Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1. Review on Laplace and Fourier Transform
• The physical world is described by differential • Time domain x(t) =⇒ F.T =⇒ Frequency
equations. domain X(ω)
R∞
• Solutions to differential equations must be either • X(σ, ω) = −∞ [x(t).e−σt ]e−ωt dt
d at
– Exponential: eat =⇒ e = aeat e−σt .e−ωt = e(−σ−jω)t (1.1)
dt
d2 s = σ + jω (1.2)
– Sinusoids: sin(at) =⇒ sin(at) =
dt2
−a2 sin(at) where, σ is real Exponential and ω is Imaginary
• The solution may be eat or e−ωt or combination of both Sinusoidal Z ∞
R∞
• Fourier Transform: X(ω) = −∞ x(t)e−ωt dt Laplace Transform = X(s) = x(t).e−st dt (1.3)
−∞

1.2. The Need for Control System

1. Safety

2. Automation

3. Convenience

4. Technology Evolution

System Dynamics

The discipline of System Dynamics focuses on the synthesis of mathematical models to represent dynamic
responses of physical systems for the purpose of analysis, design, and/or control.

• Analysis: is the mathematical inspection of the dynamic characteristics of a system and its responses to
inputs.

• Design: is the methodical synthesis of a system or selection of its parameters to meet specified criteria.

• Control: is the use of sensor & actuators to automate a process or system.

1.3. Basic Concepts of Control System Engineering

• System: A combination of devices & components connected together to act together & perform a certain
function.

• Control Systems: is the combination of devices & components connected or related so as to command, direct or
regulate itself or another system.

• Control Theory: A strategy to select appropriate inputs.

1
 Input Output
System (Plant)

How do I change this?

To get what I want?

Input is also called Output is also called System is also called

• Reference • Response • Plant

• Command • Controlled output • Process

• Set point • Desired output • Controlled system

1.4. Basic Components of a Control System

The components shown in the diagram above are defined as follows:

1. Reference Input: This provides input signal for the desired output.

2. Error Detector: It is an element in which one system variable (feedback signal) is subtracted from another
variable (reference signal) to obtain a third variable (error signal). It is also called comparator.

3. Feedback Element: Feedback signal is a function of the controlled output which is compared with the
reference signal to obtain the error or the actuating signal. Feedback element measures the controlled
output, converts or transforms to a suitable value for comparison with the reference input.

4. Error Signal: It is an algebraic sum of the reference input and the feedback.

5. Controller: The controller is an element that is required to generate the appropriate control signal. The
controller operates until the error between the controlled output and desired output is reduced to zero.

6. Controlled System: It is a body, a plant, a process or a machine of which a particular condition is to be

controlled.

7. Controlled Output: Controlled output is produced by the actuating signal available as input to the
controller. Controlled output is made equal to the desired output with the help of the feedback system.

Comparator Controlled
Controlled Output
+ Controller
Reference − e(t) System
Input

Feedback

Figure 1.1: Basic Components of a Control System

1.5. Classification of Control Systems

1.5.1. Open-loop and Closed-loop Control Systems

Open-loop Control Systems

• The systems in which output has no effect on the control action.

Introduction to Control System 2

 • In other words, the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with reference input as
shown in Figure 1.2.

Actuating Controlled
Input Signal Output
Controller System (Plant)
Reference

Figure 1.2: Elements of an open-loop control system

Application: Volume audio system, Hair dryer, Door lock system, and Washing machine
For example, let us consider a washing machine in which soaking, washing and rinsing in the washer operates on the
time basis.

• The machine does not measure the output signal(cleanliness of clothes).

• The required time for the level of dirtiness of clothes is to be known.

[Remember] There ia also a Closed loop Washing Machine

Closed-loop Control Systems

• The actuating error signal, e(t) is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the
system to the desired value.

• The operation of a system may be controlled externally or automatically (by the system itself)

Comparator
Control Output or
+ System (Plant)
Input − e(t) Element Response

Feedback

Figure 1.3: Closed-loop System

Some more examples of open-loop and closed-loop control systems are as follows:

1. Traffic-light systems vary in operation. Some systems are closed-loop and some are open-loop. In
the open-loop type, there is a timing mechanism which is set to switch the lights at regular intervals,
irrespective of the volume of traffic. In the closed-loop type, however, the amount of traffic passing
through the junctions is measured (electronically or otherwise), and the duration of the “red” and “green”
conditions are adjusted for each side of the roads of the junction accordingly.

2. An example of the action of an open-loop system is a car-wash machine in which all cars receive the
same amount of washing irrespective of how dirty they are. Here, the output is the cleanliness of the
cars, which corresponds to a given setting of the machine (amount of water and washing time). A human
being, however, who washes cars, automatically makes sure that the dirtier cars receive more attention
than others. Car washing by a responsible human being is, therefore, a closed-loop control system. An
ordinary washing machine is an open-loop system.

3. A refrigerator is a closed-loop system. Its temperature is measured by a thermostat which turns the motor
ON when the temperature rises above the desired value and turns the motor OFF when the temperature
again reaches the desired value.

Introduction to Control System 3

 4. The lighting of a room is an open-loop system. Once the light is turned on, it will stay on (until it is
switched off) irrespective of whether the room is dark or light.

Figure 1.4: Comparison for OLCS and CLCS

Open Loop System Closed Loop System

1. Control action is independent of desired OP. 1. Control action is dependent of desired OP.
2. Feedback path is not present. 2. Feedback path is present.
3. Called as non-feedback CS. 3. Called as feedback CS.
4. Easy to design 4. Difficult to design
5. These are economical. 5. These are costlier.
6. Inaccurate 6. Accurate
7. Affected by non-linearities in the system. 7. Adjusts to the effects of non-linearities present
8. Examples: Washing machine, fixed time traffic 8. Examples: Servomotor, generator o/p voltage,
CS, room heater, etc. refrigerator, biological control system · · ·

Example 1.1. Car cruise Control

Solution 1.1. Using both OLCS and CLCS

m
100
s 90, 100, 110· · ·
Car
Gas Pedal Speed

Figure 1.5: Open-loop control of Car

Controller to Slow-down
100−110 = −10
Controller to Speed-UP
100 − 100 = 0
100 m
s 100−90 = 10 Speed
+ Controller Car
Gas Pedal − e(t)
110
100
90
Speedometer

Figure 1.6: Closed-loop control of Car

1.5.2. Linear and non-linear control systems

A system is said to be linear in terms of the system input x(t) and the system output y(t) if it satisfies the
following two properties of

1. Zero-input Zero-Output

2. Superposition and

3. Homogeneity.

Let, x1 (t) LTI y1 (t) and x2 (t) LTI y2 (t)

x1 (t) + x2 (t) LTI y1 (t) + y2 (t)

Figure 1.7: Superposition (Additivity)

Introduction to Control System 4

 αx1 (t) LTI αy1 (t)

Figure 1.8: Homogeneity

Linear control System

• A Control System in which output varies linearly with the input

• Does not exist in practice.

• Are idealized models fabricated by the analyst purely for the simplicity of analysis and design.

Nonlinear Systems

• When the input and output has nonlinear relationship the system is said to be nonlinear.

• Examples

1. magnetization curve or no load curve of a DC machine.

2. Hysteresis, Saturation

To test for linearity, we must

• Input x1 (t) to the system and measure the output y1 (t)

• Input x2 (t) to the system and measure y2 (t)

• Input x3 (t) = αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) to the system and measure y3 (t)

• If y3 (t) = αy1 (t) + βy2 (t) for all possible delays α and β values, x1 (t) and x2 (t), then the system is linear.

1.5.3. Linearity of Differential equations

d d2
• Both and 2 are linear systems
dx dx

d
x(t) y(t)
dx

Example: f (x) = x2
d
y1 (t) = x1 (t) = 2x1 (1.7)
dx
x1 (t) = x21 (1.4) d
y2 (t) = x2 (t) = 2x2 (1.8)
x2 (t) = x22 (1.5) dx
d
x1 (t) + x1 (t) = x21 + x22 (1.6) y3 (t) = (x1 (t) + x2 (t)) = 2x1 + 2x2 (1.9)
dx

Example 1.2. Show that the functions given below are Linear or Non-linear
1. consider a sequare-law system y(t) = (x1 (t))2
2. ẏ(t) + ty(t) = x(t)
3. y = nx
4. y = x3
5. y = kx + c

Introduction to Control System 5

 Solution 1.2. for linearity
1. y1 (t) = (x1 (t))2
y2 (t) = (x2 (t))2
x3 (t) = αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) and measure y3 (t)

y3 (t) = (x3 (t))2 (1.10)

= (αx1 (t) + βx2 (t))2 (1.11)
= α2 (x1 (t))2 + 2αβx1 (t)x2 (t) + β 2 (x2 (t))2 (1.12)
2 2
6= α(x1 (t)) + β(x2 (t)) (1.13)

So. the sequare-law system is not linear (it is nonlinear system)

2.

ẏ1 (t) + ty1 (t) = x1 (t) (1.14)

ẏ2 (t) + ty2 (t) = x2 (t) (1.15)
ẏ3 (t) + ty3 (t) = x3 (t) (1.16)

but x3 (t) = αx1 (t) + βx2 (t), so

ẏ3 (t) + ty3 (t) = αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) (1.17)

ẏ2 (t) + ty2 (t) = α(ẏ1 (t) + ty1 (t)) + β(ẏ2 (t) + ty2 (t)) (1.18)
d
ẏ3 (t) + ty3 (t) = (α(y1 (t) + ty1 (t)) + β(y2 (t) + ty2 (t))) (1.19)
dt
y3 (t) = αy1 (t) + βy2 (t) (1.20)

∴ the system is linear

1.5.4. Time invariant vs Time variant

x(t − a) LTI y(t − a)

• When the characteristics of the system do not depend upon time itself then the system is said to time
invariant control system.

• Time varying control system is a system in which one or more parameters vary with time.

• A system is either time-varying or time invariant, not both.

• A time varying system does not change its fundamental behaviour over different periods of time.

– Its parameter values are constant

• A time invariant system satisfies the property (for any x(t), τ )

x(t − τ ) =⇒ y(t − τ )whenx(t) =⇒ y(t) (1.21)

• We can test a system for this property using from the figure

Introduction to Control System 6

 • A time-invariant system will have y2 (t) = y1 (t − τ ) for all x1 (t) and τ

• To test for time-invariance, we must

– Input x1 (t) to the system and measure the output y1 (t)

– Input x2 (t) = x1 (t − τ ) to the system and measure y2 (t)

– If y2 (t) = y1 (t − τ ) for all possible delays τ and signal x1 (t), then the system is time invariant.

Example 1.3. consider a sequare-law system y(t) = (x1 (t))2

Solution 1.3. y1 (t) = (x1 (t))2

y2 (t) = (x2 (t))2
x2 (t) = x1 (t − τ ) so y2 (t) = (x1 (t − τ ))2 = y1 (t − τ )
Since the relationship holds for all τ and all x1 (t), it is time-invariant

1.5.5. Lumped parameter vs Distributed

Parameter

• Control system that can be described

by ordinary differential equations are
• A discrete time control system involves one or
lumped-parameter control systems.
more variables that are known only at discrete
d2 x dx time intervals.
M =C + kx (1.22)
dt2 dt

• Whereas the distributed parameter control

systems are described by partial differential
equations. 1.5.7. Deterministic vs Stochastic Control
System
∂x ∂x ∂2x
f1 + f2 =g 2 (1.23)
dy dz dz • A control System is deterministic if the response
to input is predictable and repeatable.

1.5.6. Continuous Data Vs Discrete Data

System

• In continuous data control system all system

variables are function of a continuous time t. • If not, the control system is a stochastic control

Introduction to Control System 7

 system than one output.

input var. G(S) Output var.

Figure 1.9: SISO control system

1.5.8. SISO and MIMO Control Systems

input var. 1 Output var. 1
CS can be classified based on the number of inputs input var. 2 Output var. 2
and outputs present. G(S)
.. ..
. .
1. SISO CS have one input and one output.
input var. n Output var. n
Whereas,

2. MIMO CS have more than one input and more Figure 1.10: MIMO control system

1.5.9. Static and Dynamic Systems

• A system is called dynamic or time dependent if its present output depends on past input

• Static system is the one whose current output depends only on current input.

To use/understand a control system properly, we must learn how to: How to use/understand a control system
properly We must learn how to:

1. Develop mathematical system descriptions and reduce them to block diagram forms: (Modelling/Mathematical
Representation);

2. Manipulate and solve the resulting system equations;

3. Design system to satisfy general performance specifications and

4. Evaluate results by analytical and simulation studies.

• Time invariance → System Vs Time

• Stability → Range, Life span
Control Systems
• Linearity → Output Vs Input

Natural Man Made

Manual
Automatic

Open loop
Closed loop

Linear Non-Linear
Non-Linear
Linear
Time inVariant
Time Variant
Time Variant
Time inVariant

Figure 1.11: LTI Control System broad classification

Introduction to Control System 8

1.5.10. Types of Feedback

• Feedback: if either the output or some part of the output is Returned to the input side and Utilized as
part of the system input.

• Feedback improves the performance of the CS.

There are two types of feedback control systems

1. Positive feedback: Adds R(s) and feedback output shown in Figure 1.12 with Positive sign.

2. Negative feedback: Reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and system output shown in
Figure 1.12 with Negative sign.

Comparator
Control Output or
+ System (Plant)
Input e(t) Element Response
±

Feedback

Figure 1.12: Closed-loop System

Applications of Negative feedback Applications of Positive feedback

• Stabilize Gain
• Oscillator
• Amplifier

• In ADC/DAC • In Timing circuits

1.5.11. Block Diagram Representation of Control Systems

A control system can be represented using block diagram. The simplest form of representing a system is as
shown in Figure 1.2. Here the input is fixed, once for all, for the desired output. When the output is controlled
by measuring it and comparing with the desired output through a feedback system, the block diagram will be
as shown in Figure 1.3. Now let us draw the block diagrams of a few control systems.

Exercise 1.1. Block diagram representation of a traffic control system

Exercise 1.2. Manually operated air conditioning system in a train

Exercise 1.3. Room air conditioning system

1.6. Transfer Function

• TF is the Input-Output relationship of components or systems described by LTI differential equations
assuming all initial conditions to be zero.

• Consider a LTI system defined by the differential equation (Equation 1.24)

a0 yn + a1 yn−1 + · · · + an−1 y + an = b0 xm + b1 xm−1 + · · · + bm−1 x + bm (1.24)

Introduction to Control System 9

 where, n≥m, y is output of the system and x is input of the system

• Therefore, the TF of the system is obtained by taking LT of both the sides.

(a0 sn + a1 sn−1 + · · · + an−1 s + an )Y(s) = (b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + · · · + bm−1 s + bm )X(s) (1.25)

`(output)
• Transfer function = G(s) = `(input) zero initial conditions

Y(s) b0 sm + b1 sm−1 + · · · + bm−1 s + bm

= = (1.26)
X(s) a0 sn + a1 sn−1 + · · · + an−1 s + an

• Input is represented by R(s) and

• Output is represented by C(s),

G(s)
Transfer
input variable Output variable
R(s) Function C(s)

C(S)
TF = G(S) = (1.27)
R(S)

R(S) G(S) C(s)

±

H(s)

C(S) G(S)
TF = = (1.28)
R(S) 1 ∓ G(S)H(S)

1.6.1. Poles and Zeros of a transfer Function

The expression for transfer function can be represented, after factorisation,

(s − z1 )(s − z2 ) . . . (s − zm )
G(S) = k (1.29)
(s − p1 )(s − p2 ) . . . (s − pn )

where
a0
• K= , called the gain factor of the transfer function.
b0
• z1 , z2 , ..... zm are zeros of TF and p1 , p2 , ..... pn are poles of TF

1.6.2. Advantages and Disdvantages of TF

Advantages of TF Disadvantages of TF

• Reduces differential equation to an algebra

• Can only solve y(t) for t > 0
problem
• Requires zero initial condition
• Usually the easiest approach

• Easy to find the output for different input signals • Can only be used for SISO systems

Introduction to Control System 10

 1.6.3. Matlab Representation- for Generalized transfer function

The TF G(S), where (num,den)= numerator & denominator respectively

2S + 1
G(S) = (1.30)
S2 + 4S + 3

Listing 1.1: Transfer function Matlab -Partial fraction expansion

1 >> num= [ 2 , 1 ] ;
2S2 + 3S + 2
2 >> den =[1 4 3 ] ; G(S) = (1.31)
S2 + 3S + 2
3 >> G= t f (num, den )
4 >> G( S )= t f ( [ 2 , 1 ] , [ 1 4 3 ] ) The partial fraction expansion of equation
5 G = 2 s + 1 (Equation 1.31)
6 −−−−−−−−−−−−− r(1) r(n)
7 s ˆ2 + 4 s + 3 G(S) = k(S) + + ··· + (1.32)
S − p(1) S − p(n)
8 Continuous −time t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n . −4 1
= 2S0 + +
S − (−2) S − (−1)

Listing 1.2: Zero-Pole-Gain representation

>>z e r o s =[1 0 ] ; Listing 1.3: Partial fraction
>>p o l e s =[2 1−3 i 1+3 i ] ; >> num=[2 3 2 ] ;
gain = 3 ; >> den =[1 3 2 ] ;
H=zpk ( zeros , poles , gain ) [ r , p , k ] = r e s i d u e (num, den ) ;
H = 3 s ( s −1) r = −4 , 1
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− p = −2 , −1
( s −2) ( s ˆ 2 − 2 s + 1 0 ) k = 2
Continuous −time zero/pole/gain model .

1.6.4. Transfer Function Manipulation

Two methods are available:

1. Solution via series, parallel, and feedback commands:

• series(G,D) for a cascade connection of G(s) and D(s);

• parallel(G1,G2) for a parallel connection of G1(s) and G2(s);

• feedback(G,H, sign) for a closed-loop connection with G(s) in the forward path and H(s) in
the feedback path;

• cloop(G,sign) for a unity feedback system with G(s) in the forward path, and sign is -1 for
negative feedback or +1 for positive feedback (the sign is optional for negative feedback).

2. Solution via algebraic operations:

• G ∗ D for a cascade connection of G(s) and D(s);

• G1 + G2 for a parallel connection of G1(s) and G2(s);

• G/(1 + G ∗ H) for a closed-loop negative feedback connection with G(s) in the forward path and
H(s) in the feedback path; and

Introduction to Control System 11

 • G/(1 − G ∗ H) for positive feedback systems.

1.7. Modeling of Physical System

Mathematical model of a dynamical system: May be
Mathematical obtained from the ff
Modeling
• Schematics of the physical systems,
(The plant to
be Controlled) • Based on physical laws of engineering

• Newton’s Laws of motion

• Kirchoff’s Laws of electrical network

• Ohm’s Law

Controller
1.7.1. Modeling of Electrical System
Design
• Passive linear components

– Capacitor (C) – store energy

Figure 1.13: The Need for a Mathematical Model
– Resistor (R) – dissipate energy

– Inductor (L) – store energy

Table 1.1: Relationship

V (s)
Component Voltage-Current Voltage-charge Impedance, Z(s) =
I(s)

1 R 1 1
Capacitor v(t) = i(τ )dτ v(t) = q(t)
C C Cs
dq(t)
Resistor v(t) = Ri(t) v(t) = R
dt
di(t) dq 2 (t)
Inductor v(t) = L v(t) = L Ls
dt dt2

Example 1.4. Find the transfer function of the circuit

Solution 1.4. The input and output are

Vc (s) 1
=
V (s) LCs2 + RCs + 1

Introduction to Control System 12

 Exercise 1.4. Exercise

1.7.2. Modeling of Mechanical System Where

du d2 x
Modeling of Mechanical System -Translational • x=displacement, =Velocity and 2 =Acceleration
dt dt
1. Mass (M) - energy storage element f B• •A
| x1 K | x2
2. Spring (k) - energy storage element

3. Viscous damper (D) - energy-dissipative

F = Kx = K(x1 − x2 ) if f applied at end (1.34)
B
element
= K(x2 − x1 ) if f applied at end (1.35)
A
| x
D
M F f
| x1 | x2

du d2 x dx d
F = Ma = M =M 2 (1.33) F =D = D (x1 − x2 ) (1.36)
dt dt dt dt

Example 1.5. Write the differential equation governing the mechanical system below and determine the TF

Solution 1.5.
X1 (S) BS + K
= (1.37)
X(S) [MS2 + (K1 + K) + (B1 + B)s]
X(S) M1 S2 + B1 S + BSK + K1
= (1.38)
F(S) (M2 S2 + B2 S + BS + K)(M1 S2 + B1 S + BS + K + K1 ) − (BS + K)2

Introduction to Control System 13

Modeling of Mechanical System -Rotational Table 1.2: Translational Vs Rotational

Translational Motion Rotational motion

The three elements of Rotational motion are
Mass (M) Inertia (J)
Damper (D) Damper (B)
1. Inertia (J)
Spring (K) Spring (K)
Force (F) Torque (T)
2. Damper (B)
Displacement (x) Angular displacement (θ)
dx dθ
Velocity (u) = Angular velocity (ω) =
3. Spring (K) dt dt

Reading Assignment -(Hydraulic, Pneumatic, Thermal systems)

1.8. Mechanical to Electrical Analogy 1. Force-Voltage  

1
LR
C
Force-Voltage
2. Reverse Order  

1
 1
[F M B K x] = V L R q (1.39) RL
C C

Force-Current 3. Take reciprocal

   
1 1 1 1
[F M B K x] = I C φ (1.40) C
R L R L

Introduction to Control System 14

1.9. Block Diagram
1.9.1. Block Diagram Representation of control Systems

Characteristic Equation of a Control System

• Consider the transfer function of the closed-loop system described earlier

C(S) G(S)
TF = = (1.41)
R(S) 1 + G(S)H(S)

• The denominator of the transfer function when equated to zero is called the characteristic equation of the
control system.

1 + G(S)H(S) = 0 is the characterstic equation (1.42)

7
• Example: G(sS) = and H(S) = 1
S(S + 8)

7
1 + G(S)H(S) = 0 =⇒ 1 + .1 =⇒ S2 + 8S + 7 = 0 (1.43)
S(S + 8)

• The roots of the charx equation are called the characteristic roots or closed-loop poles.

The main advantages of BD representation of control systems.

1. To evaluate the contribution of each of the components towards the overall performance of the control
system.

2. BD helps in understanding the functional operation of the system more readily than examination of the
actual control system physically.

Block diagram drawn for a system is not unique.

1.9.2. Rules of Block Diagram Simplification

1. When two or more blocks are connected in series, we are to multiply the transfer functions and put as
one block

2. When two blocks are connected in parallel, the transfer functions are to be added

3. When shifting the summing point prior to, i.e. before a block,

Introduction to Control System 15

 4. Shifting the summing point beyond, i.e. after a block.

5. Moving a take-off point from after a block to before a block.

6. Moving a take-off point beyond, i.e. after a block.

Example 1.6.
Reduce the block diagram into canonical form and determine its TF.

Introduction to Control System 16

 Solution 1.6. 1. Combining elements G1 and G4 in series and elements G2 and G3 in parallel, we get
(applying rule 1 and 2)
2. G1 , G4 and H1 form the feedback loop.
G1 G4
3. , (G2 + G3 ) are in series. They together form one block, and H2 form the feedback loop.
1 − H1 G1 G4
C(S) G1 G4 (G2 + G3 )
4. TF = =
R(S) 1 − H1 G1 G4 + H2 G1 G4 (G2 + G3 )

Example 1.7. Reduce the block diagram of a system into canonical form.

Solution 1.7. There are two input signals, R(S) and U (S), and one output signal, C(S). We apply the
superposition theorem to reduce the block diagram, considering the effect of one input at a time when
other is set to zero.
1. Let us consider input R(s) first, keeping U (s) = 0
2. input U(s), keeping R(s) = 0.
C1 (S) G1 G2 C2 (S) G2
Finally, TF1 = = and TF2 = =
R(S) 1 − H1 G1 G2 U(S) 1 − G1 G2 H2

1.9.3. Block diagram representation of an electrical network

Steps to represent block diagram of any system

1. Write the equations describing the dynamic behaviour of each component.

2. Take the LT of these equations, assuming zero initial conditions

3. Represent each LT equation individually in block form

4. Assemble the elements into a complete block diagram

Example 1.8. Draw the block diagram for the electrical network given below

Introduction to Control System 17

 Solution 1.8. From the steps discussed above
1. The equations describing the system are
Z Z
1 1
ei = Ri + idt and e0 = idt (1.44)
C C

2. Taking Laplace transform of (Equation 1.44), we get

1 1
Ei (S) = RI(S) + I(S) and E0 (S) = I(S) (1.45)
CS CS
1
From (Equation 1.45) Ei (S) = (R + )I(S) or
CS
Ei (S) CS
I(S) = = Ei (S)
1 1 + RCS
R+
CS
Substituting the value of I(S), in (Equation 1.45), we get

E0 (S) 1
= (1.46)
Ei (S) 1 + RCS

3. From (Equation 1.45) we have

1 1
[Ei (S) − E0 (S)] = I(S) and E0 (S) = I(S) (1.47)
R CS

G(S) 1
4. The complete BD from the transfer function, TF = =
1 + G(S).1 1 + RCS

1 + G(S) = (1 + RCs)G(S) (1.48)

1
G(S) = where H(S)= 1 (1.49)
RCS

Introduction to Control System 18

1.9.4. BD representation of a Servomechanism

Servomechanism

• Also called a position control system,

• Is a feedback control system and

• Output of the system: mechanical position, velocity or acceleration.

• Applications: d.c. motor drives and gear mechanism are used

Block diagram of a DC Motor drive

• The physical requirements are low inertia and high starting torque.

• In control systems, DC motors are used in two different control modes:

1. Armature control mode with constant field current; and

2. Field control mode with fixed armature current.

BD representation of a Servomechanism-Armature-controlled DC motor

ZP
Eb = φN = kφN = V − Ia Ra (1.50)
60A
dθ d2 θ
Tf = B0 ω = B0 and Ti = J 2 (1.51)
dt dt

2π d2 θ
ω= Nα= 2
60 dt

where: N=Armature speed, V= Terminal voltage, Eb =Back emf, J= moment of inertia, Tx = torque , θ= angular
displacement, ω=angular velocity and, α=angular acceleration

• Torque of the motor is due to armature current, • Differential equation involving quantities of the
Ia and the field flux φ armature circuit can be written as

• Field flux is proportional to the field current, If d

La Ia + Ra Ia + Eb = V (1.56)
dt
Tm = K1 φIa = K1 Kf If Ia = KT Ia (1.52)
• Taking Laplace transform of equations
Kφω KK1 If dθ dθ discussed above
Eb = kφN = = = kb
2π 2π dt dt
(1.53) kb Sθ(S) = Eb (S) (1.57)
• Torque developed by the motor is opposed by KT Ia (S) = (JS 2 + B0 S)θ(S) (1.58)
inertia torque and frictional torque. Thus, from V(S) − Eb (S) = (La S + Ra )Ia (S) (1.59)
Newton’s second law of rotational motion,

Tm = Tf + Ti (1.54)
dθ d2 θ
K T Ia = B0 +J 2 (1.55)
dt dt

Introduction to Control System 19

From (Equation 1.57, Equation 1.58 and Equation 1.59)

V (S) − Eb (S)
[(JS 2 + B0 S)]θ(S) = KT (1.60)
(La S + Ra )

(JS 2 + B0 S)(La S + Ra ) θ(S) = KT V (S) − KT Kb Sθ(S)

 
(1.61)

(JS 2 + B0 S)(La S + Ra ) θ(S) + KT Kb Sθ(S) = KT V (S)

 
(1.62)

θ(S) KT
TF = = (1.63)
V (S) (JS 2 + B0 S)(La S + Ra ) + KT Kb S
KT
= (1.64)
S [(Js + B0 )(La s + Ra ) + KT Kb ]

From (Equation 1.59), we have From (Equation 1.58), we have

Ia (S) 1 θ(S) KT
= (1.65) = (1.66)
V(S) − Eb (S) La s + Ra Ia (S) S(JS + B0 )

Introduction to Control System 20