 Bulk Modulus
 Compression and Expansion of Gases
 Speed of Sound

 Vapor Pressure
 Surface Tension.
 Objectives (Lecture 1-2)
19

1. Identify the units for the basic quantities of time,

length, force and mass.
2. Properly set up equations to ensure consistency of
units.
3. Define the basic fluid properties.
4. Identify the relationships between specific weight,
specific gravity and density, and solve problems using
their relationships.
 What is Fluid?
20

 By definition, a fluid is any material that is unable to withstand a static

shear stress.
 Unlike an elastic solid which responds to a shear stress with a
recoverable deformation, a fluid responds with an irrecoverable
flow.

 Examples of fluids include gases and liquids.

Concepts and Definitions- fluids (liquid and gas)
21

 A liquid takes the shape of the

container it is in and forms a free
surface in the presence of gravity

 A gas expands until it encounters

the walls of the container and fills
the entire available space. Gases
cannot form a free surface

 Gas and vapor are often used as

synonymous words
Concepts and Definitions
22

 Intermolecular bonds are strongest in

solids and weakest in gases. One
reason is that molecules in solids are
closely packed together,
 Whereas in gases they are separated
by relatively large distances

On a microscopic scale, pressure is

determined by the interaction of
individual gas molecules.
 Various Fluid mechanics Ideas:
23

 The breakup of fluid jet into drops

 How can a river flow downstream with a significant velocity
even though the slope of the surface is so small that it could not
be detected with an ordinary level
 Why does a stream of water from a faucet sometimes appear to
have a smooth surface, but sometimes a rough surface?
 How much greater gas mileage can be obtained by improved
aerodynamic design of cars and trucks?
It is very likely that during your career as an engineer you will
be involved in the analysis and design of systems that
require a good understanding of fluid mechanics. This
fundamental course is meant to provide you a sound
foundation of the fundamental aspects of fluid mechanics.
 Formation of drops:
depends on basic properties of fluid
24

The ubiquity of drops is

beautifully illustrated by
this picture of a dolphin,
jumping out of the water
 Formation of drops:
Depends on basic properties of fluid
25

Some observations from everyday

life indicate that even the formation
of an individual drop is more
complicated than one might think

What are the

parameters on which
this drop formation
depends???
 Why is fluid so useful in engineering applications?
26

 Typically, liquids are considered to be incompressible.

 That is once you place a liquid in a sealed container you can DO
WORK on the FLUID as if it were an object.
 The PRESSURE you apply is transmitted throughout the liquid
and over the entire length of the fluid itself.
 Civil Engineering Applications
27
Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Civil
Engineering either directly or indirectly. Some examples of
direct involvement are those where we are concerned with
manipulating the fluid:
 Sea and river (flood) defenses;
 Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks;
 Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works;
 Dams;
 Irrigation;
 Pumps and Turbines;
 Water retaining structures.
 Civil Engineering Applications contd…
28

And some examples where the primary object is construction -

yet analysis of the fluid mechanics is essential:

 Flow of air in / around buildings;

 Bridge piers in rivers;
 Ground-water flow.

 Notice how nearly all of these involve water.

 The following course, although introducing general fluid flow ideas and
principles, will demonstrate many of these principles through examples
where the fluid is water.
Visual Examples: Non-Newtonian fluid and failure of
dam due to fluid pressure
29

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2XQ97XHjVw
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G1Op_1yG6lQ
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bWEWVw7TGk4
 Characteristics of Fluids
30

Although the differences between solids and

fluids can be explained qualitatively on the
basis of molecular structure;

a more specific distinction is based on how they

deform under the action of an external load
 Concepts and Definitions
31

 A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,

whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence
of shear stress, no matter however small is the stress.

 In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids

stress is proportional to strain rate.

 When a constant shear force is applied, a solid eventually

stops deforming, at some fixed strain angle, whereas a
fluid never stops deforming and approaches a certain rate
of strain.
 Concepts and Definitions contd…
32

Difference between solid and fluid behaviour

 Solid:
 It can resist an applied shear by deforming
 Stress is proportional to strain

 Fluid:
 Deforms continuously under applied shear
 Stress is proportional to strain rate

Solid Fluid
F F V
    
A A h
Concepts and Definitions: Forces on an Element
34

 Stress is defined as the

force per unit area.
 Normal component:
normal stress
 In a fluid at rest, the
normal stress is called
pressure
 Tangential component:
shear stress
 Concepts and Definitions contd…
35

In the analysis of fluids, we often take small volumes

(elements) and examine the forces on these

Forces acting along edges (faces), such as F, are know as

shearing forces
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously,
or flows, when subjected to shearing forces of any magnitude.
 Shear Stress in moving fluid
36

• If fluid is in motion, shear stress are developed if the particles of

the fluid move relative to each other. Adjacent particles have
different velocities, causing the shape of the fluid to become
distorted
• On the other hand, if the velocity of the fluid is the same at every
point, no shear stress will be produced, the fluid particles are at
rest relative to each other.

Moving plate Shear force

Fluid particles New particle position

Fixed surface
 Dimensions
37

Fluid characteristics can be described qualitatively in terms of certain basic

(primary) quantities such as length [L], time [T], mass [M] and
temperature [Θ]
 Quantitative description requires both a number and a standard by which
various quantities can be compared
 A standard for length might be a meter or foot, for time an hour or second,
and for mass a slug or kilogram; such standards are called units,
 The primary quantities can be used to describe any other secondary quantity.
Example:
A[L2], Velocity[LT-1], Density[ML-3]

Systems of Dimensions
 [M], [L], [T], and [Θ]
 [F], [L], [T], and [Θ]
 [F],[M], [L], [T], and [Θ]
 Dimensional homogeneity
38

Dimensionally homogeneous equations: All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally

homogeneous
 Dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the same as those on the right side, and all
additive separate terms must have the same dimensions. Example
V=V0+at
(LT-1=LT-1+LT-2 T)

Restricted homogeneous equations: equations that are restricted to a particular system of units.
Example
d=gt2/2
d=4.9t2

General homogeneous equations: valid in any system of units. Example

F=ma

Concept of dimensions is basis for the powerful tool of dimensional analysis

(which will be discussed in later part of this course)
 Systems of Units
39

 Qualitative vs quantitative measure of any given quantity

 Units gives the quantitative measure of a quantity
 British Gravitational (BG) system
 International system (SI)
 English Engineering (EE) system
 Two systems of unit that are widely used in engineering systems of unit
are BG and SI
Systems of Units
 MLT Θ
 SI (kg, m, s, K)
 FLT Θ
 British Gravitational (lbf, ft, s, oR)

 FMLT Θ
 English Engineering (lbf, lbm, ft, s, oR)
 Systems of Units: Primary Units
40

 In SI system six primary units

 Systems of Units: Derived Units
41
 In SI system derived units
 Analysis of Fluid Behaviour
42

 The study of transport phenomenon involves some fundamental

laws you must have encountered in physics and mechanics
before, like
 Newton’s laws of motion
 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of energy
 Hence, this is indeed helpful since many of the concepts and
techniques of analysis used in this subject will be ones you have
encountered before
 The broad aspects of transport phenomenon can be subdivided
into fluid statics (fluid at rest) and fluid dynamics (fluid in
motion)
 However, before moving towards the broader aspects, it is
necessary to review certain fluid properties that are intimately
related to fluid behaviour
 Measures of fluid mass and weight
43

Density: mass per unit volume (BG- slugs/ft3; SI- kg/m3)

mass

volume

liquid density varies less with pressure and temperature

whereas for gas this variation is quite high

Specific volume: volume per unit mass (this property is

mainly used in thermodynamics)
1 Volume
v 
 mass
 Measures of fluid mass and weight
44

Specific Weight: weight per unit volume (BG- lb/ft3, SI- N/m3)
weight
  g
volume
 g acceleration due to gravity (32.174 ft/s2; 9.807 m/s2)
 Water at 60 o F has a specific weight of 62.4 lb/ft3 and 9.80 kN/m3)

Specific Gravity: ratio of densities


SG 
H O@4 O
C
H O@4
2

O
2 C ( 39 .2O F )= 1.94 slugs/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3
 Hydrostatic Pressure
45

Suppose a Fluid (such as a liquid) is at

REST, we call this HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
Two important points
 A fluid will exert a pressure in all
directions
 A fluid will exert a pressure
perpendicular to any surface it contacts
Notice that
The arrows on TOP of the objects are smaller
than at the BOTTOM.
 This is because pressure is greatly affected by the
DEPTH of the object.
 Since the bottom of each object is deeper than the
top, the pressure is greater at the bottom.
 Pressure vs. Depth
46

 Suppose we had an object submerged in

water with the top part touching the
atmosphere. If we draw an FBD for this
object, we would have three forces

1. The weight of the object

2. The force of the atmosphere pressing
down
3. The force of the water pressing up
 Pressure vs. Depth
47

 But recall, pressure is force per unit area.

So if we solve for force; we can insert
our new equation

Note: The initial

pressure in this
case is atmospheric
pressure, which is a
CONSTANT.
Po=1x105 N/m2
 A closer look at Pressure vs. Depth
48
Depth below surface

P  P0  gh
Initial Pressure – May or MAY NOT be
atmospheric pressure

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

P  gh GAUGE PRESSURE = CHANGE in

pressure or the DIFFERENCE in the initial and
absolute pressure
 Pressure Transmission

Hydraulic Lift

In a closed system, pressure changes from one point are

transmitted throughout the entire system (Pascal’s Law).

49
 Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum
pressure relations

• Pressure in a vacuum is p = 0.
• Absolute pressure is referenced to perfect vacuum.
• Gage pressure is referenced to another pressure, typically
atmospheric pressure (most gages measure relative pressures).
50
 Ideal gas law
51

 Gases are highly compressible compared to liquids

 Changes in gas density directly related to changes in pressure and
temperature through following equation
 Ideal or perfect gas law or the equation of state for an ideal gas
p

RT
Where
p is absolute pressure (it is a measured relative to absolute zero pressure;
a pressure that would only occur in a perfect vacuum; standard sea-
level atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi (abs) or 101.33 kPa (abs))
 density,
T the absolute temperature and
R is a gas constant
 Viscosity: another very significant property
52

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow

Newtonian Fluids: A fluid that behaves according to
Newton's law, with a viscosity μ (absolute or dynamic or
simply viscosity) that is independent of the stress, is said to
be Newtonian.

Gases, water and many common liquids can be considered

Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts.
 Most of the common fluids (water, air, oil, etc.)
 Also called “Linear” fluids
 Viscosity contd…
53

 Non-Newtonian Fluids: There are many fluids that

significantly deviate from that law in some way or
other. For example:

 Special fluids (e.g., most biological fluids, toothpaste, some paints, etc.)
 Also called “Non-linear” fluids
 Viscosity
54

 Kinematic viscosity ,  

 Shear thinning fluids – the apparent viscosity decreases
with increasing shear rate; the harder the fluid is sheared,
the less viscous it becomes.

Examples - many colloidal suspensions and polymer

solutions are shear thinning. For example, latex paint does
not drip from the brush because the shear rate is small and
the apparent viscosity is large. However, it flows smoothly
onto the wall because the thin layer of paint between the
wall and the brush causes a large shear rate and a small
apparent viscosity.
 Viscosity
55
 Shear thickening fluids – the apparent viscosity increases
with increasing shear rate; the harder the fluid is sheared,
the more viscous it becomes
Examples - water-corn starch mixture and water-sand
mixture (quicksand). Thus, the difficulty in removing an
object from quicksand increases dramatically as the speed
of removal increases
 Bingham plastic – neither a fluid nor a solid; such
material can withstand a finite shear stress without motion,
but once the yield stress is exceeded it flows like a fluid
Examples – toothpaste and mayonnaise
 Characteristic of Real Fluid in presence of a
solid boundary
56

Real fluids, even though

they may be moving,
always “stick” to the
solid boundaries that
contain them.

THIS IS KNOWN AS
NO-SLIP CONDITION
 Compressibility of fluids
57

 Bulk modulus.
 Compression and expansion of gases.
 Speed of sound.
 Compressibility of fluids
58

 Bulk Modulus ( E):

v
How compressible is the fluid?
Change in volume (or density) of a fluid with change
in pressure
dp
Ev  
d / 
 Since decrease in volume of a given mass, ( m   )
will result in an increase in density. Thus, we can
write
dp
Ev 
d / 
 The bulk modulus (also referred to as the bulk
modulus of elasticity) has dimensions of pressure
(FL-2) [lb/in2 or psi; N/m2 or Pa]
 Compression and Expansion of Gases
59

 When gases are compressed (or expanded) the relationship

between pressure and density depends on the nature of the
process
 At constant temperature conditions (isothermal process), the following
condition holds p
 cons tan t

 If compression or expansion is frictionless and no heat is exchanged
with the surroundings (isentropic process), then
p
 cons tan t
k

Where k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure (cp), to the
c
specific heat at constant volume, (cv) (i.e., k  p )
cv
Two specific heats are related to the gas constant R, through the equation
 Compression and Expansion of Gases
60

 Two specific heats are related to the gas

constant R, through the equation
R  c p  cv
 With explicit equations relating pressure
and density the bulk modulus for gases can
be determined by obtaining the derivative
dp / d for either of the two processes
discussed before and substituting the
results into the equation for bulk modulus.
 Thus, for and isothermal process
Ev  p
 Thus, for an isentropic process
Ev  kp
 Compression and Expansion of Gases
61

 It is to be noted that in both the cases, the bulk modulus

varies directly with pressure
 For air under standard atmospheric conditions with p=14.7
psi (abs) and k=1.40, the isentropic bulk modulus is Ev=20.6
psi
 For water under the same conditions shows Ev=312,000 psi.
comparing the both, it shows that air is approximately
15,000 times as compressible as water
NOTE: dealing with gases needs greater attention because
of the significant effect of compressibility on fluid
behaviour; however under small pressure changes, gases
can also be treated as incompressible
Example of some application of compressibility of
a liquid
62

 Water pulse generator using compressed water has been

developed for use in mining operation
 It can fracture rock by producing an effect comparable to
a conventional explosive such as gunpowder
 At the ultrahigh pressures used (300 to 400 Mpa, or 3000 to
4000 atmospheres), the water is compressed by about 10 to
15%
 When a fast opening valve within the pressure vessel is
opened, the water expands and produces a jet of water that
upon impact with the target material produces an effect
similar to the explosive force from conventional explosives.
 Mining with water jet prevents various hazards
 Speed of Sound
63

 Another important consequence of the compressibility of

fluids is that disturbances introduced at some point in the
fluid propagate at a finite velocity.

 For example, if a fluid is flowing in a pipe and a valve at

the outlet is suddenly closed, the effect of the valve
closure is not felt instantaneously upstream.

 It takes a finite time for the increased pressure created by the

valve closure to propagate to an upstream location.
 Speed of Sound
64

 Speed of sound (c): the velocity at which the small

disturbances propagate in a fluid is called the acoustic
velocity or the speed of sound, c
dp
c CHECK THE DIMENSION….
d
 Or in terms of the bulk modulus the speed can be defined as

Ev
c

 Since the disturbance is small, there is negligible heat
transfer and the process is assumed to be isentropic
 Speed of Sound
65

 For gases undergoing isentropic process, Ev  kp , so that

kp
c

 Using the ideal gas law, one can write

c  kRT
 Vapor pressure
66

 If liquids are simply placed in a container open to

the atmosphere, some liquid molecules will have
enough momentum to overcome the intermolecular
cohesive forces and escape into the atmosphere.
 If the container is closed with small air space left
above the surface, and this space evacuated to form a
vacuum, a pressure will develop in the space as a
result of the vapor that is formed by the escaping
molecules.
 When an equilibrium condition is reached, the
vapor is said to be saturated and the pressure that
the vapor exerts on the liquid surface is termed as
VAPOR PRESSURE, pv.
 Vapor pressure contd…
67

 Since this depends upon molecular activity, which is a

function of temperature, the vapor pressure of a fluid also
depends on its temperature and increases with it.
 If the pressure above a liquid surface reaches the vapor
pressure of the liquid, boiling occurs; for example if the
pressure is reduced sufficiently, boiling may occur at
room temperature.

NOTE: it can be observed that liquids like water

and gasoline will evaporate if they are simply
placed in a container open to the atmosphere
 Vapor pressure contd…
68

 Cavitation: when vapor bubbles

are formed in a flowing fluid
they are swept along into regions
of higher pressure where they
suddenly collapse with
sufficient intensity to actually
cause structural damage. The
formation and subsequent
collapse of vapor bubbles in a
flowing fluid called cavitation is Cavitation Bubbles
an important transport
phenomena
 Engineering significance of vapor pressure
69

 In a closed hydraulic system, Ex. in pipelines or

pumps, water vaporizes rapidly in regions where
the pressure drops below the vapor pressure.
 Cavitations can affect the performance of hydraulic
machinery such as pumps, turbines and propellers,
and the impact of collapsing bubbles can cause
local erosion of metal surface.
 Cavitations in a closed hydraulic system can be
avoided by maintaining the pressure above the
vapor pressure everywhere in the system.
 Surface tension
70

 At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or between

two immiscible liquids, forces develop in the liquid
surface which cause the surface to behave as if it were a
“skin” or “membrane” stretched over the fluid mass.

 Although such a skin is actually not present, this

conceptual analogy allows us to explain several commonly
observed phenomena.
 Surface tension contd…
71
•The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known
as surface tension.
•The molecules at the surface do not have other like molecules on all sides of them and
consequently they cohere more strongly to those directly associated with them on the
surface.
•This forms a surface "film" which makes it more difficult to move an object through the
surface than to move it when it is completely submersed.

•The cohesive forces between

molecules down into a liquid are
shared with all neighboring atoms.
 Surface tension contd…
72

Wetting fluid: if the adhesion of the molecules to the solid surface is strong compared to the
cohesion between molecules, the liquid will wet the surface and the level in a tube placed in a
wetting liquid will actually be raised

Non-wetting fluid: if the adhesion of the molecules to the solid surface is weak compared to
the cohesion between molecules, the liquid will not wet the surface and the level in a tube
placed in a non-wetting liquid will actually be depressed
 Surface tension contd…
73

 Surface tension: the intensity

of the molecular attraction per
unit length along any line in
the surface and is designated
by the Greek symbol σ.

The force due to surface tension = The force due to pressure difference

Where pi is the internal pressure

and pe is the external pressure
 Surface Tension Effects
74

•Surface tension effects play a role in many fluid mechanics problems

including the
•movement of liquids through soil and other porous media,
•flow of thin film,
•formation of drops and bubbles, and
•the breakup of liquid Jets.

•Surface phenomena associated with liquid-gas, liquid-liquid or

liquid-gas-solid interfaces are exceedingly complex.
NOTE: THESE COMPLEX
PHENOMENON ARE BEYOND THE
SCOPE OF THIS COURSE
 Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube
75

Wettability of fluid: MEASUREMENT

A common example of interfacial tension
76
 Measurement of Surface Tension
77

Wetting or non-wetting ???

Which one is more wetting/non-wetting
fluid ???
 Example: use of surface tension property
Walking on water
78

• Typical body length is 0.4 in

• Cover 100 body length in 1 sec
• It is Surface tension that keeps
water strider
How they propel themselves at
Water Striders walk on water
such a high speed???
Each stroke creates dimples on the surface with
underwater swirling vortices sufficient to propel it
forward
It is the rearward motion of the vortices that propels
water strider forward
 Example: use of surface tension property
Spreading of oil spills
79

 Oil spills are frequent occurrence and creates a disastrous

environmental problem
 Most oils tend to spread horizontally into a smooth and slippery
surface called slick
 Spread of oil slick is influenced by size of spill, wind speed-direction
and the physical properties of oil
 These properties include surface tension, specific gravity and
viscosity
 Higher the surface tension, more likely the spread will remain in the
place
 Oil (with Sp Gr less than one), increases its Sp Gr, if the lighter
component evaporates from the oil
 Higher the viscosity of the oil, greater the tendency to stay in one place
 Oil Rainbow
80

An example of combined effect of Sp. Gr, surface

tension (interfacial tension) and Viscosity
 Summary of the lecture 1-2
81
At the end of these lectures one should be able know the
followings concepts
 Fluid
 No-slip condition
 Units
 Rate of shearing strain
 Basic dimensions
 Absolute viscosity
 Dimensionally
 Newtonian fluid
homogeneous
 non-Newtonian fluid
 Density
 Kinematic viscosity
 Specific weight
 Bulk modulus
 Specific gravity
 Speed of sound
 Ideal gas law
 Vapor pressure
 Absolute pressure
 Surface tension
 Gage pressure
 Questions to be answered
82

1. Which one is more viscous???

2. Which one is more viscous among water, air,
oil, coal-tar ???
3. Does a fluid deform if there is no shearing
stress???
4.Does the motion of fluid confirms the
deformation
5. If same size balls are dropped in two liquids
with different viscosity, which liquid will show
higher splashes???
 Questions to be answered
83

6. Which among wood, steel and glass surface will show higher
wetting by water???
7. Which among water, oil and magma is most compressible
fluid???
8.What is the dimension of specific volume, specific gravity and
specific weight???
9.Which among air, mercury and water is most wetting and most
non-wetting???
10. What is the force that acts on oil kept in a rectangular tank at
rest? Which part of the tank experiences maximum pressure???
11. Which among gasoline, mercury and seawater shows higher
speed of sound???
 Visual Examples: Cavitation
84

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ON_irzFAU9c
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZlrFMmGs_NI
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GNOZLP0aJ6Q
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZmP0vsRBZ8
 Visual Examples: surface tension
85

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2mKpZHnEzw