CONTROL ENGINEERING

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Why Control?
• Modern society have sophisticated control systems which are
crucial to their successful operation.
• Reasons to build control systems:
• Power amplification
• Remote control
• Convenience of input form
• Compensation for disturbance

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Line
ar
Con
trol
Syst
Examples of Modern Control Systems

(a) Automobile
steering control
system.
(b) The driver uses
the difference
between the actual
and the desired
direction of travel
to generate a
controlled adjustment
of the steering wheel.
(c) Typical direction-
of-travel response.
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
Examples of Modern Control Systems
The Future of Control Systems
 Manual Vs Automatic Control

• Control is a process of causing a system variable such as

temperature or position to conform to some desired value or
trajectory, called reference value or trajectory.
• For example, driving a car implies controlling the vehicle to
follow the desired path to arrive safely at a planned destination.
i. If you are driving the car yourself, you are performing manual control of
the car.

ii. If you use design a machine, or use a computer to do it, then you have
built an automatic control system.
Illustrations
The Future of Control Systems
Control System Design
Definitions:
• System: A system is a combination or an arrangement of different physical
components which act together as an entire unit to achieve certain
objective.
• Control System: To control means to regulate, to direct or to command.
Hence a control system is an arrangement of different physical elements
connected in such a manner so as to regulate, direct or command itself or
some other system.
• Plant: The portion of a system which is to be controlled or regulated is
called a plant or the process.
• Controller: The element of the system itself or external to the system which
controls the plant or the process is called controller.
• Input: It is an applied signal or an excitation signal applied to a control
system from an external energy source in order to produce specific output.
• Output: It is the particular signal of interest or the actual response obtained
from a control system when applied to it.
• Disturbances: It is a signal which tends to adversely affect the value of the
output of a system. If such a disturbance is generated within the system
itself, it is called an internal disturbance. The disturbance generated outside
the system acting as an extra input to the system in addition to its normal
input, affecting the output adversely is called an external disturbance.
Classification of control systems:

1. Natural control systems: The biological systems, systems inside human

being are of natural type.

2. Manmade control systems: The various systems, we are using in our day
to day life are designed and manufactured by human beings.

3. Combinational control systems: Combinational control system is one,

having combination of natural and manmade together i.e., driver driving a
vehicle.
4. Time varying systems: Time varying control systems are those in which
parameters of the systems are varying with time. It is not dependent on
whether input and output are functions of time or not. E.g. mass of space
vehicle.
5. Time invariant systems: If the inputs and outputs are functions of time but
the parameters of the system are independent of time, which are not
varying with time and are constants, then system is said to be time
invariant. E.g. resistance, inductance and capacitance of a electrical
network.
6. Linear systems: A control system is said to be linear if it satisfies the
following properties.
a. The principle of superposition is applicable to the system.
b. The differential equation describing the system is linear having its
coefficients as constants.
c. The output or response varies linearly with the input.
7. Nonlinear systems: A system is said to be nonlinear if,
a. It does not satisfy the principle of superposition.
b. The equations describing the system are nonlinear in nature.
c. The output does not vary linearly.
8. Continuous time control systems: In this all system variables are the
functions of a continuous time variable ‘t’.
9. Discrete time control systems: In these systems one or more system
variables are known only at certain discrete interval of time.
10. Deterministic and stochastic control systems: A control system is said to
be deterministic when its response to input as well as behaviour to
external disturbances are predictable and repeatable. If such response is
unpredictable, system is said to be stochastic in nature.
11. Lumped parameter and distributed parameter control systems: Control
system that can be described by ordinary differential equation is called
lumped parameter control system. Control systems that can be described
by partial differential equations are called distributed parameter control
systems.
12. Single input single output and Multiple input multiple output systems:
13. Open loop and closed loop control systems:
Open Loop System:
A system in which output is dependent on input but controlling action or input
is totally independent of the output of the system, is called an Open Loop
System

Reference input CONTROLLER u PROCESS Controlled output

Advantages:
1. Simple in construction.
2. Very much convenient when output is difficult to measure.
3. Easy from maintenance point of view.
4. Not troubled with the problems of stability.
5. Simple to design and hence economical.
Disadvantages:
1. Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy of such systems are totally
dependent on the accurate calibration of the controller.
2. These give inaccurate results if there are variations in the external
environment i.e., such systems cannot sense environmental changes.
3. They cannot sense internal disturbances in the system, after the controller
stage.
4. To maintain the quality and accuracy, recalibration of the controller is
necessary from time to time.
Applications of Open Loop System:
1. Automatic Toaster System:

P
o
w
e
r
i
n
p
u
t

Heating
Relay or
Desired time process of Actual toast
Controller
bread
2. Traffic Light controller:

P
o
w
e
r

Relay or Actual traffic

Desired time Light
Controller control
Closed Loop System:
A system in which the controlling action or input is somehow dependent on
the output or changes in output is called closed loop system.
Feedback: Feedback is a property of the system by which it permits the
output to be compared with the reference input to generate the error signal
based on which the appropriate controlling action can be decided.
Advantages:
1. Very high accuracy because controller modifies and manipulates the
actuating signal such that error in the system will be zero.
2. They sense environmental changes, as well as internal disturbances and
accordingly modifies the error.
3. There is reduced effect of nonlinearities and distortions.
4. Bandwidth of such system i.e., operating frequency zone for such system is
very high.
Disadvantages:
1. These systems are complicated and time consuming from design point of
view and hence costlier.
2. Due to feedback, system tries to correct the error from time to time.
Tendency to overcorrect the error may cause oscillations.
Applications of Closed Loop System:
1. Human being
Applications of Closed Loop System:
2. Home heating system
Applications of Closed Loop System:
3. d.c. motor speed control
Applications of Closed Loop System:
4. missile launching system
Design Example
Design Example
Requirements of an Ideal Control Systems:
1. Accuracy

2. Sensitivity

3. External disturbance or noise

4. Stability

5. Bandwidth

6. Speed

7. Oscillations.
Controller:
• The controller is an element which accepts the error in some form and
decides the proper corrective action.

• The output of the controller is then applied to the process or final control
element. This brings output back to its desired set point value.

• The controller is the heart of a control system.

• The accuracy of the entire system depends on how sensitive is the

controller to the error detected and how it is manipulating such an error.
On-off control
• For some systems, on-off signaling is sufficient
• For example, a thermostat, when the heater is
either on or off, and early cruise-control systems
• Could do airflow or speed control also
• More modern systems do it

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 On-off Controllers
• Simple
• Cheap
Chapter 8

• Used In residential heating and domestic refrigerators

• Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable  excessive wear
on control valve.

Examples
•Batch process control (PLC = programmable logic controller)
•Solenoid in home heating unit
•Sprinkler systems
•Cruise control?
 Three Mode (PID) Controller
• Proportional
• Integral
• Derivative
Proportional Control
Chapter 8

• Define an error signal, e, by e = Ysp – Ym

where
Ysp = set point
Ym = measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from transmitter)
Properties of Controller:
Classification of controllers:
Proportional control mode: In this the output of the controller is proportional
to the error e(t). The relation between the error e(t) and the controller
output p is determined by the constant called proportional gain constant
denoted as Kp. The output of the controller is a linear function of the error
e(t). The range of the error which covers 0% to 100% controller output is
called proportional band.
Though there exists linear relation between controller output and the error,
the controller output should not be zero, otherwise the process will come
to halt. Hence there exists some controller output po for the zero error.
Hence mathematically proportional control mode is expressed as

Where Kp = proportional gain constant

po = controller output with zero error
p(t) = Kp e(t) + po
 The error can be positive or negative because error r-b can be less or
greater than reference setpoint r.
If the controlled variable i.e., input to the controller increases, causing
increase in the controller output, the action is called direct action.
If the controlled variable decreases, causing increase in the controller
output or increase in the controller variable, causing decrease in the
controller output, the action is called reverse action.
So if e(t) is –ve then Kp e(t) gets subtracted from po and if e(t) is
positive, then Kp e(t) gets added to po, this is reverse action.
Characteristics of Proportional mode:
1. When the error is zero, the controller output is constant equal to po.
2. If the error occurs, then for every 1% error the correction of Kp% is
achieved. If error is positive, Kp% correction gets added to po and if error is
negative, Kp% correction gets subtracted from po.
3. The band of error exists for which the output of the controller is between
0% to 100% without saturation.
4. The gain Kp and the error band PB are inversely proportional to each other.
Applications:
1. Manual reset of the operating point is possible.
2. Load changes are small.
3. The dead time exists in the system is small.
Derivative Controler

• Ideal derivative action

 Used to improve dynamic response of the
controlled variable
 Derivative kick (use -dym/dt )

Integral control mode:
In this controller, the value of the controller output p(t) is changed at a rate
which is proportional to the actuating error signal e(t). Mathematically it is
expressed as,

Where, Ki = constant relating error and rate or integral constant.

Integrating the above equation, actual controller output at any time t can be
obtained as,

Where, p(0) = controller output when integral action starts i.e. at t = 0.

The output signal from the controller, at any instant is the area under the
actual error signal curve up to that instant. If the value of the error is
doubled, the value of p(t) varies twice as fast i.e. rate of the controller
output change also doubles.
Step response of integral mode:

It can be seen that when error is positive, the output p(t) ramps up. For zero
error, there is no change in the output. And when error is negative, the
output p(t) ramps down.
Characteristics of Integral mode:

1. If error is zero, the output remains at a fixed value equal to what it was,
when the error became zero.

2. If the error is not zero, then the output begins to increase or decrease, at
a rate Ki% per second for every +or-1% of error.

The inverse of Ki is called integral time Ti.

Ti = 1/Ki
Proportional-Integral Mode (PI control mode):
This is composite control mode obtained by combining the proportional mode
and the integral mode.
The mathematical expression for such a composite control is,

Where p(0) = Initial value of the output at t = 0.

The important advantage of this control is that one to one correspondence
of proportional mode is available while the offset gets eliminated due to
integral mode, the integral part of such composite control provides a reset
of the zero error output after a load change occurs.
Consider the load change occurring at t = t1 and due to which error varies as
shown in fig. The controller output changes suddenly by amount Vp due to
the proportional action. After that controller output changes linearly with
respect to time at a rate Kp/Ti. The reset rate is defined as the reciprocal of
Ti.
The response of composite PI control mode for the reverse action is shown in
the fig.
Characteristic of PI mode:
1. When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed at the value that
integral mode had when the error went to zero. This is nothing but p(0).
2. When the error is not zero, proportional mode adds the correction while
the integral term starts increasing or decreasing from its initial value
depending upon the reverse or direct action.
3. It improves the steady state efficiency.
4. It increases the rise time so response becomes slow.
5. It decreases bandwidth of the system.
6. It filters out the high frequency noise.
7. It makes the response oscillatory.
Applications: PI mode completely removes the offset problems of proportional
mode. Such a mode can be used in the systems with the frequent or large
load changes. But the process must have relatively slow changes in the
load, to prevent the oscillations.
Proportional – Derivative Mode (PD Control Mode):
The series combination of proportional and derivative control modes gives
proportional plus derivative control mode. The mathematical expression for
the PD composite control is,
Characteristics of PD mode:
1. It improves the damping and reduces overshoot.
2. It reduces the rise time and makes response fast.
3. It makes the response stable very fast.
4. It improves the bandwidth of the system.
5. It cannot eliminate offset error.
6. It may make the noise dominant at high frequencies.
7. It is not very effective for lightly damped systems.
8. It may require a relatively large capacitor while the circuit implementation.
Applications:
It can not eliminate offset error of proportional mode. But it can be used
to handle fast process load changes if offset error is tolerable. It is used in
many industrial process control systems.
Three Mode Controller (PID control Mode):
The composite controller including the combination of the proportional,
integral and derivative control mode is called PID control mode and the
controller is called three mode controller. It is very much complex to design
but very powerful in action.
mathematically such a control mode can be expressed as,

Where p(0) = Initial value of the output.

The integral mode eliminates the offset error of the proportional mode and
the response is also very fast due to derivative mode. The sudden response
is produced due to derivative mode. Thus it can be used for any process
condition.
• The proportional and PD control produces the offset error. It requires
significant time to attain the steady state.
• The PI control eliminates the offset but at the expense of the higher
maximum overshoot, a long period of oscillation and more settling time.
• The PD control produces the steady state very quickly with least oscillations
and smallest maximum overshoot but offset is significant.
• With PID control, there is no offset and system achieves the steady state
with less settling time.
• Therefore PID is the ultimate process composite controller.