Review of Energy Storage Services, Applications, Limitations, and

Energy Reports 6 (2020) 288–306
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr
Review article
Review of energy storage services, applications, limitations, and

benefits
∗
Ahmed Zayed AL Shaqsi a , , Kamaruzzaman Sopian a , Amer Al-Hinai b
a
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
b
Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
article info a b s t r a c t
Article history: Energy systems are dynamic and transitional because of alternative energy resources, technological
Received 2 May 2020 innovations, demand, costs, and environmental consequences. The fossil fuels are the sources of tra-
Received in revised form 29 July 2020 ditional energy generation but has been gradually transitioned to the current innovative technologies
Accepted 31 July 2020
with an emphasis on renewable resources like solar, and wind. Despite consistent increases in energy
Available online 19 August 2020
prices, the customers’ demands are escalating rapidly due to an increase in populations, economic
Keywords: development, per capita consumption, supply at remote places, and in static forms for machines and
Energy sustainability portable devices. The energy storage may allow flexible generation and delivery of stable electricity
Energy transition for meeting demands of customers. The requirements for energy storage will become triple of the
Renewable energy present values by 2030 for which very special devices and systems are required. The objective of
Energy storage the current review research is to compare and evaluate the devices and systems presently in use
and anticipated for the future. The economic and environmental issues as well as challenges and
limitations have been elaborated through deep and strong consultation of literature, previous research,
reports and journal. The technologies like flow batteries, super capacitors, SMES (Superconducting
magnetic energy storage), FES (Flywheel Energy Storage), PHS (Pumped hydro storage), TES (Thermal
Energy Storage), CAES (Compressed Air Energy Storage), and HES (Hybrid energy storage) have been
discussed. This article may contribute to guide the decision-makers and the practitioners if they want
to select the most recent and innovative devices and systems of energy storage for their grids and other
associated uses like machines and portable devices. The characteristics, advantages, limitations, costs,
and environmental considerations have been compared with the help of tables and demonstrations to
ease their final decision and managing the emerging issues. Thus, the outcomes of this review study
may prove highly useful for various stakeholders of the energy sector.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Contents
1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 289
2. A dynamism in the forms and sources of energy ........................................................................................................................................................ 289
3. Global status of the consumption of energy................................................................................................................................................................. 290
4. The need and urgency for the storage and services rendered by energy storage ................................................................................................... 290
4.1. The need for storing energy .............................................................................................................................................................................. 290
4.2. Services rendered by storage of energy .......................................................................................................................................................... 291
5. Energy storage techniques .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 292
6. The potential technologies of storing stationary energy and electrical energy in various devices and grid system .......................................... 292
6.1. The flow batteries .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 293
6.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) ........................................................................................................................................ 294
6.3. Flywheel Energy Storage (FES) ......................................................................................................................................................................... 295
6.4. Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) ............................................................................................................................................................. 296
6.5. Thermal energy storage (TES) ........................................................................................................................................................................... 296
6.6. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) ........................................................................................................................................................... 297
6.7. Hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) ............................................................................................................................................................ 298
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: p94690@siswa.ukm.edu.my (A.Z. AL Shaqsi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2020.07.028
2352-4847/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A.Z. AL Shaqsi, K. Sopian and A. Al-Hinai / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 288–306 289
7. Economic aspects of electrical energy storage ............................................................................................................................................................ 299

8. The impact of electrical energy storage on the global environment ......................................................................................................................... 299
9. Challenges and prospects of energy storage technologies .......................................................................................................................................... 301
10. Contribution of the present study for decision making .............................................................................................................................................. 302
11. Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 302
Declaration of competing interest.................................................................................................................................................................................. 303
Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 303
References ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 303
Further reading ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 306
and demand, necessitating the energy storage for many days or

1. Introduction weeks or even months in the future. According to estimates,
requirements for storing energy will become triple of the present
The need for energy emerged as soon as human beings learned values by 2030 while the stationary energy could dominate in
to cook food, although people were unknowingly benefitting from quantities of electricity supply through grids (IRENA, 2017). The
solar energy to protect their bodies from coldness and drying energy storage techniques and devices have been changed and
clothes in the sun etc. The first planned utilization of energy was modernized simultaneously along with increasing production and
from wood and fire. However, increasing awareness of nature demand. The devices conventionally were magnets, batteries, dry
for taking advantage of energy, various sources of energy were cells, and capacitors. However, besides changes in the olden de-
identified and put to versatile uses. People also acquainted to vices, some recent energy storage technologies and systems like
change forms of energy and storing it for the times when sources flow batteries, super capacitors, Flywheel Energy Storage (FES),
were not available, for example, solar energy at night, though Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), Pumped hydro
the ways of conserving energy were very basic like storing wood storage (PHS), Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), Thermal
under shelter and other safe places. However, increased popula- Energy Storage (TES), and Hybrid electrical energy storage (HES)
tions and energy usage versatility added other sources like coal, were developed for sustainable and renewable usage (Frack-
steam, water, wind, and petroleum. The invention of electricity owiak and Béguin, 2001; Doetsch, 2014; Haisheng et al. 2009; Luo
changed the whole scenario of energy. The olden sources of en- et al., 2015; Silva & Hendrick. 2016; Stanley, 2012; UCS, 2006).
ergy were replaced partially by the production and consumption However, energy storage mechanisms also face many challenges
of electricity. Some modern sources of energy like nuclear and re- as well (Mohd et al., 2008) because none is complete in all
newable resources have been identified in the twentieth century. respects due to one or more limitations like storage capacity
Presently, an energy mix is prevailing and being used in different and form, string time, special structural or implementation re-
parts of the globe. The demands for energy are increasing rapidly quirements, energy releasing efficiency, and operation time (Yae,
due to an increase in populations, economic development in et al., 2016). In addition, there are cost, and environmental as-
developing countries, enhancement in per capita consumption, pects like CO2 emissions (IEA, 2019) associated with the energy
change in lifestyle, and supply at more remote places as stored storage technologies, which must be identified and considered
energy. The world’s primary energy consumption was 149,634 when planning and deciding the selection of technologies for
and 157,064 Terawatt-hours (TWh) in 2015 and 2018 respectively installation in the grid systems of an area. The aspects identified
(Ritchie and Roser, 2019). According to their estimate, the re- above need to be elaborated through a systematic study from
gional consumptions were 69,615, 32,936, 23,859, 10,822, 10,494, the literature so that valuable research work of earlier authors
8164, and 5367 TWh for Asia Pacific, North America, Europe, CIS, is gathered, understood well, and arranged in a good array to
Middle East, South and Central America, and Africa respectively. clarify the study areas, which can contribute to support and ease
Thus, the biggest consumers of energy were Asia Pacific and North the decision makers and practitioners for selection of best energy
America while Africa used the least quantum of energy in 2018. storage devices and mechanisms for their particular grid systems.
The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are although low Considering the high importance and problems of electric energy
populated, but are high consumer of energy, even in comparison storage, some aspects of this subject are being discussed and
to some of the developed countries (Al-Badi and AlMubarak, highlighted with support from the literature review.
2019). The consumption of electricity in the GCC region has
grown from just 51 TWh in 1990 to almost 536 TWh in 2015 2. A dynamism in the forms and sources of energy
whereas the per capita use has been recorded as one of the high-
est rates. It is estimated that the GCC countries will be consuming The types and uses of energy had been dynamically changing
1094 TWh by 2025 (Almulla, 2014). Such a pattern is mostly in history because Beltran (2018) regarded energy as a living,
due to rapid economic development and significant change in evolving, and reactive system, which remained an integral part of
the lifestyle. The electricity systems necessarily require smooth, civilizations and their development. The sun was the only source
balanced, reliable and quality supply (maintaining constant volt- of heat and light while wood, straw and dried dung were also
age and frequency) to the customers without any breaks and burnt. The horses and other animals, wind, and water were used
potential damage to electrical appliances. The strong variations for transportation, working in the fields, grinding grains, pumping
always exist in demand of electricity at different times. Hence, water, and driving the simple machines in very earlier times.
there could be certain times when the energy production will be Later, the power of steam was harnessed which dated back to
more than demand and vice versa. Just to quote an instance, the ancient Alexandria. The steam engines remained in use till the
peak demand of GCC countries in summer is twice the off-peak 17th and 18th centuries. Simultaneously, coal was also used for
summertime requirement due to the running of air condition- heating and production of steam from water. By the late 1800s,
ers and is thrice of winter peak times (Al-Badi and AlMubarak, petroleum was introduced as a fuel and is still in wider use.
2019). For balancing and matching the demand and supply, the Thomas Alva Edison installed the first electric light plant in the
storage of energy is a necessity. The present trends indicate that city of New York in 1880. (UCS, 2006). The invention of elec-
the need for energy storage will increase with high production tricity revolutionized energy usage and consequently, industrial
290 A.Z. AL Shaqsi, K. Sopian and A. Al-Hinai / Energy Reports 6 (2020) 288–306
revolutions happened on the globe. Currently, electricity is the decreasing as source of electricity generation. The energy con-
dominating form of energy all over the world. The introduction of sumption is highly variable in different countries of the world, not
nuclear energy started in the 1950s and was increasing rapidly, necessarily proportional to the populations but also many other
but the Chernobyl accident in Russia (1986) and some later inci- factors; economic development, lifestyle, and climate. The top
dents in India and other countries discouraged its spreading due ten high consuming countries in the descending order are China,
to safety concerns and social pressure (King, 2019). USA, India, Russia, Japan, Canada, Germany, South Korea, and
The modern biofuels, wind, and solar are finding their way Brazil (Table 1). It is very clear that these ten countries swallow
again while geothermal and marine technologies are new addi- 66% of energy utilization of the world. Only China consumes
tions in the field of energy. Advances in technology, alternative 23.9% while USA takes 16.6%, thus these two countries share
energy sources, costs of energy and pressures of social issues 40.5% of the word’s energy consumption. If India and Russia are
associated with energy production are the driving forces behind added too, the energy dissipation of the four biggest countries
the above changes, but the static fact is the consistent increase rise to 51.5%, which means that the whole of the rest world
of energy utilization during the global history (Ritchie and Roser, consumes even a bit lesser (0.5%) than 50% (Table 1). The per
2019). Ritchie and Roser (2018) reported that the total global capita consumption of electricity is also highly variable in dif-
energy consumption in 2018 was 160,228 TWh while different ferent countries. The values range from 52921.73 KWh (Iceland)
energy production sources contributing to this huge production to 8.32 KWh (Liberia). This rate for GCC countries ranged from
are oil, coal, gas, hydropower, wind, solar, nuclear, and other 5340 KWh to 17,610 KWh in 2010, compared to 3378 KWh and
renewals. According to them, the biggest sources are Oil, Coal, 2728 KWh, the respective means for the Middle East and the
and Gas contributing energy (TWh) as 54,220 (33.84%), 43,869 globe (IRENA, 2012). The countries ranking in the top ten list
(27.38%), and 38,489 (24.02%), respectively. Thus, these three during 2015 are Iceland (52921.73), Norway (25018.59), Kuwait
major sources are meeting 85.24% of global energy requirements. (18818.11), Bahrain (18491.19), UAE (18213.33), British Virgin
The respective shares of Hydropower, Wind, and Solar were 6.89% Island (18035.13), Qatar (15784.42), Canada (14501.59), Finland
(11,034 TWh), 2.09% (3342 TWh), and 0.96% (1539 TWh). The (14328.50), and Sweden (12589.75). At the bottom of the list
contribution from nuclear resource was 4.43% (7109 TWh) and are Burundi, SierraLeone, Guinea-Bissau, Chad, and Liberia in the
Other Renewals 0.38% (626 TWh). Due to CO2 emissions during descending order. The per capita consumptions of Saudi Arabia
electricity generation from fossil fuels, demand is increasing to and Oman were 10248 and 5987 KWh, respectively while the
shift gradually to renewal sources, but it is not possible in the other four countries of GCC have already been included in the
short-term because demand of electricity may go thrice by 2040. top ten list above (CIA, 2019).
According to estimates of World Energy Council (2019), global
emission of CO2 might stabilize by 2030 and reductions could be 4. The need and urgency for the storage and services rendered
expected afterwards. These days an energy mix (electricity, the by energy storage
solar, wind, and nuclear) is being consumed in various countries
of the world. However, all the other forms contributed only less The demand of energy does not remain uniform in 24 h in a
than 1% of the total energy utilization (BP Statistical Review, day and the entire year, rather it drastically varies within a day
2019; Ritchie and Roser, 2019). and during various seasons of the year. Thus, peak and off-peak
demands arise within a day and the seasons due to individual
3. Global status of the consumption of energy needs and climatic effects. These phenomena necessitate storing
of energy.
The energy consumption has increased tremendously after the
industrial revolutions due to an increase in population, inven- 4.1. The need for storing energy
tion of new techniques and machines, economic development,
accessing remote and far flanged areas, and big changes in the The electrical energy when produced in excess over demand
lifestyle. According to estimates, energy use was doubling in each must be stored otherwise it cannot be used later and the cost of
decade in earlier times (UCS, 2006). Simultaneously, a significant production for that part will go waste. Thus, it will increase the
increase also took place in the production of energy, especially cost per unit of electricity. Moreover, when electricity is being
electricity. Among other drivers of increasing demand for energy produced from renewal sources like wind and solar, the storing
are selling the electricity even below the actual cost in GCC and of excess energy is highly necessary because solar energy at night
some other countries, wastage due to usage and building designs, and wind energy will not be available at certain times. Certainly,
and lower efficiency of generation and delivery equipment (Al- the generation may surpass the total demand of electricity during
Badi and AlMubarak, 2019). Nevertheless, production could not off-peak hours and give rise to an urgent need for storing excess
match demands in so many developing countries. According to electricity. EPA (2019) elaborated that the storage of electricity
estimates, the world’s primary energy consumption in 2015 re- can keep a balance between supply (generation) and demand
mained as 146,000 terawatt-hours (TWh), 25 times higher than (consumer use), avoid electric fluctuations, reduce brownouts
the year 1800 (Ritchie and Roser, 2018). As the data values are during peak demand, decrease environmental pollution and in-
not mostly same when reported by different sources, in another crease Electric Grid Efficiency. The energy storage can stabilize
report (BP Statistical Review, 2019), the global energy consump- grid power and make the grid system more efficient. Storing
tion was 136,129 TWh in 2008 and 161,250 TWh in 2018. There electricity is a key mechanism for supplying electricity reliably,
has been a 2.9% increase in consumption for the 10 years. World increasing security and economic value and decreasing carbon
Energy Council (2019) while finding scenarios and exploring in- dioxide emissions (Mathew, 2012; Revankar, 2019). Electricity is
novative pathways to 2040, contemplate that the globe will be not easy to store, and special devices and mechanisms are re-
entering in a new energy era promising enough, clean, and sus- quired for this purpose that are being improved and innovated by
tainable energy for all communities with increasing uses and researchers and technologists. Consequently, the present global
users. About 10% increase is presumed in demand of energy by capacity for energy storage is continuously increasing rapidly
2040. However, there will be more emphasis on renewal sources (World Energy Council, 2019). To quote an instance, according to
considering environmental protection, but fossil fuels (especially estimates of IEA (2019), there has been a 100% increase in the
gas replacing major part of coal) will remain dominating although storing capacity comparing the year 2017 with 2018. The market
Table 1
Consumption of energy of top ten countries of the world during 2008–2018.
Country Consumption of energy (TWh) of top ten consuming countries Growth rate% per annum World’s share in
(based 2018) 2018
2008 2010 2015 2018 2008–17 2018
China 25,935 28,982 35,006 38,076 4.3 3.9 23.9
USA 26,272 25,853 25,737 26,760 −0.4 3.5 16.6
India 5559 6269 8025 9409 5.2 7.9 5.8
Russia 7874 7780 7850 8385 0.3 3.8 5.2
Japan 6024 5873 5268 5292 −1.4 −0.2 3.3
Canada 3745 3629 3943 4001 0.7 0.2 2.5
Germany 3908 3815 3756 3768 0.1 −3.0 2.3
South Korea 2803 3035 3315 3501 2.3 1.3 2.2
Brazil 2791 3059 3442 3466 2.5 1.3 2.1
Iran 2396 2477 2896 3326 3.2 5.0 2.1
Total of top ten 87,307 90,772 99,237 105,984 – – 66.0
countries
World 136,129 140,723 151,724 161,250 1.5 2.9 100.0
for storage devices and systems’ is growing accordingly. Surplus the absence of enough storing system (Chen et al., 2008; Rahul
generation of electricity can also be exchanged with neighboring and Apt, 2008). Energy storage can help to control new chal-
grid zones through increased interconnection capacity. Thus, the lenges emerging from integrating intermittent renewable energy
excess of production of one grid can be shared with other grid from wind and solar PV and diminishing imbalance of power
where the demand is increasing (Metz, 2016). However, due to supply, promoting the distributed generation, and relieving the
almost same On peak and Off-peak hours in the adjoining areas, grid congestion. Many other services rendered by energy stor-
the usefulness of this option is limited. The energy storagebattery age are Electric Service Reliability, Black Start Capability, Voltage
system is used for supplying energy in remote areas. This form Support and Control, Power Quality, Renewable Energy Capacity
of energy has been started to use in vehicles, many of which Firming, Backup Power, Time-of-Use Shifting, and Management of
are now running on stored electricity. Whittingham, (2012). The Demand, Supply, Peak Limiting, Distribution, and Power Quality
fossil fuels highly affect the global environment as CO2 emis- (Günter, 2015; Ibrahim and Adrian, 2013; NC State University,
sions; hence, there is a huge emphasis to have more generation 2018; Zakerin and Syri, 2015). Large Scale Energy Time-Shift
from renewable sources. Resultantly, the need for increasing the service to the grid system is possible if large scale storage facil-
capacity of energy storage will enhance too much because of ities along with energy discharge capacities are simultaneously
an intermittent supply from renewable resources, which cannot available within generation plants. The most important devices
meet the demand at odd and peak times. Therefore, renewable and systems for energy storage are PHS, CAES, and big banks
installations must be paired with energy storage devices and of storage batteries. The availability of such devices enables the
systems in the coming future (Wilson, 2018; IRENA, 2017). The grid system to charge the capacity of electric supply in off-peaks
major need for storing stationary energy, other than electricity, and discharge during on-peaks, thus avoiding problems emerging
is to meet portable forms required for so many broad uses in
during full peak periods. Resultantly, flexibility is possible in
the present era. For example, using smartphones, iPhones, and
running the generation plants according to needs. The storage
iPods, we are so accustomed to, would have not possible without
system, mostly comprising of modern batteries, strengthens the
modern energy storage. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are provid-
running of the grids system and increases the reliability and
ing energy storage for the operation of modern phone devices.
self-sustainability during emergent situations. The short-term de-
The energy storage is also vital high-tech manufacturing where
viations of generation and loads can be managed easily if some
the essentiality is having uninterrupted power sources with con-
energy reserves are built in the system. Black start capability, on
sistent frequency. (Fletcher, 2011). Energy storage is also vital
the generation side of the grid, provides reserved energy to the
for essential services providers like the telephone industry and
grid to restart after the occurrence of a major power shut down
healthcare sector which rely mainly upon energy storage (in the
due to any reason. This facility is required to provide electricity
form of large batteries for backup in case of power failure).
for restarting the generation resources again (Castillo and Gayme,
4.2. Services rendered by storage of energy 2014; Eyer and Corey, 2010; Kirby, 2007; Kirschen and Rebours,
2005; Pearre and Swan, 2014; Tweed, 2013). The most recent
The storage of energy renders many direct and ancillary ser- technologies of energy storage support supplying electricity and
vices to the generation, supply system of energy, and facilitate operation of plants on a ‘Just-in-time’ basis, ensuring high power
the customers who are the end-users of energy. The capacity, na- quality and reliability for the benefit of ratepayers. Because of
ture, and quality of different services depend upon the strength, more intermittent renewable generation (for example in Mas-
versatility, technological innovations, and automation of the grid sachusetts, USA), maintaining a perfect balance in the delivery
system (generation, storage capacity, and transmission features), system is becoming more challenging because of various reasons
and location, customer demands, and regulatory constraints. The like the severe weather conditions and uncertainty of demands.
Energy Generation is the first system benefited from energy stor- The energy storage is emerging as a great help to coping with
age services by deferring peak capacity running of plants, en- sudden power shuts and gaining self-reliance on the grids. There-
ergy stored reserves for on-peak supply, frequency regulation, fore, new energy-storing technologies are becoming an integral
flexibility, time-shifting of production, and using more renewal part of modern smart grids and ensuring quality energy supply
resources (NC State University, 2018; Poullikkas, 2013). The fluc- of the world in the future (Mass.gov., 2015). It is imperative for
tuations of generation, especially from renewal resources, can the practitioner and decision maker to be aware of installing and
be controlled. A good energy storage system removes the need using the recent techniques and devices of energy storage for
of installing a broad transmission system for transmitting elec- getting maximum utility of these in handling smart grid problems
tricity to other places. Such a system is deemed necessary in of today and the near future.
5. Energy storage techniques nanofibers (NFs) can be formed from a polymer precursor, which
is having various fiber morphologies (hollow, porous surface fiber
Populations of even olden times knew the mechanisms of and ribbon). The process of Electrospinning is useful during the
storing energy for the delayed use. Of course, these were of clas- formation of polymer NFs whereas fiber diameter, fiber align-
sical types and methods like protecting wood from wetting for ment, and shape of the fibrous material can also be controlled
burning at night and during the rainy season. However, the ways during manufacturing (Merlet et al., 2012). Vatamanu, Borodin,
and devices remained changing and improving through different and Smith (2010) developed a multistep method, which proved
eras in consequence to the development of technology. The first useful and effective in the preparation of carbon nanofibers (N-
systematic device was the battery which is the still most used CNFs)/polymer composite film grown on silicon. In addition to
technique for the storage of energy storage because their output wind and solar energy, electricity is largely generated in power
is more than 90%. Volta’s cell was the first invented battery in stations of various sizes where petroleum-based fuel is mostly
1800. This primitive battery was structured from zinc and copper used. However, there is a wide difference in demand and gen-
discs, which were alternating each other, but a cord was separat- eration of electric power while storing electricity at any scale
ing these apart. A brine solution was being used as an electrolyte. is not possible. For the storing purpose, electricity should be
Later, Daniel’s cell was transformed from the Volta cell in 1836. transformed into the forms, which are storable and recoverable
In Daniel’s cell, two electrolytes were used. Leclanche cell was as electricity at the time of demand Chen (2009). Besides stor-
formed in 1866, which comprised of a zinc anode and a carbon age devices as batteries, flywheel compressed air and pumped
cathode. The significantly small-sized dry cells, presently in use, hydro storage, electricity can be stored through various systems
were invented in 1948. An alkaline electrolyte, a zinc anode, and along with transmission system as ancillary services (Luo et al.,
a manganese oxide cathode form the structure of these cells. 2015; World Nuclear Association, 2019). The major systems are;
Current rechargeable cells, also known as secondary batteries, Renewable energy grid-connected system, Grid auxiliary service
were evolved in the mid-1980s which remained changing over system, and Distributed and microgrid system (HNAC, 2019). The
time from lead-acid to Ni–Cd, Li-ion (Li–O2 and Li–S), and finally collection of all the methods and systems utilized for storing
NiMH (nickel-metal hydride). The Sony corporation launched Li- electricity in a larger quantity associated with the grid system
ion batteries (LIB) in 1991 and have reconstructed some other is called Grid Energy Storage or large-scale energy storage (Mo-
portable devices subsequently. The Ni–Cd, Li–O2 , and Li–S are the hamad et al., 2018). PHS (Pumped hydro storage) is the bulk
batteries which can store higher quantum of energy, therefore, mechanism of energy storage capacity sharing almost 96% of the
are still in extensive use (Bruce et al., 2011; Rao et al., 1977; global amplitude. The large electrochemical storing is also there
in the form of batteries and flywheels but needs to be developed
Whittingham, 2004; Whittingham, 2012; YaoKummer, 1967). It is
further (TAWAKI, 2018).
worth to mention that the ultimate conclusion is that the energy
storage capacity through electrochemical systems are limited by
6. The potential technologies of storing stationary energy and
constraints of chemistry. Therefore, the capacities have to be
electrical energy in various devices and grid system
increased using couples with very low equivalent weights (Abra-
ham, 2015). Now, the world has entered the digital technologies,
The Electrical Energy Storage (EES) technologies consist of
the energy storage devices have been modernized accordingly.
conversion of electrical energy to a form in which it can be
The capacitor is another widely used device for storing en-
stored in various devices and materials and transforming again
ergy as a surface charge which was developed sometimes after
into electrical energy at the time of higher demands Chen (2009).
the batteries. This device needs large amounts of surface, which
EES can prove highly useful to the grid systems due to multi-
is in direct relation to the capacity of a capacitor that can be ple advantages and functions. The usefulness of ESS is visible
stored and released repeatedly with the least damage to the through meeting high demands, managing delivery of energy,
composed materials. The efforts for the best caused the develop- controlling the sporadic supply and generation of electricity, in-
ment of supercapacitors. Supercapacitors are a hybrid of battery creasing power trustworthiness, matching load requirements of
and capacitor, the surfaces of which are charged while Faradaic customers, cognizance of grid systems, and decreasing electrical
reactions are majorly occurring in the inner material. This type of energy import when demands are high (Luo et al., 2015). An
capacitor can complement or replace batteries for storing elec- electricity grid is a network of electrical power comprised of
trical energy when high power delivery or uptake is required power generation plant(s), substations, transmission and distri-
(Simon and Gogotsi, 2008; Whittingham, 2012). According to bution lines, transformers, and the consumers of electricity. This
Bruce et al. (2011), very recent energy storage materials and network is interconnecting the units of generation, transmission,
devices are of two types; Lithium-ion battery or electric double and distribution and supplying the electricity from the generation
layer of porous carbon. An example of carbon-based materials units to the units of distribution. There are two types of Electrical
is ‘graphene’, the use of which for energy storage has grown Grid Systems; Regional Grid, and the National Grid (Circuit Globe,
tremendously. The graphene varies in terms of morphology, di- 2019; Student Energy, 2019). The energy storage technologies and
mensions, and a few layers. The electrochemical features depend devices can be classified on various bases. The categorization of
on synthesized procedures like mechanical exfoliation, liquid- EES technologies may be functions-based, time of response or
phase exfoliation, and reduction of graphene oxide (Novoselov storing periods (Baker, 2008) as shown in Fig. 1.
et al., 2004; Rinaldo et al., 2015, Zhang et al. 2015). The most However, the most common are the forms and modes in
advanced polymer materials, constituting Li-ion batteries are cov- which the energy is stored in the electrical network (Bakers,
ering diverse mechanisms; movable electronic devices, vehicles 2008; Evans et al., 2012; Zhao et al. 2015). The mechanisms
run by electricity, and smart grids, which require power watt and storing devices may be Mechanical (Pumped hydroelectric
hours on the lower side and to megawatt-hours on the higher side storage, Compressed air energy storage, and Flywheels), Thermal
(Isah, 2018). Nanostructured carbons are highly porous and have (Sensible heat storage and Latent heat storage), Thermochem-
a large surface area that can maximize electrode performance ical (Solar fuels), Chemical (Hydrogen storage with fuel cells),
by functional groups; oxidative groups (carboxylate, ketone), or Electrochemical (Conventional rechargeable batteries and flow
hydroxyl groups or nitrogen. Increased capacity, appropriately batteries), and Electrical (Capacitors, super capacitors, and SMES).
to the electrolyte, and electrochemical activities were observed Luo et al. (2015) represented this classification diagrammatically
due to such surface modifications Wu et al. (2017). The carbon (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Positioning of Energy Storage Technologies.

Source: Akhil et al. 2013.
Fig. 2. Classification of energy storage systems.

Source: Magyar Silakhori 2019.
The features of ESS devices and systems are relative to the type to the grid or lost by dissipation in the network. The SU (t) is the
of energy production, storage duration, and power delivery to supply profile power that ESS delivers to the grid as a function
the grid governed by the following theoretical framework (Rugolo of time. Aligning to the subject and scope of the present article,
and Aziz, 2012). only electrochemical and electrical approaches/devices/systems
are being majorly concentrated in the subsequent sub-sections.
ST(t) + PR(t) = SU(t)
ST (t) is the storage power of the ESS as a function of time, 6.1. The flow batteries
it is positive when discharging the power and negative when
charging. PR (t) is a power production profile by an installed Flow batteries are replacing conventional batteries, which are
generation system, which is either supplied to ESS or delivered comprised of two electrolytes in a liquid state (Fig. 2, Zipp, 2017),
= 1 : 259 V (3)
The state-of-the-art of Li-ion batteries is discussed and the chal-
lenges of developing ultrahigh energy density rechargeable bat-
teries are identified. Examples of ultra-high energy density bat-
tery chemical couples include Li/O2, Li/S, Li/metal halide and
Li/metal oxide systems. Future research and technology devel-
opments must be strengthened to not only increase the storage
capacity of solid-state batteries and liquid electrolyte batteries
(the flow batteries) but also to structure biodegradable batteries
to address environmental challenges. Low cost, long cycle-life,
large-scale energy storage, and biodegradable batteries must be
the ultimate target (Abraham, 2015) (see Fig. 4).
6.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
Another technology is ‘Superconducting magnetic energy stor-

age (SMES)’, which is characterized as instantaneous and highly
efficient (about 95% for a charge–discharge cycle). The SMEs
consists of 3 MW units (Anzano et al., 1989; Boom and Peter-
son, 1972). The systems possess the capability of discharging
the energy storage near to totality in a shorter time, usually
lesser than 100 ms, as compared to the batteries. The flow of
direct current in a coil of superconducting material creates a
Fig. 3. Structure of a flow battery source (After Zipp, 2017). magnetic field that stores energy. However, the system must be
cooled continuously. It is the best suitable to provide constant
and instant power supply as well as regulating network stability
in contrast to solid compounds in standard batteries that has with very high-power output within a short time (DTI Report,
limited energy storage capacity. Various types of electrolytes are 2004; Bueno and Carta, 2006). SMES systems can stabilize the grid
used in a flow battery; bromine as a central element with zinc networks, providing power quality to the consumers, although
(ZnBr), sodium (NaBr), vanadium (VBr) and many more as the the systems are costly. The structure of SMES comprises modular
anode while a recent addition is of sodium polysulfide. Flow DG building blocks connected to the network. An electric power
batteries have relatively higher capacities of energy storage and generation plant, and a conversion and storage unit are the com-
ponents of a commercial DG facility. The conversion and storage
subsequent release (15 MWh–120 MWh; storage efficiency about
plants consist of an electrolyzer, fuel cell, and tanks capable of
75%). Other good features are fast recharge, long life (about a
controlling rapid variations of electricity generation and sudden
decade), full discharging possibility, non-toxic materials in the
demands of consumers. The shock-absorbing role is conspicuous
structure, and operational functions at low temperatures.
to provide quality power supply and make this system superior
Mobility of mechanical parts is the main disadvantage of the
over others (Louie and Strunz, 2007). The resistance losses in
system, the major limitation of commercial adaptation of flow
SMES after charging are almost zero because of the supercon-
batteries (Chen et al., 2008; Vazquez et al. 2010, Zipp, 2017). The
ducting coil [Xue, Cheng, and Sutanto, 2005]. A special cooling
placement of batteries in a grid system has been represented in mechanism, cryogenic cooling installed as a part of the SMES for
Fig. 3 (Liu et al., 2010). cooling the coil to keep its temperature below the critical value.
The capacity imbalances have been observed in flow batteries The SMES can release a higher quantum of energy into the grid
because of mixing of electrolyte (active component, vanadium) system within a fraction of a second (milliseconds) during the
diffusing from both sides across the membrane which ultimately discharging mode. Niobium–titanium (NbTi), a superconductor
results in an irreversible loss of capacity and efficiency (Chen material, is used to make fine coils whereas liquid helium coolant
et al., 2018; Hwang et al., 2018; Jung et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2019; or superfluid helium coolant at 4.2 K are used for cooling the
Strużyńska-Pirona, 2017). The vanadium ion is having various system in the SMES design. SMES works on the basic principle
oxidation numbers from 2 to 5. In the flow batteries, this chemical of charging of the coil with the electric supply and keeping the
characteristic of vanadium is utilized. VO2+ , VO2+ , V3+ , and V2+ temperature of the system within critical values. The storing of
are various forms of Vanadium changing into one another during energy is permanent without any loss of charge which can be
reactions. The solution of V3+ is put into the tank of negative got released when required (Moghadasi et al., 2010). This is good
electrolyte, whereas the solution of VO2+ is poured into the merit of SMES energy storing system making it highly useful. The
positive electrolyte tank. When the VRFB (Vanadium Redox Flow working of the system has been diagrammatically represented in
Battery) is got charged, the oxidation number increases from +1 Fig. 5.
to +3, resulting in c energy storage. When the VRFB is discharged, The SWOT Analysis of SMES indicated that this technology
a negative electrolyte is oxidized and the positive electrolyte is has strengths; high power capacity, stability, and quality, fast
reduced, just releasing the energy. The charge–discharge chemi- response time, high storage efficiency, flexible and reliable, com-
cal reactions for taking place in this process are expressed as Eqs. plete charge and discharge, no moving parts, and no environ-
(1), (2), and (3) (Kim, 2019): mental hazard. The storage system has opportunities and po-
tentials like large energy storage, unique application and trans-
Negative electrode: V2+ ↔ V3+ + e− E0 = −0.255 V (1) mission characteristics, innovating room temperature super con-
+ − + 2+ 0 ductors, further R & D improvement, reduced costs, and enhanc-
Positive electrode: VO2 + e + 2H ↔ VO H2 O E
ing power capacities of present grids. However, presently it has
= +1.004 V (2) weaknesses of high cooling demand, expensive raw materials,
+ 2+ + 2+ 3+ 0
Overall reaction: VO2 + V + 2H ↔ VO +V + H2 O E complicated design, temperature sensitivity, costly in operation,
Fig. 4. A diagram showing the role of batteries in the Grid System source (After Luo et al., 2015).
Fig. 5. Diagram of superconducting magnetic energy storage system source (Pavlos Nikolaidis, 2017).
and economical only for short cyclic periods. This device has The flywheel systems are usually operating in the high vacuum
threats like low temperature and high magnetic fields. Validation and possessing characteristics; no friction loss, small wind resis-
and commercialization are still required (Ali et al.; Shaw, 2016). tance, long life, no harmful effects on the environment, and needs
negligible maintenance. The FES can help to control the frequency
of the grid system and ensure the quality of electricity being
6.3. Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)
delivered. It is mostly employed with renewal energy generation
where electricity fluctuations are high and frequent. The low
FES devices are comprising of various types of flywheels (mas- energy density and the higher cost for ensuring the security of
sive or composite), a motor-generator, and magnetic brackets set the system are the major shortcomings. Presently, its main use
inside a housing case (Ruddell, Schönnenbeck, and Jones, 1996). is in supplementing the battery system (Ding and Zhi, 2016). Due
These are having very high cycling capacity with cycle values to better characteristics, the Global Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)
of 10,000 to 100,000 (Fig. 6 Pavlos Nikolaidis, 2017). The high- Systems Market is anticipated to grow at a higher rate. The use of
capacity flywheels with lesser friction losses (200 KW of a 200 FES in the automobile industry will be increasing with time and
tons flywheel) are required for the electrical power systems. The improvement of the technology. The advantages of FES are many;
efficiency depends upon the energy storage time e.g. an average high power and energy density, long life time and lesser periodic
efficiency of 85% may decrease to 78% and 45% after 5 h, and maintenance, short recharge time, no sensitivity to temperature,
24 h (full one day) respectively. Hence, flywheels are inefficient 85%–90% efficiency, reliable, high charging and discharging rate,
to store electrical energy on a long-term basis but can be used in no degradation of energy during storage, high power output, large
combination with other devices. The FES is made up of carbon- energy storage capacity, and non-energy polluting. The major
fiber and can be of low speed (6 × 103 rpm) or high speed disadvantages and limitation could be; low specific energy, short
(∼105 rpm) (Pena-Alzola et al., 2011). However, the high-speed discharge time, complexity of structure, mechanical stress and
FES would be incurring high costs (Díaz-González et al., 2013). fatigue, safety concerns due to high speed of rotor and possibility
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of flywheel energy storage system source (Pavlos Nikolaidis; 2017).
of breaking, and high cost (Amiryar and Pullen, 2017; Cooper, PHES is mature and an established technology for the storage
2016). Flywheels are a less mature technology as compared with of electricity. It can readily make available electricity during peak-
batteries while the current cost is too high making them un- ing power demand without requiring ramp-up time. The energy
competitive in the market. However, the cost of the system can storagein the PHES system can also help as a ‘black start’ source
be kept lesser by using small capacity flywheels. The flywheel in case of a power shut down. However, the major limitations
energy storage market could grow (estimated volume in 2025 for PHES are related to environmental considerations and the
by Market, 2019 is $479.3) due to two major factors; industrial higher costs of establishing the technology. The geographical
development and growing population causing significant increase and topographical feasibilities are further concerns. Due to more
in global demand for power energy which often creates frequent anticipated advantages, PHES shares about 90% share of the global
demand-supply gap of energy in developing nations, leading to energy storage capacity. In 2017, there were approximately 270
requirements for power backups. PHES stations in the world generating 127 GW power capacity;
the United States has 40 PHES projects having a cumulative
6.4. Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) power capacity of 22 GW while European Union (EU) is operating
approximately 160 PHES stations with an overall capacity of
Two water bodies (natural or artificial) located/ constructed at 47.44 GW (Pure PHES, 24.91 GW and mixed 22.53 GW). Rest of
higher and lower elevations are the key points of the pumping the world has 70 PHES plants (Fortune Business Insights, 2019;
hydro storage system for storing energy. The water is pushed Kougias and Szabó, 2017; Yang and Jackson, 2011).
into the higher elevation water body using extra electricity dur-
ing off-peak while during on-peak hours, the water from the 6.5. Thermal energy storage (TES)
upper reservoir is routed through pipes down a level into a
hydroelectric generator, which lastly gets stored in the lower Thermal energy storage (TES) has been adopted broadly in
water pool. The running of generators produces the electricity which such materials are used that can be preserved at high or
again. The water is pumped back into the upper water body low temperatures in insulated captivity. The energy stored as
during off-peak periods (Mears and Epri-Doe, 2003; Mohd et al., heat is recovered back on reverting the cold or hot material to
2008). Thus, motor/generator and reversible pump-turbine are normal conditions which are used again for the generation of
the main components of PHES, in addition to two large water electricity using heat engine devices. Energy input in this system
reservoirs. This system can startup in a few minutes and be kept is electrical resistance during heating or cooling; therefore, the
running associated with the volume of stored water in the upper overall efficiency of TES varies from 30 to 60%, which looks
water reservoir. The problems of this mechanism are dependence low. The heat cycle is comparatively more efficient (70%–90%),
upon the geographical location and climatic conditions of the depending upon the environment. The TES systems could be of
plant area. The conversion efficiency ranges from 65% to 80% two types; low-temperature or high-temperature in comparison
based upon climatic conditions and on equipment characteristics to room temperature. Ibrahim and Adrian (2013) classified TES
(Mears and Epri-Doe, 2003). Generally, 4 KWh are needed to as industrial cooling (below −18 ◦ C), building cooling (at 0–
generate 3 KWh whereas the energy storage capacity depends 12 ◦ C), building heating (at 25–50 ◦ C) and industrial heat storage
on the height of the waterfall and the volume of water. The (higher than 175 ◦ C). Various materials are used in the TES
rough calculations have indicated that a mass of one-ton water system for storing energy upon which the storage capacity of
falling 100 m could generate 0.272 kWh. The energy storage in the device depends. Sharma et al. (2016) identified polyethylene
this system can prolong for longer periods. Jung (2010) reported glycol (PEG) material having a significant potential for using as
that PHS is one of the oldest methods for storing energy; the a TES material because of its stable melting temperature (in the
first plants were built in Switzerland and Italy in 1890. Mostly, range of 55–60 ◦ C with a deviation of 6.5%). Nevertheless, an
the existing conditions of topography and hydrology of the area increase in the number of thermal cycles can cause a gradual
are used, if available, otherwise artificial water reservoirs (one decrease in the latent heat of fusion. During the peaks of nu-
upper and the other at a lower level) are constructed (Fig. 7). The merous thermal cycles of FT-IR, recordable changes could not
operating cost per energy unit has been reported as the cheapest be seen confirming the stability of polyethylene glycol (PEG)
in the PHS (ARUP, 2014; Nadeem et al., 2019). However, the composition. However, the research work on the suitability of
construction of reservoirs and other infrastructures claim very PEG continued. The thermochemical tests and techno-economic
high investment costs. analysis showed the reliability of PEG 6000. A research team
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of pumped hydro storage plant.

Source: Pavlos Nikolaidis; 2017.
(Su, Darkwa, and Kokogiannakis, 2017) developed and tested unit to produce electricity again. CAES is the only technology
MF-3 (a microencapsulated phase change material) for storing (in addition to pumped-hydro) having the capability of commer-
solar energy in a hot water storing system. They recorded the cial adaptability in the very-large deliverable system to store
highest energy storage capacity of 126 kJ/kg with an efficiency energy (single unit sizes of 100 MW or more) for the use of
of 97.4% in comparison to some additional materials. The higher customers (Ibrahim et al., 2008b). The energy density for CAES
energy storage density indicated the thermal effectiveness of MF- is about 12 kWh/m3 (Multon et al., 2003) with an approximate
3 Although this material requires a relatively smaller physical size efficiency of 70% (Robyns, 2005). This system absorbs 0.7–0.8
than the water-based system, its energy storage value was still KWh of electricity during off-peak hours for compressing air to
about double of many storage units in use currently. The metal- release one KWh into the network again during peak hours. This
lurgical slags also performed best in vertical TES with axial flow technology is being adopted by many companies in Europe for
direction (Krüger et al., 2019). Zanganeh et al. (2014) designed a storing electricity in the grid system. The CAES system stores
packed bed of rocks as a thermal energy storage (TES) system in energy as intermolecular gas, which is compressed into a reser-
which air was used as the heat transferring carrier. A pilot-scale voir (Fig. 8), then releasing again for rotating the turbine and
TES unit (6.5 MWh capacity) was built and tested in Morocco generator to reproduce electricity (Khamis et al., 2010). CAES
and found useful. Subsequently, an industrial-scale (100 MWh) system can replace (partially or fully) PHS systems due to good
TES unit was designed for a solar power plant using a simulation characteristics of bigger capacity, long life and lesser cost per KW
model. Thermal Energy Storage is technique well suited to energy (Molina, 2017). The exothermic and endothermic processes are
management in buildings. It may help to control the cost and taking place during compression and expansion of the air and
provide comfort conditions in the indoor environments as well exchange of heat. Three designs of the CAES systems are available
as decreasing greenhouse emissions. The recent increase in the which are; Isothermal storage, Adiabatic storage, and Diabatic
demands of heating and cooling buildings can be met and man- storage (Cheng and Choobineh, 2017). Isothermal and Adiabatic
aged through TES effectively (Figure 8), which can also reduce the systems are appropriate for lesser power requirements whereas
fluctuations of electricity and match the changing requirements Diabatic storage systems suit commercial CAES systems because
at various times and seasons (Parameshwaran et al., 2012). TES of higher density and flexibility of storage and regeneration. The
has low thermal inertia. This technology supports to achieve a simultaneous coupling of turbines of high and low pressures
good control of the indoor temperature even if the heat pump is and electrical generators has done to produce electricity (Chen
turned off for some time. The various adaptable options are based et al., 2018). The fossil fuel combustion and CO2 emission are
on most known technologies of TES; steam accumulators, molten a limitation in the classical design of the CAES system which
salts (MS), and phase change materials (PCM). The combined can cause environmental problems. However, this problem has
system based on PCM-MS has a clear advantage when storage been controlled in advanced Adiabatic CAES systems because
hours are 6 or more, while for lesser than 6 h, steam accumulators of the capability to produce electricity without fossil fuel, as
are the best option (Arteconi et al., 2013; Prieto et al., 2017). This there is no combustion process (Bullough et al., 2004). Thus, not
system can sustain as low carbon/high performance for electricity only the efficiency of the plant can be increased to 70% but the
supply in buildings. However, research is anticipated to find modified system has been proved as optimal for medium and
efficient, stable, and less costly storing materials. Nevertheless, smaller implementations [He et al. 2017]. Advance research is
TES has limited storing capacity for storing energy. there to further improve the CAES system. For example, Saadat,
Shirazi, and Li, (2015) prepared a model, which captures excess
6.6. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) air power before the generation of electricity so that electrical
components can controlled to meet demand rather than gener-
In the CAES system, air is pressurized into an underground ation and afterwards storage. High-pressure dual chamber and
reservoir using electric power during off-peak. The compressed liquid-compressed air storage vessel are used to store energy (see
air is released during on-peak which drives the turbine/generator Fig. 9).
Fig. 8. Schematic presentation of heating and cooling arrangement of TES.

Source: IRENA & ETSAP (2013).
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of compressed air storage plant source: Pavlos Nikolaidis; (2017).
6.7. Hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) by pooling up the sole benefits of individual devices or systems.
Mostly, in HESS systems, a slow response system is hybridized
When an energy storage system is developed by integrating with fast response systems for achieving higher and improved
more than one device and established in one grid network, the characteristics (Jamahori and Rahman, 2017).
system is called Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS). Resul- For example, when super capacitors and batteries are com-
tantly, advantages of each technology in the integrated system bined, it becomes possible to increase the storage capacity and
add up to meet specified needs, facing hard conditions, and making rates of charge or discharge faster (Hall and Bain, 2008).
enhancing the performance and efficiency of the system. The One project using the above-mentioned theme along with a
process of devising a super energy storage device by hybridizing demonstration unit was installed in the UK. The combination of
together two or more storage systems having complementary battery–supercapacitor for hybrid electrical vehicle applications
characteristics are defined as a HESS. The major objectives are was completed in 2012 as another instance (Fairweather et al.,
coping with real-time harsh working environments that a single 2013). A back-up system for renewable energy power generation
device is unable to do. Hybrid EES helps as well to add many was designed by the researchers in Japan through a combina-
desirable technicalities like the density of energy, rating of power, tion of SMES systems with a hydrogen fuel cell system (AEA,
operation temperature, discharge rate, life cycle, and cost (Zohuri, 2010; Hamajima et al., 2012; Nadeem et al., 2019). Similarly, a
2018). The environmental and economic factors and usage types new constant-pressure CAES system was coupled with PHS for
help in deciding e the size and amalgamation of HESS systems addressing the current problem found in the conventional CAES
(Martinez et al., 2013). An improved cycle efficiency is targeted systems (Kim, Shin, and Favrat, 2011). The cavern volume should
remain as the smallest so that the construction cost and utiliza- Capitalt = Total capital expenditures in year t
tion of the space should remain as the minimum. For better and O&Mt = Fixed operation and maintenance costs in year t
consistent efficiency, the operating pressure must remain limited fuelt = Charging cost in year t
in a CAES system. This combination was found useful in control- MWht = The amount of electricity discharged in MWh in year t,
ling CAES problems. The operation characteristics of the hybrid measure for the capacity factor
system like the height of the storage cavern and heat transfer (1 + r)t = The discount factor for year t
between two media (air, water) were found suitable. Solar Fuels Luo et al. (2015) reported the costs of different ESS using
(solar hydrogen, carbon-basedfuels, and solar chemical heat pipe) the research work of previous authors. These are presented in
are the technology of recent origin which is still in stages of Table 1. It is clear from these data that different energy storage
research and development (Chen et al., 2008; Steinfeld, 2002; technologies are significantly varying in Power capital cost, En-
Styring, 2012). The energy can be stored in these fuels and can ergy capital cost, and Operating and Maintenance cost, depending
be subsequently generated when the demand emerges. Hydrogen upon peculiar characteristics of the devices and systems, size
energy storage systems is another technology under development and material of devices, as well as energy storage capacity and
and commercialization. The technology consists of two separate duration (Chen et al., 2008; Evans et al., 2012; Farret and Simões,
processes; energy storage and electricity production. Hydrogen is 2006). PHS has been regarded as the cheapest energy-saving
produced in a water electrolysis unit, and electricity is produced system by Nadeem et al. (2019). A wise decision can be made
in the generation unit (Díaz-González et al., 2012). The role and for the selection of alternatives, depending upon the nature and
utilization of HESS have been identified in various sectors. In quantity of energy storage demand, local conditions, the quality
electrified transport sector, hybridization of batteries and super of energy storage, and requirements of regeneration of electricity.
capacitors proved effective when utilized in the electrified pow- The cost incurred on storage of energy is paid back in the forms of
ered vehicles. Many researchers in fuel cell-powered vehicles
charging customers for released electricity, revenue increase from
have proposed the HESS of fuel cell with batteries and/or super
more energy production, income increase from enhanced ser-
capacitors. Energy smoothing and grid integration is the most
vices, reduction in demand charges, decrease in reliability-related
practical by using battery–super capacitor in case of wind energy
financial losses, overcoming quality-related financial losses, and
systems. It has been widely proposed to support PV plants with
increased revenue from Renewable Energy Sources (James et al.,
battery–super capacitor or fuel cell–battery hybrids. The hybrid
2004; Mohd et al., 2008) (see Table 2).
wind-PV renewable energy systems can be well supported by fuel
Rodrigues et al. (2017) compared the feasibility of batteries
cell–battery combinations. Thus, utilization of HESS might be con-
and PHS energy-saving devices in the Island of Terceira. They
sidered a favorable solution for various applications in the future.
concluded that PHS is the best device for storing energy in com-
However, for demonstrating HESS feasibility and functionalities,
further research and development must be conducted (Hemmati parison with batteries. For the sake of cost comparison, they
and Saboori, 2016). considered the costs of all equipment used in the PHS. The lifes-
pan assumed was 10 years for the batteries and 50 years for
7. Economic aspects of electrical energy storage the PHS. PHS investment costs, according to their estimates, vary
from 190 e/kWh to 340 e/kWh. Cho et al. (2015) reported battery
Although energy storage ensures a consistent supply of elec- costs from 1000 to 3000 USD/kW for NaS batteries and 175–
tricity in the regular grid network, remote places not covered 4000 USD/kW for Li-ion batteries. Present costs range from 350
in the delivery system, and so many utility and entertainment e to 440 e per kWh for NaS batteries and 700 to 1400 e/kWh
devices, but a significant cost of storing must also be paid. Zakerin for the Li-ion batteries. The fixed and variable costs for PHS
and Syri (2015) emphasized that consistent, updated cost data were estimated as 3.8 e/kW-Year and 0.38 e/kWh whereas for
and a holistic cost analysis framework is required for techno- batteries these were 0.34 e/kW-Year and 0.51 e/kWh. Thus,
economic and cost–benefit analysis of electricity storage systems. batteries are low costing but do not meet some other require-
The life cycle cost analysis will require updated information for ments like, total life and capacity of storing energy. Mongird
the cost elements. The identified cost elements include capital et al. (2019) evaluated cost and performance parameters of six
costs, operational and maintenance costs, and replacement costs battery energy storage technologies (BESS) (lithium-ion batteries,
as well as safe disposal of borne out devices. Capital cost is lead-acid batteries, redox flow batteries, sodium–sulfur batteries,
the first and mostly huge expenditure incurred on creating in- sodium metal halide batteries and zinc–hybrid cathode batter-
frastructures for installation of energy storing systems followed ies) and four non-BESS storage technologies (pumped storage
by various storage devices and equipment with subsequent op- hydropower, flywheels, compressed air energy storage, and ultra-
erational, maintenance, and replacement costs. For the sake of capacitors). Data for combustion turbines are also presented. Cost
comparison, energy storage costs are mostly calculated and ex- information was procured for the most recent year for which data
pressed kWh, per kW and kWh per cycle. The device and system were available based on an extensive literature review, conver-
efficiencies are considered as well to obtain the cost per output of sations with vendors and stakeholders, and summaries of actual
energy (Kondoh et al., 2000). Besides, other factors must also be costs provided from specific projects at sites across the United
considered to decide the feasibility of a storage system or device; States. Detailed cost and performance estimates were presented
some of which are ease of load leveling, storage and regeneration for 2018 and projected out to 2025 (see Tables 3 and 4).
time; quality, consistency, and reliability of discharged energy
and specific conditions of the area concerning storage demand. 8. The impact of electrical energy storage on the global envi-
Although the capital cost of lead-acid batteries is low, even then, ronment
it may not be considered a cheap device because of relatively
short life (ESA, 2019; Kondoh et al., 2000). No agreed parameters The major sources of electrical production all over the world
can be found for making comparisons for the cost of energy are Fossil fuels (oil and gas). However, these can pollute the envi-
storage devices. A few authors used the Levelized Cost of Storage ronment through CO2 emissions. For example, in Gulf Arab states,
(LCOS), which can be computed by using the following equation 99% production of electrical energy is from oil and gas which
(Belderbos et al., 2016).
is even 99.4% in Oman. The use of gas for energy production in
(Capitalt + O&Mt + fuelt ) × (1 + r)t
∑
Oman can increase by 28% by 2040 (Al-Sarihi and Bello, 2019). Al-
LCOS = ∑ Badi and AlMubarak (2019) predicted from their estimations that
MWht × (1 + r)t
Table 2
Comparison of various costs of different energy storage technology — Recompiled using data of
(Luo et al., 2015) reported from various authors.
Energy Storage Cost of Power Cost of Energy Cost of Operation
technologies capital ($/kW) capital ($/kWh) and maintenance
($)
SMES 200–489 1000–72000 0.001–18.5
FES 250–350 1000–14000 0.004–20
PHS 2500–4300 5–100 0.004–3.0
TES 200–400 20–60 Not available
CAES 400–1000 2–120 0.003–25
Batteries
Lead Acid 300–600 200–400 50
Li-ion 1200–4000 600–3800 −
NaS 350–3000 300–500 80
NiCd 500–1500 800–2400 20
VRB 600–1500 150–1000 70
ZnBr 400–2500 150–1000 −
PSB 700–2500 150–1000 −
Capacitors 200–400 500–1000 0.005–13.0
Supercapacitors 100–450 300–2000 0.005–6.0
Table 3
Summary of compiled 2018 findings and 2025 predictions for cost and parameter ranges by technology type — BESS.(a).
Source: (Mongird et al., 2019).
the CO2 emission from natural gas in GCC will reach 453 × 106 energy storage systems: PHS, CAES, and redox flow batteries. Ben-
tons whereas the CO2 emission from oil will reach 203 × 106 efits to the environment are the lowest when the surplus power is
tons by the year 2025 when these are used for electrical energy used to produce hydrogen. The electrical energy storage systems
production. However, in contrast, the electrical energy storage revealed the lowest CO2 mitigation costs. Rydh (1999) deter-
has a dual picture because its impacts on the environment may mined that the environmental impact of the vanadium battery
be useful as well as harmful. The Deep decarbonization of elec- was lower than for the lead-acid battery. The positive impacts of
tricity production is a characteristic associated with renewable energy storage in heat devices were seen. The possible decrease
energy generation and subsequent storage of energy. Maryam in the quantum of electricity consumed and saved could help to
et al. (2019) reported curtailed CO2 emissions in California and meet the requirements of other residential customers (Qureshi
Texas by 72% for renewables and 90% for storage of energy. et al., 2011). The results of Ibrahim and Rosen (2001) indicated
Sisternes et al. (2019) also found that storing energy favors decar- that cold thermal energy storage (TES) can successfully match the
bonization during electricity production. Sternberg and Bardow demand of society for more efficient and environmentally useful
(2015) claimed that a comparison of impacts, avoided by using electricity storage.
1 MWh of energy storage rather than generating it newly, can The study of Bonte et al. (2013) revealed that pumping ground-
be used as the basis of studying the environmental effect. After water from an aquifer, mixing in the aquifer, and subsequent
collecting data for many countries like the United States, Brazil, injection in a well when working at low temperatures (<25 ◦ C)
Japan, Germany, and United Kingdom, they reported the least can cause an increase in arsenic concentration. However, during
impact on the environment was from heat pumps with hot water the working of the system at 60 ◦ C, precipitation of carbonate,
storage and battery electric vehicles. The benefit values for the mobilization of dissolved oxygen, K and Li, and desorption of trace
environment were intermediate numerically in various electrical metals like Arsenic (As) could occur. The disposal problem of used
Table 4
Summary of compiled 2018 findings and 2025 predictions for cost and parameter by technology type – non-BESS.
Source: (Mongird et al., 2019).
material in energy storage devices can also appear, especially was increased to 8 megawatts at the end of 2018 but still must
when these are not recyclable. These may create a pollution be enhanced to achieve the nationally determined target of 2%
problem in different regions and countries country (Faure, 2003). reduction in the greenhouse gas emissions.
This dimension must not be overlooked because populations may
protest such materials, especially nanostructures and heavy met- 9. Challenges and prospects of energy storage technologies
als like Ni, Li, and Cd in modern devices. EPA (2019) pointed out
that the electricity storage may have potentially negative effects The innovations and development of energy storage devices
on the environment like emissions, CO2 releases, and disposal of and systems also have simultaneously associated with many chal-
the material of devices. For example, inappropriate disposal and lenges, which must be addressed as well for commercial, broad
recycling of raw materials of batteries such as lithium and lead spread, and long-term adaptations of recent inventions in this
can present environmental hazards. Florin and Dominish (2017) field. A few constraints and challenges are faced globally when
anticipated that Lithium-ion batteries are expected to continue energy storage devices are used, and storage systems are in
deployment at the higher rates even in near future but have operation for storing the surplus of generated energy. It has
associated short and longer-term adverse effects on the environ- been reported that none of the devices and systems release back
ment as well as human rights which may appear during mining 100% quantity of the energy that was stored for the later usage
(such as lithium, cobalt, and graphite) and implementation. The which means that some wastage must occur during the storing
probable harmful effects are from fire risk, waste management, and releasing process. The values reported varying from 10%–
and recycling systems too, which have not much established yet. 30% in various devices and systems as well as specific conditions
The mining of raw materials and battery production is attached attached to the area (Chen et al., 2008; Ibrahim and Adrian, 2013;
to social problems as well, like poor working conditions and Mears and Epri-Doe, 2003; Pena-Alzola et al., 2011; Vazquez
health risks. The scanty data and lesser awareness of stakeholders et al. 2010). A lot of money is also incurred in the implemen-
are making the front-end of the supply chain highly complex. tation, running, and replacement of the energy storage systems,
The harmful impacts are dependent on the nature, type, and which in certain cases is quite high (Cho et al., 2015; Díaz-
efficacy of energy storage devices as well as disposal and recy- González et al., 2013). Some devices of the energy storage can
cling procedures. The impacts can be managed by making the cause environmental problems which start from the mining of
storage systems more efficient and disposal of residual material material for manufacturing and persist to disposal after availing
appropriately. The energy storage is most often presented as full life (EPA, 2019; Faure, 2003; Florin and Dominish, 2017).
a ’green technology’ decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. But Therefore, research is required to develop devices not only with
energy storage may prove a dirty secret as well because of causing higher efficiencies but also must be cheaper and have minimum
more fossil-fuel use and increased carbon emissions. However, environmental problems, especially the disposal of used devices
energy storage can make the grid more flexible and reduce after completing the life cycle. Standards must be developed to
emissions If employed strategically, nevertheless, generally, has assess the environmental impacts of various devices and systems
not been done so (Roberts, 2019). Current planning and decision- and regulations must be implemented to control these (Al-Badi
making to deploy energy storage technologies must manage and AlMubarak, 2019; Arab Future Energy Index, 2015).
these impacts. The very effective strategy to decrease greenhouse The current energy production is dominated by generation
gas emissions lies in the increased electricity production from from fossil fuel which is not only costly but also nonrenewal as
renewable resources, as recommended in the Paris Agreement well, therefore it cannot be sustained indefinitely. Moreover, elec-
(Al-Badi and AlMubarak, 2019). For example, the capacity of tricity production from fossil fuel plants is necessarily associated
Oman for renewable energy was just 1 megawatt in 2014 which with CO2 emissions which cause heavy environmental pollution.
The optimum management of energy storage system (ESS) for electric grids unless their capacity is not increased by making
efficient power supply is a challenge in modern electric grids. hybrids with other suitable devices or systems (Ammar et al.,
The integration of renewable energy sources and energy storage 2013; Bueno and Carta, 2006; DTI Report, 2004).
systems (ESS) to minimize the share of fossil fuel plants is gaining CAES is storing energy by compressing air and considered one
increasing interest and popularity (Faisal et al. 2018). Therefore, of the most efficient and economic attractive system that enables
a very loud voice is there to gradually decrease dependency on load management successful with large electrical grids. However,
oil and gas utilization for electricity production, but alternatively, it is usually possible where huge storage reservoirs already ex-
renewal sources like wind and solar must be developed and ist, such as underground caverns, hard-rock mines, or natural
their share be increased gradually, as recommended in the Paris aquifers. It may cause low environmental impacts and having
Agreement (Al-Badi and AlMubarak, 2019) to achieve the ulti- a longer life cycle, but its operational costs are high. Pumped
mate target of 100%. Awareness of the energy storage impacts hydro energy storage (PHES) uses the potential energy of water
should be created among all the stakeholders including customers transferred between two reservoirs located at different altitudes.
(Al-Sarihi and Bello, 2019). With the installation of modern and It is also a mature technology but expensive during installation
more efficient devices of energy storage, the fossil fuel operated and require suitable sites for construction of reservoirs. SMES is
power plants can become more flexible and successful to manage the best suitable device to provide constant and instant power
rapid changes in demands of customers because now most of supply as well as regulating grid stability with very high-power
these could be equipped with reliable back-up power in the form output within a short time and can provide power quality to
of stored energy. However, the total energy storage capacity at the consumers, although the systems are costly. Hydrogen is an
present is low, for example that of the European energy system immature technology but can attract huge interest in future if
is just 5% of total generation capacity, which is sole as PHS in- aspects like generation, storage and utilization in fuel cells are
stalled majorly in the mountainous areas. Therefore, the electrical developed (Ibrahim et al., 2008a; Wenxing, & Lu, 2013; Zhaobin,
storage capacity must be enhanced to keep pace with modern Guiping, Yunhua, Wu, & Cao, 2013; Zhao, 2016).
developments (European Commission, 2019).
11. Conclusions
10. Contribution of the present study for decision making
The human beings and the energy have been integral parts
The planners, policy makers, and the practitioners often face of each other and could not be separated at any stage of the
problems to select the most appropriate device or the combina- history because they need food to eat and energy to cook and
tion of two or more devices/systems to store energy for the grids protect from hard and unfavorable surrounding environment.
or static forms. Therefore, they need some broad guidelines. The The humans learned to store energy for difficult times when
outcomes of the present study might help in this regard. For this direct sources (Sun, air, and wind) were not available, although
purpose, significant basis of decision making must be highlighted the storing process was just putting firewood under shade to
here. The first one is the objective of storing energy which could protect from rain, dew, and moisture. However, with the contin-
be deferring of some quantum of electricity for the peak hours, uous research and development, energy storage forms, mecha-
balancing and stabilizing delivery, facing sudden and routine shut nisms, and devices remained changing and have reached to the
downs, for using in the remote areas, utilizing in the traveling present systems, techniques, and processes. The major theme
and transport sector or usage in various machines, portable de- and need of storing energy are ensuring its availability when
vices and buildings. Some more factors considered to decide the direct sources cannot be captured, or renewal resources are pro-
feasibility of a storage system or device are storage capacity, easy ducing/generating/reforming energy at almost fixed rates while
load leveling, time required for storage and regeneration, lifetime the demands are fluctuating simultaneously. Thus, energy storage
of device, and quality, consistency, and reliability of discharged makes it possible to supply energy at peak times and storing it at
energy (Fig. 1). The specific geographical and climatic conditions off-peak times (Baker, 2008; Beltran, 2018; Chen et al., 2008).
of the area must also be considered. Moreover, cost comparison The device used for storing energy from olden times is the
(capital and running cost, cost of replacement and maintenance, battery, which has been changing so much and appearing in so
and cost of the disposal of borne-out material) is highly im- many forms (Bruce et al., 2011). The first invented battery was
portant as well. The environmental concerns are becoming very Volta’s cell in 1800. Most of the modifications have occurred in
important due to complaints and protests of people which must this device of energy storage but it is still very useful and mostly
be considered while making an implementation decision (ESA, adopted mechanism of energy storage (Beltran, 2018). At present,
2019; Kondoh et al., 2000). Batteries like Lead-acid, Ni–Cd, Li- batteries like Lead-acid, Ni–Cd, Li-ion (Li–O2 and Li–S), NiMH
ion (Li–O2 and Li–S), NiMH (nickel-metal hydride), and the flow (nickel-metal hydride), and finally the flow batteries are in use.
batteries have very high capacities and can supply energy even The batteries in today’s use have very high capacities and can
to run heavy vehicles and grids of electricity networks (Fletcher, supply energy even to run heavy vehicles and grids of electricity
2011). These can also be hybridized with other devices to increase networks (Fletcher, 2011). Capacitors and Supercapacitors are
storage capacities and improve other characteristics. Although, also used to store energy for electrically run utility devices (Hall
batteries are mostly low cost, but their shorter lifecycle and and Bains, 2008). The most advanced polymer materials, consti-
consequent frequent replacement make these costly. Another tuting Li-ion batteries, are being utilized in portable electrical
problem with batteries is their environmental impact during min- devices, electrically driven vehicles, and stationary grids which
ing of material, shifting and installing, and disposal of borne-out may require charges from 10watt hours to many megawatt-hours
material. Supercapacitors may indicate high efficiency, medium (Isah, 2018).
capacity of storage, longer life cycle and low environment impact Nanostructured carbons are highly porous and have a large
but are of higher cost. These can be used to store energy in surface area that can maximize electrode performance by the
the low to medium range electrical systems. The hybridization addition of functional groups like oxidative groups (carboxylate,
of batteries and Supercapacitors proves useful to increase the ketone, or hydroxyl groups or nitrogen). Increased storage ca-
storing capacity and decreasing the cost. Flywheel have high pacity, electrolyte efficiency, and electrochemical reactions were
density energy, low storage capacity, high efficiency and longer observed due to such surface modifications (Wu et al. 2017).
life cycle. These can be used in storing energy with low range More advanced mechanisms and systems of storing energy are:
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), Flywheel En- Declaration of competing interest
ergy Storage (FES), Pumped hydro storage (PHS), Thermal Energy
Storage (TES), Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), and Hybrid The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
Electrical Energy Storage (HES). Each of the systems/technologies cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
has advantages and constraints but these can be used to match to influence the work reported in this paper.
the requirements of the location and the delivery network as well
as the demand of customers (Bueno and Carta, 2006; Chen et al., Acknowledgment
2008; Evans et al., 2012; Luo et al., 2015; Wu et al. 2017; Zhao
et al. 2015). The authors would like to acknowledge Solar Energy Research
For obtaining high efficiency and meeting the objectives, the Institute (SERI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (GUP-2018-127),
decision makers and practitioners must select specific storage for the provision of the grant.
technologies. The size of grid networks, customer demands, stor-
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Energy Reports 6 (2020) 288–306

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Review of energy storage services, applications, limitations, and

7. Economic aspects of electrical energy storage ............................................................................................................................................................ 299

and demand, necessitating the energy storage for many days or

Fig. 1. Positioning of Energy Storage Technologies.

Fig. 2. Classification of energy storage systems.

6.2. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)

Another technology is ‘Superconducting magnetic energy stor-

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of pumped hydro storage plant.

Fig. 8. Schematic presentation of heating and cooling arrangement of TES.

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