Unit I: Fundamentals of Control System

April 5, 2021
Lecturer: D. R. Pardeshi

1 Introduction
System: A system is an entity, to which we give an input u(t) and we get an output y(t) .

Figure 1: System with input output

• This is typically called as a Dynamic System, it essentially deals with variables, inputs and
outputs that are functions of time.

• So in dynamic system, time is the independent variable; and all other variables that are
associated with the system are functions of time.

• In dynamic systems, variables change with time. And a system or a process or a plant is an
entity that is given an input and produces an output.

• In chemical engineering, they would be dealing with the processes, so a process is an entity
to which input is given and output is taken.

• System is a collection of objects, or a process that is under study.

Let us look at some classes of Systems.

1. Static(or) Memoryless & Dynamic System: If present output depends on present input then
the system is said to be static. The response of dynamical system depends on past (and/or
future) inputs.

2. SISO and MIMO: SISO is nothing but Single Input Single Output, and MIMO stands for
Multiple Input Multiple Output systems.

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3. Linear and Nonlinear System: The system for which the output varies linearly with the input;
and also it satisfies the principle of homogeneity and superposition is a linear system. For
example, a resistor
For the system to be linear, it should satisfy 2 properties
A. Additivity
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) (1)
B. Homogeneity or Scaling
f (βx) = βf (x) (2)
The principle of superposition is a combination of the above two properties i.e., Eq.(3). If a
function satisfies the above two properties, it is said to be linear in nature.

f (ax + by) = af (x) + bf (y) (3)

Now, in non-linear system the response does not vary linearly with the input. And it does
not satisfy homogeneity and superposition.
If f (x) = x3 , it is obvious that f (x + y) = (x + y)3 ̸= x3 + y 3 and f (αx) = (αx)3 =
α3 x3 ̸= αx3 . Therefore the function f (x) = x3 is non-linear.

4. Time Invariant and Time Varying System: A time invariant system is one that provides the
same output for the same input irrespective of when the input is given. i.e., a system is time
invariant if the input output characteristics dont change with time.
For Example:
Let a system has given a step input u(t) at time t=0, And the output y(t) is as shown in
Fig.2a. Now consider that the same step input u(t) is provided after a time interval of T .

(a) Input given at time t=o (b) Input given at time t=T

Figure 2: Input-Output

Now if the output is the same function which is delayed by T, then the system is said to be
time invariant.
If the parameters of a control system vary with time, such a control system is termed as
time-varying control system. These do not depend on the nature of inputs and output, i.e.,
these may or may not be functions of time.

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 5. Causal and Non Causal
A causal system is one where the output at any instant of time depends only on past and
current inputs. A causal system is non anticipative i.e., It does not try to figure out what
inputs may come to the system in the near future and take action right now.
A system whose present response requires knowledge of future values of the input are termed
non causal. A non-causal system is anticipative.

So after summarising all this, the class of system which would be study in this course is SISO
LINEAR TIME INVARIANT CAUSAL DYNAMIC SYSTEMS.

Control: The meaning of control is to regulate, direct or command a system so that a desired
objective is obtained.
For example, our human body maintains our body temperature in a very-very narrow band. So,
even if the temperature goes to 100 degrees Fahrenheit right, so we are in trouble, correct. So,
essentially our body maintains our internal body temperature, in a very narrow band irrespective
of what that environment temperature is.

2 Control System
A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output. It
consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for the purpose of obtaining a desired
output with desired performance, given a specified input.

Figure 3: Simple block diagram of Control System

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. The output is controlled by varying
input.

2.1 Classification Of Control Systems

2.1.1 Open-loop control systems
• Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action are called open-loop
control systems.

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 Figure 4: Open loop system

• In other words, in an open-loop control system the output is neither measured nor fed back
for comparison with the input.

• One practical example is a washing machine. Soaking, washing. and rinsing in the washer
operate on a time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, that is the cleanli-
ness of the clothes.

• In any open-loop control system the output is not compared with the reference input thus, to
each reference input there corresponds a fixed operating condition; as a result the accuracy
of the system depends on calibration.

• In the presence of disturbances, open-loop control system will not perform the desired task.

• Open-loop control can be used, in practice, only if the relationship between the input and
output is known and there are neither internal nor external disturbances.

• Clearly, such systems are not feedback control systems. Note that any control system that
operates on time basis is open loop. For instance, traffic control by means of signal operated
on a time basis is another example of open-loop control.

Advantages of Open Loop Control Systems:

• Simple in construction and design.

• Economical.

• Easy to maintain or less maintenance is required.

• Generally stable.

Disadvantages of open-loop control systems include:

• They are inaccurate.

• They are unreliable.

• Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.

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2.1.2 Closed-loop control systems
Closed-loop control systems are also referred as Feedback control systems. In a closed-loop control
systems the actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input signal and the feedback
signal (which may be the output signal itself or a function of the output signal and its derivatives
and/or integrals), is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system
to a desired value. The term closed-loop control always implies the use of feedback control action
in order to reduce system error.

Figure 5: Close loop system

Advantages of Closed Loop Control System:

• Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-linearity.

• Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to the presence of a feedback signal.

• The bandwidth range is large.

• Facilitates automation.

• The sensitivity of the system may be made small to make the system more stable.

• This system is less affected by noise.

Disadvantages of a closed-loop control systems:

• They are costlier.

• They are complicated to design.

• Required more maintenance.

• Feedback leads to an oscillatory response.

• Overall gain is reduced due to the presence of feedback.

• Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable closed loop system.

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The table below compares open loop and closed loop control systems.

Sr. No. Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System
1 The feedback element is absent. The feedback element is always present.
2 An error detector is not present. An error detector is always present.
3 It is a stable one. It may become unstable.
4 Easy to construct. Complicated construction.
5 It is economical. It is costly.
6 Having a small bandwidth. Having a large bandwidth.
7 It is inaccurate. It is accurate.
8 Less maintenance. More maintenance.
9 It is unreliable. It is reliable.
10 Examples: Ceiling fan,Traffic control Examples: Air conditioner, Servo voltage stabilizer

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3 Servomechanism
In control engineering a servomechanism, sometimes shortened to servo, is an automatic device
that uses error-sensing negative feedback to correct the action of a mechanism.

Figure 6: A Position Control System

A servo system used to position a load shaft is shown in Fig. 6 in which the driving motor is
geared to the load to be moved. The output (controlled) and desired (reference) positions θC and
θR respectively are measured and compared by a potentiometer pair whose output voltage vE is
proportional to the error in angular position θE = θC − θR . The voltage vE = Kp θE is amplified
and is used to control the field current (excitation) of a dc generator which supplies the armature
voltage to the drive motor.
To understand the operation of the system assume KP = 100 volts/rad and let the output shaft
position be 0.5 rad. Corresponding to this condition, the slider arm B has a voltage of +50 volts.
Let the slider arm A be also set at +50 volts. This gives zero actuating signal (vE = 0). Thus the
motor has zero output torque so that the load stays stationary at 0.5 rad.
Assume now that the new desired load position is 0.6 rad. To achieve this, the arm A is placed
at +60 volts position, while the arm B remains instantaneously at +50 volts position. This creates
an actuating signal of +10 volts, which is a measure of lack of correspondence between the actual
load position and the commanded position. The actuating signal is amplified and fed to the servo
motor which in turn generates an output torque which repositions the load. The system comes to

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a standstill only when the actuating signal becomes zero, i.e., the arm B and the load reach the
position corresponding to 0.6 rad (+60 volts position).
Consider now that a load torque T , is applied at the output as indicated in Fig. 6. This will
require a steady value of error voltage vE which acting through the amplifier, generator, motor and
gears will counterbalance the load torque. This would mean that a steady error will exist between
the input and output angles. This is unlike the case when there is no load torque and consequently
the angle error is zero. In control terminology, such loads are known as load disturbances and
system has to be designed to keep the error to these disturbances within specified limits.
The applications of position control systems are machine tool position control, constant-tension
control of sheet rolls in paper mills, control of sheet metal thickness in hot rolling mills, radar
tracking systems, missile guidance systems, inertial guidance. roll stabilization of ships. etc.

4 Mathematical Models of Physical System

A physical system is a system in which physical objects are connected to perform an objective. We
cannot represent any physical system in its real form. Therefore, we have to make assumptions for
analysis and synthesis of systems.
After obtaining the physical model of a physical system the next step is to obtain the mathe-
matical model which is called the mathematical representation of the physical model.
The process of drawing the block diagram for mechanical and electrical systems to find the
performance and the transfer functions is called the mathematical modeling of the control system.
There are two types of physical system:

1. Mechanical system.

2. Electrical system.

4.1 MECHANICAL SYSTEM

There are two types of mechanical systems:

1. Translational or Linear system.

2. Rotational system.

4.1.1 Translational or Linear mechanical system

D’Alemberts principle: The algebraic sum of the forces at a point is zero. In otherwords, applied
forces are equal to forces resisting the motion of the body in any given direction. In translational
mechanical System, three types of forces will resist the motion of the body due to an externally
applied force. They are

1. Inertia Force (FI )

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2. Damping Force (FD )

3. Spring Force (FK )

1. Inertia Force (FI ): By Newton’s 2n d law of motion, inertia force is mass times acceleration.

Figure 7: Displacement for mass

dv d2 x
FI = ma = m =m 2 (4)
dt dt
where, a = acceleration, v = velocity, x = displacement

2. Spring Force (FK ):The restoring force of the spring is proportional to displacement x

Figure 8: Spring

FK = Kx (5)

Here x2 is the displacement of end A, whereas x1 is the displacement of end B.

If force is applied at end B, x = x1 − x2 , we get, from Eq.(5)

f = K(xl − x2 )

If force is applied at end A, x = x2 − x1 , We get, from Eq.(5)

f = K(x2 − x1 )

3. Damping Force (FD ): Motion is opposed by friction. It is proportional to velocity (v).

(i) Coulomb Frictional Force: The sliding friction between dry surfaces is called coulomb
frictional force.
(ii) Viscous Friction: The friction between moving surfaces by a viscous fluid or the friction
between a solid body and a fluid medium is known as viscous friction.

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 Figure 9: A Dashpot

dx d
FD = Dv = D = D (xl − x2 ) (6)
dt dt
where D = damping coefficient which is defined as damping force/unit velocity.

Example: Determine the mathematical model for the system shown in Fig.10

Figure 10

The force F causes the displacement of mass M . This is opposed by spring as well as by
damper. The forces Kx and D dx
dt
will oppose F

d2 x dx
∴ M 2
=F −D − Kx
dt dt
d2 x dx
∴ F =M 2 +D + Kx (7)
dt dt
Equation (7) gives the mathematical model of the system shown in Fig.10

4.1.2 Rotational mechanical system

D’Alemberts principle: The algebraic sum of the externally applied torques and the torques re-
sisting the motion of the body in any given direction is zero. In rotational mechanical system three
types of torques will resist the rotation of a body due to an externally applied torques.

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1. Inertia Torque (TI ): It is the moment of inertia times the angular acceleration.

dω d2 θ
TI = Jα = J =J 2 (8)
dt dt
where, α = Angular acceleration, ω = Angular velocity, θ = Angular displacement, J= Mo-
ment of Inertia.

Figure 11: Inertia

2. Damping Torque (TD ): It is proportional to angular velocity.

Figure 12: Damper

dθ d
TD = Dθ ω = Dθ = Dθ (θ1 − θ2 ) (9)
dt dt
where Dθ is rotational damping coefficient.

3. Spring Torque (TK ): It is proportional to angular displacement.

Figure 13: Spring

TK = Kθ θ = Kθ (θ1 − θ2 ) (10)

where Kθ = torsional spring constant.

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Example: Let us consider now, the rotational mechanical system shown in Fig. 14a which consists
of a rotatable disc of moment of inertia J and a shaft of stiffness K The disc rotates in a viscous
medium with ’viscous friction coefficient f.
Let T be the applied torque which tends to rotate the disc. The free-body diagram is shown in
Fig. 14b. The torque equation obtained from the free-body diagram is

dθ d2 θ d2 θ dθ
T − Dθ − Kθ θ = J 2 or T =J 2
+ Dθ + Kθ θ (11)
dt dt dt dt

(a) Rotational mechanical system (b) Free body diagram

Figure 14

Equation 11 is a linear constant coefficient differential equation describing the dynamics of the
system shown in Fig. 14a. Again observe that the system has two storage elements, inertia J and
shaft of stiffness K.

By comparing Equation 7 and 11, we get an analogous system:

S.No. Translational M.S. Rotational M.S.

1 Force, F Torque, T
2 Acceleration, a angular acceleration, α
3 Velocity, v Angular velocity, ω
4 Displacement, x Angular displacement, θ
5 Mass, M Moment of inertia, J
6 Damping Coefficient, D Rotational damping Coefficient, Dθ
7 Stiffness K Torsional stiffness Kθ

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4.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
The resistor, inductor and capacitor are the three basic elements of electrical circuits. These cir-
cuits are analyzed by the application of Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws.

Example:Let us analyze the L-R-C series circuit shown in Fig. 15a by using Kirchhoff’s
voltage law.
The governing equations of the system are
Z
di 1 t
L + Ri + idt = e (12)
dt C −∞

Elemental relationships are obvious from these equations. It is also to be noted that inductor and

(a) L-R-C Series circuit (b) L-R-C Parallel circuit

capacitor
R are the storage elements and resistor is the dissipative element. In terms of electric charge
q = idt , Eq. 13 becomes
d2 q dq 1
L 2 +R + q =e (13)
dt dt C

Similarly using Kirchhoff ’s current law, we obtain the following equations for L-R-C parallel
circuit shown in Fig. 15b Z
de 1 t e
C + edt + = i (14)
dt L −∞ R
R
In terms of magnetic flux linkage ϕ = edt, Eq. 15 may be written as

d2 ϕ 1 dϕ 1
C 2
+ + ϕ=i (15)
dt R dt L

Mechanical to electrical analogous system are obtained By comparing Eq. 7 and Eq. 13 for
Force-Voltage analogy and Eq. 7 and Eq. 15 for Force-Current analogy.

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1. Force-Voltage analogy (F-V analogy):

Mechanical System Electrical System

Translational Rotational
Torque, T Force, (F ) Voltage (v)
Angular velocity, ω Velocity, (v) Current (i)
Angular displacement, θ Displacement, (x) Charge (q)
Moment of inertia, J Mass, (M ) Inductance (L)
Rotational damping Coefficient, Dθ Damping Coefficient, (D) Resistance (R)
Torsional stiffness Kθ Spring constant, (K) Capacitance (1/C)

2. Force-Current analogy (F-I analogy):

Mechanical System Electrical System

Translational Rotational
Torque, T Force, (F ) Current (i)
Angular velocity, ω Velocity, (v) Voltage (E)
Angular displacement, θ Displacement, (x) Flux (ϕ)
Moment of inertia, J Mass, (M ) Capacitance (C)
Rotational damping Coefficient, Dθ Damping Coefficient, (D) Conductance (G)
Torsional stiffness Kθ Spring constant, (K) Inductance (1/L)

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5 Transfer Function
It is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of output response to the Laplace transform of
input (excitation) assuming all the initial conditions to be zero. Figure 16a depicts the system in
time domain whereas Figure 16b shows the system in Laplace domain.

(a) System in time domain (b) System in Laplace domain

Figure 16: Transfer function of a system

If G(s) be the transfer function of the system, we can write mathematically


Laplace transf orm of output 
G(s) =
Laplace transf orm of input all initial conditions are zero
 (16)
C(s) 
=
R(s) all initial conditions are zero

5.1 Impulse Response and Transfer Function

Laplace transform of an impulse function [δ(t)] is unity. From Fig. 16b, we can write Eq. 16 as
follows:
C(s)
G(s) =
R(s)
∴ C(s) = G(s)R(s) (17)
The response C(s) can be found in terms of transfer function from Eq. 17. Here G(s) and R(s)
are Laplace transforms of g(t) and r(t) respectively. Therefore, the response of any input r(t), can
be found out. Equation 17 represents a general equation and it is valid for any input. Let us take
the impulse input
r(t) = δ(t)
(18)
R(s) = LT [δ(t)] = 1
Using Eq. 18, Eq. 17 can be written as follows
C(s) = G(s)
(19)
c(t) = LT −1 [G(s)] = g(t)
Equation 19 suggests that for an impulse input to system, impulse response C(s) is equal to
the transfer function G(s) of the system. For a linear time-invariant system, the transfer function
of this system is the Laplace transform of the impulse response, assuming all the initial conditions
to be zero.

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5.2 Properties of transfer function (TF)
The properties of the transfer function are given below:

• The ratio of the Laplace transform of output to input with all initial conditions to be zero is
known as transfer function of a system.

• The transfer function of a system is the Laplace transform of its impulse response under
assumption of zero initial conditions.

• Replacing s variable with linear operation D ≡ d/dt in transfer function of a system, the
differential equation of the system can be obtained.

• The transfer function of a system does not depend on the inputs to the system.

• The system poles and zeros can be determined from its transfer function.

• Stability can be found from characteristic equation.

• Transfer function cannot be defined for non-linear systems. It can be defined for linear
systems only.

5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Transfer Function

Advantages:

• Transfer function is a mathematical model and it gives the gain of the system.

• Since Laplace transform is used, the terms are simple algebraic expressions and differential
terms are not present.

• If transfer function of a system is known, the response of the system to any input can be
determined very easily.

• Poles and zeros of a system can be determined from the knowledge of the transfer function
of the system. Both poles and zeros have a vital role in the system’s response.

• Transfer function helps in the study of stability analysis of the system.

Disadvantages:

• Transfer function can be defined for linear systems only.

• Initial conditions lose their importance since transfer function does not take into account the
initial condition.

• No inferences can be drawn about the physical structure of a system from its transfer func-
tion.

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5.4 Poles and Zeros of a Transfer Function
From Eq. 16, the transfer function can be written as

C(s) 
G(s) =
R(s) all initial conditions are zero

C(s) and R(s) both are polynomial in s.

Let C(s) = b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + b2 sm−2 + · · · + bm−1 s + bm

And R(s) = a0 sn + a1 sn−l + a2 sn−2 + · · · + an−1 s + an

b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + b2 sm−2 + · · · + bm−1 s + bm

∴ G(s) =
a0 sn + a1 sn−l + a2 sn−2 + · · · + an−1 s + an
(20)
K(s + z1 )(s + z2 )(s + z3 ) · · · (s + zm )
=
(s + p1 )(s + p2 )(s + p3 ) · · · (s + pn )
where K is the gain factor.

• Zeros of a transfer function are defined as the values of s for which the magnitude of the
transfer function becomes zero.

• If the zeros of a transfer function are not repeated, they are known as simple zeros.

• If the zeros of a transfer function are repeated, they are termed as multiple zeros.

• Poles of a transfer function are defined as the values of s for which the magnitude of the
transfer function becomes infinity.

• If the poles of a transfer function are not repeated, they are known as simple poles.

• If the poles of a transfer function are repeated, they are termed as multiples poles.

5.5 Representation of Pole and Zero on the s-plane

• There are two axes of a s-plane known as the real axis and the imaginary axis, respectively.

• s = σ + jω. The σ-axis stands for the real axis and the jω-axis stands for the imaginary
axis.

• The values of σ are plotted along the real axis as the values of jω are plotted along the
imaginary axis.

• Simple pole and zero are represented by × and O, respectively. Repeated poles and zeros
are represented by repeated × and repeated O, respectively.

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Figure 17 shows the pole-zero plot of the transfer function given below

K(s + b1 )(s + b2 )2
G(s) = (21)
(s + a1 )(s + a2 )3

where K is the gain function and 0 < a2 < a1 < b1 < b2 .

The pole-zero plot of the transfer function G(s) is shown in Fig. 17

Figure 17: Pole zero plot of G(s)

5.6 Characteristic Equation

The denominator polynomial in terms of s of a transfer function is known as characteristic poly-
nomial. If this polynomial is equated to zero, characteristic equation will be obtained. The charac-
teristic polynomial of the transfer function G(s) given in Eq. 20 is a0 sn + a1 sn−l + a2 sn−2 + · · · +
an−1 s + an and the characteristic equation is given by

a0 sn + a1 sn−l + a2 sn−2 + · · · + an−1 s + an = 0

Solving characteristic equation of a transfer function, we get poles of the transfer function.

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