ECX4242 - Session 1 Introduction to Control Systems

Session 1
Introduction to Control Systems

Contents
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7

Definition of a control system

Some examples of control systems
Open Loop and Closed Loop Control
Open Loop control system
Closed Loop Control System
Feedback Control
Feed forward control
Basic terms used in control systems
Different types of control systems

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this session the student will be able to

Describe what a control system is and its components

Differentiate open loop and closed loop control systems

Differentiate feedback and feed forward control

Identify examples of various types of control systems and their components in

day to day life

Identify different types of control systems

Introduction
Control plays an important role in our lives. In all our actions we practice some
kind of control. For instance consider that you want to go to a particular place.
Then you will walk towards your desired place. Your eyes help to guide you in the
desired direction. i.e. you can control your walking action towards the desired
direction.
When practicing control we need a desired objective. Every controller tries to
achieve this objective through its actions. Some changes occur in the system due to
these actions and thereby it is possible to achieve the final objective. Consider the
walking example we discussed earlier. Suppose our objective is to walk to the
particular place at a given time. If we have less time, then we walk faster to reach
at the given time. Here, we change the speed of the walking action to achieve our
objective.
We call variables associated with our objective as input variables or desired
response. Output response after the control action is called as output response or
actual response.
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ECX4242 - Session 1 Introduction to Control Systems

We come across innumerable examples of control systems in operation in our

everyday lives. They occur in all disciplines, such as in engineering [the control
of frequency of an electrical generator, the control of the speed of a vehicle, etc.],
biology [the control of our body temperatures, blood sugar level, etc.], ecosystems
[the balance between the populations of different species], economic systems
[control of the rate of inflation]. The list is never ending. While there are wide
differences in the way these different systems operate, there are also some
underlying similarities that can be observed. Control systems theory attempts to
look at these similarities in a coherent manner, and evolve a unified treatment
spanning applications in the different fields.

By considering above facts we can define a control system as given below.

1.1

Definition of a control system

A control system is a system of which any quantity or condition (called controlled

variable) of interest of a machine, mechanism or equipment can be controlled as
per desire.
In its simplest form, a control system provides an output or response (or controlled
variable) for a given input or stimulus (or command signal) as shown in the figure.
1.1

Figure 1.1

1.2

Some examples of control systems

1.

Think about the situation when you are driving a car. What happens when
you apply force on the accelerator? You know the car will speed up. i.e.
The force applied to an accelerator pedal causes the speed of the vehicle to
increase. In this case,
Input or command signal = force applied
Output or Controlled variable = speed

2.

Air conditioner:
Control system = automatically regulating the temperature of a room or an
enclosure.
Input or command signal = reference temperature by setting a thermostat
Output or Controlled variable = actual temperature of the room or
enclosure
When the thermostat detects that the output is greater than the input, the
cooler provides cooled air until the temperature of the room equals to the
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ECX4242 - Session 1 Introduction to Control Systems

reference input. Then the cooler automatically turned off. When the
temperature rises above the reference then again the cooler is turned on.
3.

Pointing at an object with a finger

Input or command signal - precise direction of the object (moving or not)
with respect to some reference.
Output or Controlled variable - actual pointed direction with respect to the
same reference.

Activity 1.1
Think about three control systems which you can see or experience in the day to
day life and identify the input / stimulus and the output / controlled variable.

1.3

Open Loop & Closed Loop Control

1.3.1

Open Loop control system

Open loop control system is a control system in which the control action is
independent of the output. (no effect on the control action)
An open loop control system utilizes an actuating (controlling) device to control
the process directly without using feedback.

Figure 1.2
Open Loop control system
Features of an open loop control systems

Accurate performance is determined by their calibration.

(Calibrate means to establish or reestablish the input - output relation to
obtain a desired system accuracy.)

They are not usually troubled with the problems of instability.

The main problem encountered in open loop control systems is that the
variation in the external conditions or internal parameters of the system
[disturbances] may cause the system to behave in an uncontrolled manner.

Examples for open loop systems

Automatic toaster controlled by a timer
Input - setting time

ECX4242 - Session 1 Introduction to Control Systems

Controller (Actuator ) - Timer

Output - Toasted bread
The time required to make a "good toast" must be estimated by the user who is not
a part of the system. Control over the quality of the toast (the O/P) is removed once
the time, which is both the input and the control action has been set.
Washing machines (Soaking, washing and rinsing operate on a time basis.)
Input - Setting time
Controller (Actuator ) - Timer
Output - Washed clothes
The machine does not measure the output response, i.e. the cleanliness of the
clothes.
1.3.2

Closed Loop Control System

Closed loop control system is a system in which the control action is

somehow dependent on the output.

Figure 1.3
Closed Loop control system

A closed loop control system uses a measurement of the O/P and feeds it back
through the feedback path to compare it with the input (reference or desired o/p).
If there is any difference between the two responses (i.e. measured o/p and the
desired o/p) the system drives the plant, via the actuating signal, to make a
correction.
If there is no difference, the system does not drive the plant, since the plant's
response is already the desired response.
Example : Autopilot mechanism and the airplane it controls.
Objective - to maintain a specified airplane heading despite of atmospheric
changes.

ECX4242 - Session 1 Introduction to Control Systems

It performs the task by continuously measuring the actual airplane heading, and
automatically adjusting the airplane control surfaces so as to bring the actual
airplane heading into correspondence with the specified heading.
The human pilot is not a part of the control system.

1.4

Feedback Control

Feedback is the property of a closed loop system which permits the output (or some
other controlled variable) to be compared with the input to the system (or an input
to some other internally situated component or sub-system) so that the appropriate
control action may be formed as some function of the output and the input.
Advantages of feedback

Increased accuracy of the system.

Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of output to input to variations in system

parameters and other characteristics.

Reduced effects of nonlinearities.

Reduced effects of external disturbances or noise.

Increased bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Feedback
Closed loop control systems also has several disadvantages such as:

They have above advantages only when unpredictable disturbances and/or

unpredictable variations in the system components are present.

Tendency toward oscillation or instability.

Cost is high.

1.5

Feed forward Control

Even though feedback is an effective way of eliminating disturbances, it has the

disadvantage that the controller does not react to a disturbance before a control
error has already occurred. In many cases it is possible to measure the value of a
disturbance before it gives rise to a control error.
A feed forward control configuration measures the disturbance directly and takes
control action to eliminate its impact on the process output. An illustration for feed
forward control is given in Figure. 1.4.

ECX4242 - Session 1 Introduction to Control Systems

Figure 1.4:
Illustration of feed forward control
Lets consider an example in our everyday life, in which we can apply feed
forward control. Suppose that you are driving a vehicle and there is a bump on the
road. So, if you see the bump before you hit it, then you can take an evasive action
to avoid the bump.

1.6

Basic terms used in control systems

Refer Figure 1.1 and 1.2.

System : A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a
certain objective. We can use the word system not only for physical ones but also
for dynamic phenomena such as those encountered in economics.
Input : An input is an excitation applied to a system as an input from an external
source. This is our desired output of the system.
Output : The output is a variable or variables we use to observe the plant or
process. We can call this as the actual response of the system.
Summing junction or error detector: Summing junction is a physical device that
algebraically sums the incoming signals to produce an output signal. In a normal
feedback control system, summing junction has 2 input signals, input signal and the
feedback signal. In electrical systems, usually an operational amplifier is used as
the summing junction.
Controller : According to the error signal, the controller determines the actions
required to get the plant (process) to the desired state.
Actuator : The controller changes the state of the plant through the actuator. i.e.
the actuator is a device used to perform the control action or to exert direct
influence on the process. It receives signals from the controller and performs some
type of operation on the process to change its state. Examples are valves, motors,
pumps, power amplifiers etc.
Sensor : Sensor measures the output signal and determines the actual state of the
plant.
Error signal : The error signal is the algebraic addition of the input signal and the
feedback signal. In feedback control systems the control action is generated by the

ECX4242 - Session 1 Introduction to Control Systems

actuating signal. In an open loop systems the actuating signal is equal to the input
signal as there is no feedback.
Actuating signal : Actuating signal is the output signal of the controller.
Disturbance : A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of
the output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called
internal, while an external disturbance is generated outside the system.

SAQ

1.1

Consider the biological control system involved in human walking that we

described at the beginning of this session.
(a)

If a person is walking towards a desired direction, identify the

components and the variables.

(b)

Why is walking a closed loop operation?

(c)

Under what conditions would the human walking action become an

open loop system?

Assume the person has normal vision.

Solution:
(a) The major components involved in walking are the brain, eyes and legs.
The input may be chosen as the desired walk direction and the output is the
actual walk direction. Eyes sense the actual walking direction and detect
the difference between the input and the output and sense this information
to the brain. According to this error signal brain commands the legs to
walk in the prescribed direction.
(b) Walking is a closed loop system as the control action is a function of the
output.
(c) Think of the situation when you close your eyes while walking. Then the
feedback loop is broken and the system becomes open loop.

1.7

Different types of control systems

Continuous & Digital control systems

The signals in control system, e.g. the input and the output waveforms, are
typically functions of some independent variable usually time, denoted by t.
A continuous-time signal will contain a value for all real numbers along the
time axis and if a control system has this type of signals, we call it as a
continuous control system.
In contrast to this, a discrete-time signal is often created by using the
sampling theorem to sample a continuous signal. So it will only have values
at equally spaced intervals along the time axis. We call these signals as
discrete signals and in digital control systems these signals are used. Usually
a digital computer is used as a controller in digital control systems
Non-linear control systems

ECX4242 - Session 1 Introduction to Control Systems

A non-linear dynamic system is one that changes in a seemingly random way. For
example, the time taken to process each person in line at a bank teller is very
random - some people will have quick transactions and will be processed in short
time, other people will have lengthy transactions and will take longer. Thus, the
system (the bank queue) is an example of a non-linear system. Also, it is
"dynamic" because the collection of people in line is continually changing. So, the
bank queue is an example of a non-linear dynamic system.
Causal Systems / non-causal systems
Causal signals are signals that are zero for all negative time and non-causal signals
are signals that have nonzero values in both positive and negative time.
If all the variables of a control system are causal, then we call that system as a
causal system.
In this course we concentrate only on linear, causal and continuous systems. Also
we study only about classical methods which are used to analyze these systems.