2.

Mathematical modeling of systems

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF SYSTEMS

2.1 Basic Definitions
System: An arrangement or combination of different physical components those are
connected or related together to form an entire unit to achieve a certain objective is called a
system.
Control: The meaning of control is to regulate, direct or command a system so that a desired
objective is obtained.
Plant: It is defined as the portion of a system which is to be controlled or regulated. It is also
called a process.
Controller: It is the element of the system itself or may be external to the system, which
controls the plant or the process.
Input: The applied signal or excitation signal that is applied to a control system to get a
specified output is called input.
Output: The actual response that is obtained from a control system due the application of the
input is termed as output.
Disturbances: The signal that has some adverse effect on the value of the output of a system
is called disturbance.
Control Systems: It is an amalgamation of different physical elements linked in such a
manner so as to regulate, direct or command itself to obtain a certain objective. A control
system must have input, output, ways to achieve input and output objectives and control
action.
Reference Input: It is the actual signal input to the control system.
Error signal: It is the difference between the reference input and feedback signal.

2.2 Classification of Systems

(i) Linear and non-linear control systems: A linear system is one which obeys the
principle of superposition and homogeneity. Non-linear systems do not obey the
principle of superposition and homogeneity.
(ii) Time-invariant and time-varying control system: Time-invariant control system is
one whose parameters do not vary with time. The response of such a system is
independent of time at which input is applied. A time-varying system is one in which
one or more parameters vary with time. The response depends on the time at which
input is applied. The mass of an aircraft decreases with time as fuel it carries is
consumed during flying is an example of a time-varying system.
(iii) Continuous and discrete control systems: In continuous control systems all system
parameters are functions of continuous time, t (analogue). A discrete time control or
digital control involves one or more variables that are known only at discrete instants
of time.
(iv) Single input- single output (SISO) and multi input-multi output (MIMO) control
systems: A system with one input and one output is called single input-single output
control system. In that case there is one command and one controlled output.
A system with multiple inputs and multiple outputs is called multi input-multi output
control system.
(v) Lumped parameters and distributed parameters control systems: Control systems
that can be described by ordinary differential equations are lumped parameters control
systems where as control systems that are described by partial differential equation
are distributed parameter control systems.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
(vi) Deterministic and stochastic control systems: A control systems is deterministic if
the response is predictable and repeatable. If not the control system is a stochastic
control system which involves random variables and parameters.
(vii) Static and dynamic systems: A system is called static if its present output depends on
past input, whereas, a dynamic system is the one whose current output depends only
on current input.
(viii)Natural and man-made control systems: The system inside a human being or
biological systems are known as natural control system. The various control systems
that are designed and developed by man are known as man-made control systems.
(ix) Systems based on components: Depending upon the components connected in the
system, it can be classified as electrical, mechanical, electromechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic, thermal, etc.

2.3 Open-loop Systems

The system in which the output has no effect on the control action are called open-loop
systems. In other words, the output is neither measured nor feedback for comparison with
reference input. Fig. 2.1 shows an open-loop system.

Figure 2.1 Open-loop System

2.3.1 Advantages of open-loop system
1. These systems are simple in construction and design.
2. Open-loop systems are economical.
3. These systems are easy from maintenance point of view.
4. Open-loop systems are not much troubled with stability problem.
5. Open-loop systems are convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.
2.3.2 Disadvantages of open-loop system
1. Open-loop systems are not accurate and reliable.
2. These systems are very much affected by internal disturbances.
3. Frequent calibration is required for maintaining quality and accuracy.

2.4 Closed-loop Systems

In closed-loop systems, the actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input
signal and the feedback signal (output signal), is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error
and bring the output of the system to the desired value. Fig. 2.2 shows a closed-loop system.
In a closed-loop system the output is feedback and compared with the input so that any
necessary corrective action may be taken. The operation of closed-loop system may be
controlled externally or automatically. They are insensitive to external disturbances and
internal parameter variations.

Figure 2.2 Closed-loop system

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
2.4.1 Advantages of closed-loop systems
1. The closed-loop systems are accurate.
2. The closed-loop systems are accurate even in the presence of non-linearities.
3. Closed-loop systems are less affected by noise and parameters variation
4. The ratio of the output to the input variations is very low.
2.4.2 Disadvantages of closed-loop Systems
1. Closed-loop systems are complex and costlier.
2. The feedback in closed-loop system may lead to oscillatory response.
3. Over all gains of the system is reduced.
4. Stability is a major problem in closed-loop system.

2.5 Examples of Closed-loop Control System

2.5.1 Closed-loop control system to maintain tank level
The Fig. 2.3 shows a control system to maintain tank level. The float provides the
feedback path and the potentiometer acts as error detector. The point P on the potentiometer
corresponding to the height h1 of the tank, which is the reference input. Any difference in the
tank level between h1 and h2 appears as an error voltage input to the power amplifier. The
output of the amplifier drives the motor which is connected mechanically to valve T2. The
movement of the valve automatically adjusts the height of level of liquid such that the height
h2 comes back to the desired height h1.

Figure 2.3 Closed-loop control system to maintain tank level

2.5.2 Closed – loop control system in missile launching
Fig. 2.4 shows a schematic diagram of a missile launching and guidance system. The
radar detects the presence of the target aircraft through its rotating antenna and passes the
detection signal to the launch computer indicating the velocity and position of the target. The
computer calculates the firing angle which is the launch command signal. This command
signal is passed to the launcher drive motor, through the power amplifier. The launcher
angular position is feedback to the launch computer and the missile is fired at the moment
when the difference between the launch command signal and the missile firing angle
becomes zero.
After the missile is launched, the guiding signal is from the radar beam itself as the radar
antenna is locked on to the target and it continuously trucks the target. The missile after
being launched comes under the guidance of the radar beam. The missile now obtains the
guidance signal from the beam which automatically adjusts the control surfaces of the missile
in such a manner that the missile moves along the beam and finally hit the target.
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 2.4 Control system in missile launching

2.5.3 Closed-loop temperature control system
The closed-loop temperature control system of a electric furnace is shown in Fig. 2.5.
The actual furnace temperature is sensed by a temperature sensor. The temperature sensor
signal is converter into digital signal by using A/D converter. The controller, which is a
computer or micro processor receives the digital signal and compares with reference
temperature. The error signal which is in digital form is converted again to analog signal by
using D/A converter. The analog signal is amplified and is given to the relay control circuit,
which in turn control the on/off time of the relay, such that the furnace temperature is equal to
the reference temperature.

Figure 2.5 Closed-loop temperature control system

2.6 Transfer Function
It is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of output response to the Laplace
transform of input or excitation under zero initial condition. Fig. 2.6 shows the system in time
domain and in Laplace domain.
r(t) c(t) R(s) C(s)
g(t) G(s)

(a) System in time domain (b) System in Laplace domain

Figure 2.6 Transfer function of a system
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
If G(s) is the transfer function of the system, we can write mathematically.
Laplace transform of output
G(s) =
Laplace transform of input Under zero initial condition
C(s)
G(s) =
R(s) Under zero initial condition
2.6.1 Properties of transfer function
The properties of transfer functions are:
1. The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model representing the system.
2. The transfer function is the property of a system and is independent of the magnitude
and nature of the input.
3. The transfer function does not provide any information about the physical
construction of the system.
4. If the transfer function of a system is known, we can determine the behavior of the
system for various inputs to understand the nature of the system.
5. Transfer function is defined for linear systems only.
6. Transfer function is defined under zero initial condition.
7. Transfer function is defined for single input-single output systems.
2.6.2 Electric systems
A resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are the three basic elements, of an electric circuit.
The circuit is analyzed by the application of Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws. The
relationship that exists between voltage and the current flowing through the circuit element
may be expressed as:
For resistive circuit V = iR ; Laplace transform V(s) = RI(s)
1 I(s)
For capacitive circuit V =  idt ; Laplace transfer V(s) =
C Cs
di
For induction circuit V= L ; Laplace transform V(s) = sLI(s)
dt
Example 2.1
Determine the transfer function for a RLC circuit shown in Fig. 2.7.

Figure 2.7 RLC Circuit

Solution
di 1
By Kirchhoff’s voltage law Vi(t) = L+ iR +  idt
dt C
1
Taking Laplace transfer on both sides Vi(s) = LsI(s) + RI(s) + I(s)
Cs
 1 
Assuming zero initial condition Vi(s) =  Ls + R +  I(s)
 Cs 
 LCs 2 + RCs +1 
=   I(s)
 Cs 

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
The output voltage Vo(t) is taken across the capacitor, then
1 I(s)
V0(t) =  idt (or) V0(s) =
C Cs
The transfer function is given by
I(s)
V0 (s) Cs 1
G(s) = = =
Vi (s)  LCs2 + RCs +1  LCs2 + RCs +1
  I(s)
 Cs 
The block diagram representation is shown in Fig. 2.8.
Vi(s) 1 V0(s)
Lcs 2 + Rcs +1
Figure 2.8 Block diagram of the RLC Circuit shown in Fig. 7
Example 2.2
Derive the transfer function Vi(s)/I(s) and V0(s)/Vi(s) of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9.

Figure 2.9 Electrical circuit

Solution
1
C
By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law Vi(t) = Ri(t) + i(t)dt

I(s)  1 
Taking Laplace Transform Vi(s) = RI(s) + = R +  I(s) (2.1)
Cs  Cs 
Vi (s) 1+ RCs 
or = 
I(s)  Cs 
Now the output voltage is given by V0(t) = Ri(t)
V (s)
Taking Laplace transform V0(s) = RI(s) or I(s) = 0 (2.2)
R
1+ RCs  V0 (s) 1+ RCs 
Substituting Eqn. (2.2) in (2.1) Vi(s) =  . =  V0 (s)
 Cs  R  RCs 
V0 (s) RCs
=
Vi (s) 1+ RCs
Example 2.3
Derive the transfer function of the network shown in Fig. 2.10.

Figure 2.10 Electrical network

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Solution
The redrawn diagram in Laplace domain is as shown in Fig. 2.11.

Figure 2.11 Electrical network in Laplace domain

From Fig. 2.11, we get
 1  1
Vi(s) =  R1 +  I1 (s) - I2 (s) (2.3)
 sC1  sC1
 1 1  1
and  R2 + +  I2 (s) - I1 (s) = 0 (2.4)
 sC1 sC2  sC1
From Eqn. (2.4), we get
1  1 1 
I1 (s) =  R 2 + +  I2 (s)
sC1  sC1 sC2 
 1 1 
or, I1(s) = sC1  R 2 + +  I2 (s) (2.5)
 sC 1 sC 2 
Substituting Eqn. (2.5) in Eqn. (2.3), it can be written as
 1   1 1  1
Vi(s) =  R1 +  sC1  R 2 + +  I2 (s) - I 2 (s)
 sC 1  sC 1 sC 2  sC 1

 (sC R +1)(sR 2C1C2 + C1 + C2 ) - C2 

 Vi(s) =  1 1  I2 (s) (2.6)
 sC1C2 
Again, Vo(s) = 2
I (s)
sC2
(or) ( )
I 2 s = V0 s sC2 ( ) (2.7)

Substituting Eqn. (2.7) in Eqn. (2.6), we get

(sC1R1 +1)(sR 2C1C2 + C1 + C 2 ) - C 2
Vi(s) = Vo (s)
C1
Vo (s) C1
 =
Vi (s) (sC1R1 +1)(sR 2C1C2 + C1 + C 2 ) - C 2
C1
= 2 2 2
s C1 R1R 2C2 + sC1 R1 + sR1C1C2 + sR 2C1C2 + C1 + C2 - C2
1
= 2
s C1R1R 2C2 + sC1R1 + sR1C2 + sR 2C2 +1
Vo (s) 1
 = 2
Vi (s) s C1R1R 2C2 + s(R1C1 + R1C2 + R 2C2 ) +1
Example 2.4
V (s)
Determine the transfer function o of Fig. 2.12 shown below.
Vi (s)

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 2.12 An electrical network

If Vi(t) = u(t)-unit step input, determine Vo(t).
Solution
The circuit shown in Fig. 2.12 is redrawn in Laplace domain as shown in Fig. 2.13.

Figure 2.13 Laplace domain network of Fig. 2.12

 1 
 Vi(s) =  R1 +  I1 (s) - R1I2 (s) (2.8)
 sC1 
 1 
and  R1 + R 2 +  I2 (s) = R1I1(s)
 sC2 
1 1 
(or) I1(s) =  R1 + R 2 +  I2 (s) (2.9)
R1  sC2 
Substituting Eqn. (2.9), in Eqn. (2.8), we get
 1  1  1 
Vi(s) =  R1 +   R1 + R 2 +  I2 (s) - R1I 2 (s)
 sC1  R1  sC2 
(1+ sC1R1 )[1+ sC2 (R1 + R 2 )]
= I2 (s) - R1I2 (s)
s2 R1C1C2
1+ sC2 (R1 + R 2 ) + sC1R1 + s 2C1R1C 2 (R1 + R 2 ) - s 2C1C 2R 12 
= I2 (s)  
 s 2 R1C1C2 
 s 2 C1C2 R1R 2 + s(R1C1 + R 2C2 + R1C 2 ) +1 
=   I 2 (s) (2.10)
 s 2 R1C1C2 
V (s)
Also Vo(s) = R2I2(s)  I2(s) = o (2.11)
R2
Using Eqn. (2.10) and Eqn. (2.11), we get
 s 2 C1C2 R1R 2 + s(R1C1 + R 2C2 + R1C 2 ) +1 
Vi(s) =   Vo (s)
 s 2 R1R 2 C1C2 
Vo (s)  s 2 R1R 2 C1C2 
or =  2  (2.12)
Vi (s)  s R1R 2C1C 2 + s(R1C1 + R 2C 2 + R1C 2 ) +1 
Eqn. (2.12) represents the transfer function of the system.
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
1
Now Vi(t) = u(t)  Vi(s) = (2.13)
s
Substituting Eqn. (2.13), in Eqn. (2.12), we get
sR1R 2C1C2
Vo(s) = (2.14)
s 2 R1R 2C1C2 + s(R1C1 + R 2C2 + R1C2 ) +1
Now substituting the values of resistors and capacitors in Eqn. (2.14), we get
1
s× ×1× 2× 2
2 2s
= =
1 1 1  2s 2 + 4s +1
s 2 × ×1× 2× 2 + s  × 2 +1× 2 + × 2  +1
2 2 2 
s s A B
= = = +
2 (s +1.707)(s + 0.293) s +1.707 s + 0.293
s + 2s + 0.5
s -1.707
 A= = = 1.2056
s + 0.293 s=-1.707 -1.707 + 0.293
s -0.293
 B= = = -0.207
s +1.707 s=-0.293 -0.293 +1.707
1.2056 0.207
 Vo(s) = -
s +1.707 s + 0.293
Taking inverse Laplace transform Vo(t) = 1.2056e-1.707t – 0.207e-0.293t
Example 2.5
Derive the transfer function of the network shown in Fig. 2.14.

Figure 2.14 An electrical network

Solution
The circuit shown in Fig. 2.14 is redrawn in Laplace domain as shown in Fig. 2.15.

Figure 2.15 Laplace domain network of Fig. 2.14

From fig. (2.15), we get
Vi(s) = (R1 + sL) I1(s) – sLI2(s) (2.15)
 1 
and  sL + + R 2  I 2 (s) - sLI1 (s) = 0
 sC 
1  1 
or, I1(s) =  sL + + R 2  I 2 (s) (2.16)
sL  sC 
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Using Eqn. (2.15) and Eqn. (2.16), we get as follows:
  1  
 (R1 + sL)  sL + sC + R 2  
Vi(s) =    - sL  I (s)
2
 sL 
 
 s2 R LC + sCR R + R + s3L2C + s 2LCR + sL - s3L2C 
=  1 1 2 1 2
2
 I2 (s)
 s LC 
 s2 R LC + s 2LCR + sL + sCR R + R 
Vi(s) =  1 2 1 2 1 I (s)
2
 2 (2.17)
 s LC 
 1 
Again, Vo(s) =  R 2 +  I 2 (s)
 sC 
 sC 
I2(s) =   Vo (s) (2.18)
 1+ sR 2C 
Substituting Eqn. (2.16) in Eqn. (2.15), we get
 s2 R LC + s 2LCR + sL + sCR R + R   sC 
Vi(s) =  1 2 1 2 1
2
  Vo (s)
 s LC   1+ sR 2 
C
 s2LC(R + R ) + s(L + CR R ) + R ) 
=  1 2 1 2 1 V (s)
 o
 sL(1+ sR 2 C) 
Vo (s) sL(1+ sR 2C)
 =
Vi (s) s2LC(R1 + R 2 ) + s(L + CR1R 2 ) + R1)
Example 2.6
Determine the transfer function of the electric network shown in Fig. 2.16

Figure 2.16 An electrical network

Solution
Using KVL, it can be written as
1
Vi(t) = R1i(t) +  i(t)dt + R2i(t) (2.19)
C
1
and Vo(t) = R2i(t) +  i(t)dt (2.20)
C
Taking Laplace transform of Eqns. (2.19) and (2.20), we get
1
Vi(s) = R1I(s) + I(s) + R2I(s) (2.21)
sC
1
and Vo(s) = R2I(s) + I(s) (2.22)
sC
Assuming zero initial conditions from Eqn. (2.22), we get
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
 1   sCR 2 +1 
Vo(s) =  R 2 +  I(s) =   I(s)
 sC   sC 
sC
 I(s) = Vo (s) (2.23)
1+ sCR 2
 (R + R 2 )sC +1   (R + R 2 )sC +1  sC
 Vi(s) =  1  I(s) =  1  1+ sCR Vo (s)
 sC   sC  2
The transfer function is given by
V (s) 1+ sCR 2
G(s) = o =
Vi (s) (R1 + R 2 )sC +1
 1  1
CR 2  s +  K(s + )
=  CR 2  =
T1
 1  1
(s + )
s + (R + R )C  (R1 + R 2 )C T2
 1 2 
Where K = R2/(R1+R2), T1= CR2 and T2 = (R1 + R2)C. This network is known as Lag
Compensator.
Example 2.7
Find the transfer function of an electrical network shown in Fig. 2.17

Figure 2.17 An electrical network

Solution
The circuit shown in Fig. 2.17 is redrawn in Laplace domain as shown in Fig. 2.18

Figure 2.18 Laplace domain diagram of Fig. 2.17

From Fig. 2.18, we can write I1(s) + I2(s) = I(s)
Vi (s) - Vo (s) Vi (s) - Vo (s) Vo (s)
+ = (2.24)
R1 1 R2
sC
 1  1 1 
Rearranging the Eqn. (2.24)  + sC  Vi (s) =  + + sC Vo (s)
 R1   R1 R 2 

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
1 1  1 
(sC + ) (s + ) s + R c 
=  1 
Vo (s) R1 CR1
 = =
Vi (s) 1 1 1 1  (R1 + R 2 ) 
sC + + s+ + s+
R1 R 2 R1C R 2C  R1R 2C 
If the transfer function of the system is given by
 1 
s +
1
 s+
G(s) =
Vo (s)
=  R 1 C  = T
Vi (s)      1 
   s +
 αT 
s +  1 . 1  
  R2  R 1 C 
 R +R  
  1 2  
R2
where, T = R1c and α = This network is known as lead network.
R1 + R 2
Example 2.8
dy dx
A system having input x and output y is represented by + 3y = + 2x . Find the transfer
dt dt
function of the system.
Solution
The system is represented by
dy dx
+ 3y = + 2x (2.25)
dt dt
Taking Laplace transform of eq. (2.25), we get
sY(s) + 3Y(s) = sX(s) + 2X(s)
Initial conditions of the system are assumed to be zero.
 Y(s) (s + 3) = X(s) (s+2)
Y(s) s + 2
or = (2.26)
X(s) s + 3
Example 2.9
Determine the transfer function of a system represented by
d3 y d2y dy d2x dx
+3 +2 +y= +2 + 3x
3 2 dt 2 dt
dt dt dt
Solution
Taking Laplace transform of the given equation and assuming initial condition to be zero, it
can be written as
s3Y(s) + 3s2Y(s) + 2sY(s) + Y(s) = s2X(s) + 2sX(s) + 3X(s)
or (s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1) Y(s) = (s2 + 2s + 3) X(s)
Y(s) s 2 + 2s + 3
 = 3
X(s) s + 3s 2 + 2s +1
s 2 + 2s + 3
Therefore, the transfer function of the system is G(s) = 3
s + 3s 2 + 2s +1
Example 2.10

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
3s + 2
The transfer function of a system is given by G(s) = . Find the differential
s 2 + 2s + 3
equation of the system having input x and output y.
Solution
Y(s) 3s + 2
Here G(s) = =
X(s) 2
s + 2s + 3
2
Cross multiplying s Y(s) + 2sY(s) + 3Y(s) = 3sX(s) + 2X(s)
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we can write
d2 y dy dx
+ 2 + 3y = 3 + 2x
2 dt dt
dt
This is the required differential equation of the system.
Example 2.11
Find the transfer function of a system if its impulse response is e-3t sin 2t.
Solution
The impulse response of the system is given by
c(t) = e-3t sin 2t
2 2
 LT[c(t)] = LT[e-3t sin 2t] = =
2 2
(s + 3) + 4 (s + 6s +13)
Since the Laplace transform of the impulse response of a system represents is its transfer
function, the transfer function of the system is
2
G(s) =
(s 2 + 6s +13)
Example 2.12
4
The step response of a system is given by y(t) = 6 - e-5t + e-3t . Find the transfer function of
5
the system.
Solution
Since the derivative of a step response gives impulse response, the impulse response is given
dy
by: Impulse response = = 4e-5t – 3e-3t
dt
Since the transfer function is the Laplace transform of the impulse response, we have
dy
G(s) = L.T. of [ ] = L.T.of [4e-5t – 3e-3t]
dt
4 3 4(s + 3) - 3(s + 5) 4s +12 - 3s -15 s -3
G(s) = - = = =
s+5 s+3 (s + 3)(s + 5) (s + 3)(s + 5) (s + 3)(s + 5)
Example 2.13
The pole zero plot of a transfer function is shown in Fig. 2.19. Find the transfer function of
the system.

Figure 2.19 The pole-zero plot

13
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Solution
The poles at s = -1 and s = -2  j and the zeros are at s = -3  j. The gain factor is 5. The
transfer function of the system is given by
5(s + 3 - j)(s + 3 + j) 5{(s + 3) 2 - j2 }
G(s) = =
(s +1)(s + 2 - j)(s + 2 + j) (s +1){(s + 2) 2 - j2 }
5(s 2 + 6s +10)
 G(s) =
(s +1)(s 2 + 4s + 5)
Example 2.14
Determine the characteristic polynomial and roots of a system having transfer function as
follows:
4(s + 2)
G(s) =
(s + 3)(s + 4)
Solution
The denominator of the transfer function is
(s + 3) (s + 4) = s2 + 7s + 12
The characteristic polynomial is s2 + 7s + 2. The characteristic equation is given by
s2 + 7s + 12 = (s + 3) (s + 4) = 0
 s = either -3 or -4 and these are the poles of the system.
Example 2.15
The pole and zero of a system are at s = -3 and at s = -2, respectively. The value of gain
factor is 5. Determine the response, if unit step function is applied as input.
Solution
The system transfer function is given by
5(s + 2) C(s)
G(s) = =
(s + 3) R(s)
1
Now input is r(t) = u(t). Therefore, R(s) =
s
5(s + 2)  2 / 3 1/ 3  5 2 1 
C(s) = G(s) R(s) = = 5 +  =  + 
s(s + 3)  s s + 3 3 s s+3
Taking inverse Laplace transform, it can be written as
5
C(t) = (2 + e-3t )
3
Example 2.16
Determine the transfer function of the system represented by
dy
5 + 3y = 2x(t – τ)
dt
Solution
The Laplace transform of the given equation can be written as follows:
5sY(s) + 3Y(s) = 2e-sτ X(s)
or (5s + 3) Y(s) = 2e-sT X(s)
Y(s) 2e-sT
 =
X(s) 5s + 3
2e-sT
Therefore, the transfer function of the system is given by G(s) =
5s + 3

14
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Example 2.17
Determine V2 / V1 for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.20.

Figure 2.20 An electrical circuit

Solution
Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get V1 = I1R1 + I2(R2 + RL) (2.27)
V2
and V2 = I2RL (or) I2 = (2.28)
RL
Again, by Kirchhoff’s current law, we get
I2 = I1 + V2 (2.29)
From Eqns. (2.28) and (2.29), we get
V2 = (I1 + V2) RL
or (1 - RL) V2 = I1RL
 1- αR L 
 I1 =   V2 (2.30)
 RL 
Substituting Eqns. (2.30) and (2.28) in Eqn. (2.27) we get,
 1- αR L  V2
V1 =   V2R1 + (R 2 + R L )
 RL  RL
V
= 2 [(1- αR L )R1 + (R 2 + R L )]
RL
V2 RL
or =
V1 (1- αR L )R1 + (R 2 + R L )
This is the transfer function of Fig. 2.20.
Example 2.18
Find V2 / V1 of Fig. 2.21, where OP-AMP is ideal.

Figure 2.21 An ideal op-amp circuit

Solution
Fig. 2.21 is redrawn as shown in Fig. 2.22.

15
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 2.22 An ideal op-amp circuit with current I1 and I2

Using KCL at node A, we get I1 = I2

V1 (s) - 0 0 - V2 (s)
or =
1 R
R+
Cs 1+ sCR
 
 V1(s)   R 
or  1+ sCR    = -V2(s)
   1+ sCR 
 sC 
V2 (s) -sCR
or =
V1 (s) (1+ sCR) 2
Example 2.19
Draw poles and zeros for V(s) = (s2 + 3s + 2) / (s2 + 7s + 2) and evaluate V(t).
Solution
s 2 + 3s + 2 (s +1)(s + 2)
V(s) = =
2 (s + 3)(s + 4)
s + 7s + 2

Figure 2.23 Pole-zero configuration in s-plane

s 2 + 3s + 2 (s +1)(s + 2) A B
V(s) = 2 = = +
s + 7s + 2 (s + 3)(s + 4) s + 3 s + 4
(s +1)(s + 2) (s +1)(s + 2)
A= =2 and B= = -6
(s + 4) s=-3 (s + 3) s=-4
2 -6
 V(s) = +
s+3 s+4
 2 -6 
 V(t) = Lt -1  +  = 2e-3t – 6e-4t
s + 3 s + 4

16
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Example 2.20
An electrical circuit is shown in Fig. 2.24. Obtain the transfer function relating the output
voltage eo(t) to the input voltage ei(t).

Figure 2.24 An electrical circuit

Solution
From the Fig. 24 the parallel combination of R1 and C1 is given by
1 R1
R1 ×
C1s C1s R1
Z1(s) = = =
1 1+ R1C1s 1+ R1C1s
R1 +
C1s C1s
Similarly the parallel combination of R2 and C2 is given by
1 R2
R2 ×
C 2s C 2s R2
Z2(s) = = =
1 1+ R 2C2s 1+ R 2C2s
R2 +
C 2s C 2s
R2
E 0 (s) Z2 (s) 1+ R 2C2s
Then, = =
E i (s) Z1 (s) + Z2 (s) R1 R2
+
1+ R1C1s 1+ R 2C2s
R 2 (1+ R1C1s) R 2 (1+ R1C1s)
= =
R1 + R 2 + R1R 2C1s + R1R 2C 2s  (R R C + R1R 2C2 )s 
(R1 + R 2 ) 1+ 1 2 1 
 R1 + R 2 
E 0 (s) (1+ sT1 ) R2 R1R 2C1 + R1R 2C2
= K. where K = ; T1 = R1C1 and T2 = .
E i (s) (1+ sT2 ) R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
Example 2.21
Determine the transfer function for a buffer amplifier network shown in Fig. 2.25.

Figure 2.25 Buffer amplifier network

17
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Solution
V2 (s) R1 R1C1s V3 (s)
From Fig. 2.25. = = and =K
V1 (s) 1 1+ R1C1s V2 (s)
R1 +
C1s
V0 (s) R2 R 2 C 2s
also = =
V3 (s) R + 1 1+ R 2C 2s
2
C 2s
Multiplying the above three equations
V2 (s) V3 (s) V0 (s) KR1R 2C1C2s2
× × =
V1 (s) V2 (s) V3 (s) (1+ R1C1s)(1+ R 2C2s)
V0 (s) KT1T2s2
= Where T1 = R1C1 and T2 = R2C2
V1(s) (1+ sT1)(1+ sT2 )
2.6.7 Transfer function of armature controlled DC motor

Figure 2.71 Armature controlled DC motor

The electrical system of armature controlled DC motor consists of the armature and the field
circuit. Since the DC motor is armature controlled, the field circuit is excited by a constant
voltage. The mechanical system consists of the rotating part of the motor and load connected
to the shaft of the motor as shown in Fig. 2.71.

Figure 2.72 Equivalent circuit of armature

From the equivalent circuit of armature shown in Fig. 2.72, by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law, we get
di
Va = ia R a + La a + eb (2.60)
dt
Since the back emf of DC motor is proportional to speed
dθ
eb 
dt
dθ
or eb = K b (2.61)
dt
Substituting the value of eb from Eqn. (2.61) in Eqn. (2.60), we get
di dθ
i a R a + La a + K b = Va
dt dt
Taking Laplace transform of the above equation
RaIa(s) + sLaIa(s) + Kbs(s) = Va(s)
18
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
[Ra + sLa] Ia(s) + Kb s (s) = Va(s) (2.62)

Figure 2.73 The mechanical system of the motor

The mechanical system of the motor is shown in Fig. 2.73. The torque equation is given by:
d 2θ dθ
J +B = T (2.63)
2 dt
dt
Torque in a DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and current. Since flux is
constant, the torque is proportional to armature current ia only.
Therefore,
T ia
T = Kt ia (2.64)
Substituting the value of T from Eqn. (2.64) in Eqn. (2.63)
d 2θ dθ
J + B = Ktia
2 dt
dt
Taking Laplace transform of the above equation
Js2(s) + Bs(s) = KtIa(s)
(Js2 + Bs)θ(s)
(or) Ia(s) = (2.65)
Kt
Substituting the value of Ia(s) from Eqn. (2.65) in Eqn. (2.62), we get
(Js2 + Bs)θ(s)
[Ra + sLa] + Kb s (s) = Va(s)
Kt
[Ra + sLa] (Js2 + Bs)θ(s) + KbKt s (s) = Kt Va(s)
 (s) Kt
=
Va ( s)  La   Js 2 
Ra 1 + s  Bs 1 + + Kb Kt s
 Ra   Bs 
 ( s) Kt / Ra B
=
Va ( s)  L   J  K K 
s 1 + s a   1 + s   + b t 
 Ra    B   Ra B 

 ( s) K
=
Va ( s) s (1 + sTa )(1 + sTm ) + KKt 
Where Ta = La/Ra - Electrical time constant
Tm = J/B - Mechanical time constant
K = Kt/RaB - Motor gain constant
2.6.8 Transfer function of field controlled DC motor
In field control DC motor, the armature voltage is kept constant and the speed is varied by
varying the field current of the motor as shown in Fig. 2.74.

19
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 2.74 Field controlled DC motor

The equivalent circuit of field is shown in Fig. 2.75. By Kirchhoff’s voltage law
di
Rfif + Lf f = Vf (2.66)
dt
Taking Laplace transform of the above equation
RfIf(s) + sLf If(s) = Vf(s)
(Rf + sLf) If(s) = Vf(s)
Vf (s)
If(s) = (2.67)
(R f + sLf )

Figure 2.75 Equivalent circuit of field

The differential equation governing the mechanical system as shown in Fig. 2.76 is given by
d 2θ dθ
J +B = T (2.68)
dt 2 dt

Figure 2.76 Mechanical system of motor

Since the armature voltage is kept constant, the torque is proportional to field current i.e.,
T  if
(or) T = Kfif (2.69)
Substituting for torque in the differential equation governing the mechanical system equation
d 2θ dθ
J + B = Kfif
dt 2 dt
Js2(s) + Bs(s) = KfIf(s) (2.70)
Substituting for If(s) from Eqn. (2.67) in Eqn. (2.70)
K f Vf (s)
[Js2 + Bs] (s) =
(R f + sLf )
θ(s) Kf Kf
= =
Vf (s) 2
(Js + Bs)(R f + sLf ) s(Js + B)(R f + sL f )

20
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Kf Km
= =
 sLf   sJ  s(1+ sTf )(1+ sTm )
sR f 1+  B 1+ 
 Rf   B 
Kf
where Km = = Motor gain constant
Rf B
L
Tf = f = Field time constant
Rf
J
Tm = = Mechanical time constant
B

SHORT QUESTION ANSWER

1. What is system?
When a number of elements or components are connected in a sequence to perform a
specific function, the group thus formed is called a system.
2. What is control system?
A system consists of a number of components connected together to perform a
specific function. In a system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the
input quantity, then the system is called control system.
3. What is output quantity and input quantity?
The output quantity is called controlled variable or response and input quantity is
called command signal or excitation.
4. What are the two major types of control systems?
The two major type of control systems are open-loop and closed-loop systems.
5. Define open-loop system.
The control system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity
is called open loop control system. This means that the output is not feedback to the
input for correction.
6. Define closed-loop system.
The control systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity so as to
maintain the desired output value are called closed loop control systems.
7. What is feedback? What type of feedback is employed in control system?
The feedback is a control action in which the output is sampled and a proportional
signal is given to input for automatic correction of any changes in desired output.
Negative feedback is employed in control system.
8. What are the components of feedback control system?
The components of feedback control system are plant, feedback path elements, error
detector and controller.

9. Why is negative feedback invariably preferred in a closed loop system?

21
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
The negative feedback results in better stability in steady state and rejects any
disturbance signals. It also has low sensitivity to parameter variations. Hence
negative feedback is preferred in close loop systems.
10. What are the characteristics of negative feedback?
The characteristics of negative feedback are as follows:
(i) accuracy in tracking steady state value
(ii) rejection of disturbance signals
(iii) low sensitivity to parameter variations
(iv) reduction in gain at the expense of better stability
11. What is the effect of positive feedback on stability?
The positive feedback increases the error signal and drives the output to instability.
But sometimes the positive feedback is used in minor loops in control systems to
amplify certain internal signals or parameters.
12. Distinguish between open-loop and closed-loop system.
Open Loop Closed Loop
(i) Inaccurate & unreliable (i) Accurate & reliable
(ii) Simple and economical (ii) Complex and costlier
(iii) The changes in output due to (iii) The changes in output due to
external disturbances are not external disturbances are corrected
corrected automatically automatically.
(iv) They are generally stable (iv) Great efforts are needed to design
a stable system.

14. State the principle of homogeneity (or) State the principle of superposition.
The principle of superposition and homogeneity states that if the system has responses
y1(t) and y2(t) for the inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively then the system response to
the linear combination of these input a1x1(t) + a2x2(t) is given by linear combination of
the individual outputs a1y1(t) + a2y2(t), where a1 and a2 are constants.
15. Define linear system.
A system is said to be linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and
homogeneity. The principle of superposition states that the response of a system to a
weighed sum of signals is equal to the corresponding weighed sum of the responses of
the system to each of the individual input signals.

16. What is time invariant system?

A system is said to be time invariant if its input output characteristics do not change
with time. A linear time invariant system can be represented by constant coefficient
differential equations. In linear time varying systems the coefficients of the
differential equation governing the system are function of time.
22
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
17. Define transfer function.
The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output
to Laplace transform of input with zero initial conditions. It is also defined as the
Laplace transform of the impulse response of system with zero initial conditions.
18. State whether transfer function technique is applicable to non-linear system and
whether the transfer function is independent of the input of a system.
(i) The transfer function technique is not applicable to non-linear system.
(ii) The transfer function of a system is independent of input and depends only on
system parameters but the output of a system depends on input.

23
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

4. BLOCK DIAGRAM AND SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

4.1 Block Diagram: A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the function
performed by each component and of the flow of signals. The elements of a block diagrams
are functional block, summing point and branch point.
4.2 Functional block

Figure 4.1 Functional block

The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input
signal to the block that produces the output. The transfer functions of the components are
usually entered in the corresponding block which is connected by arrows to indicate the
direction of the flow of signals as shown in Fig. 4.1.
4.3 Summing point

Figure 4.2 Summing point

Summing points are used to add two or more signals in the system. The symbol of a
summing point is a circle with a cross that indicates a summing operation as shown in Fig.
4.2. The plus or minus sign at each arrow head indicates whether the signal is to be added or
subtracted of same unit.
4.4 Branch point or take off point
A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other
blocks or summing points as shown in Fig. 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Branch point

4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of block diagram representation

4.5.1. Advantages
1. Easy to form the overall block diagram for the whole system by simply connecting the
blocks of each component.
2. The functional operation of the system is readily visualized by examining the block
diagram rather than the physical system itself.
3. A block diagram for a given system is not unique. It may have alternate ways of
representing a system in a block diagram form.
4.5.2. Disadvantages
Although the block diagram representation is a powerful tool in control system analysis and
design, it has the following disadvantages too.
1. Interaction of blocks: The basic assumption in the block diagram representation of a
system is that what is inside the block is not affected by what is outside of the block
24
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
except for the inputs. This means there is no interaction between blocks. For
example, if the electrical networks are represented by block diagrams, it means, these
networks are driven by the impedance source and followed by infinite impedance
load. Other types of networks cannot be represented by block diagram because of
interaction.
2. Concealment of important function: Another serious drawback of block diagram
representation is the possibility of important functions being concealed (omitted or
hidden) within the walls of the block. This could be due to manipulations of the
physical equation for obtaining the T.F. model and putting in the block diagram form.
3. Reciprocity and non-reciprocity: Passive symmetrical pi networks are reciprocal
because input and output are interchangeable and any amplifier network is non-
reciprocal because the input and output are not interchangeable, but both are
represented by a block diagram without any reference to the above property.
4. From the block diagram, it is possible to get information about the dynamic behavior
of the system and no information about the construction of the system is known. Thus
a mechanical system, an electrical system, or a hydraulic system having the same
dynamic equations could be represented by the same block diagram.
5. The block diagram representation is not unique. From analysis point of view,
different block diagrams are drawn for the same system.
6. The main source of energy flow in the system is not explicitly shown in block
diagram.

4.6.1 Block diagram representation of armature controlled DC motor:

Consider the Laplace transform of Eqn. (2.60) of armature circuit shown in fig. 2.72.
Va(s) = Ia(s) Ra + LasIa(s) + Eb(s)
1
or Ia(s) = [Va (s) - E b (s)] (4.1)
R a + sLa
The block diagram of Eqn. (4.1) is shown in Fig. 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Block diagram of armature current

On taking Laplace transform of the torque Eqn. (2.64)
T(s) = Kt Ia(s), this is represented in Fig. 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Block diagram of torque equation

Now consider the torque Eqn. (2.63)
d 2θ dθ
J +B=T
2 dt
dt
Js2(s) + Bs(s) = T
T T
(s) = (or)  (s ) = , this is shown in Fig. 4.6.
(Js 2 + Bs) (Js + B)

25
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Figure 4.6 Block diagram of speed equation
d
The back emf eb is given by: eb = K b . Taking L.T of back emf Equation
dt
Eb(s) = s Kb . (s) = ω(s) Kb, this is shown in Fig. 4.7.

Figure 4.7 Block diagram of back emf and displacement

The complete block diagram is shown in Fig. 4.8.

Figure 4.8 Block diagram of armature controlled DC motor

4.6.2 Block diagram representation of field controlled DC motor.

From fig. 2.75, considering the Laplace transform of the field circuit voltage Eqn. (2.66)
Vf(s) = RfIf(s) + LfsIf(s)
1
If(s) = .Vf (s) , this is shown in Fig. 4.9.
R f + sLf

Figure 4.9 Block diagram of field current and voltage

The L.T of torque Eqn. (2.69) is given by:
T(s) = KfIf(s), this is shown in Fig. 4.10.

Figure 4.10 Block diagram of field current and torque

From fig. 2.76, the Laplace transform of the torque equation is given by:
T(s) = Js2(s) + Bs(s)
1
(s) = .T(s) , this is shown in Fig. 4.11.
2
Js + Bs

Figure 4.11 Block diagram of torque and angular displacement

The overall block diagram of the field controlled DC motor shown in fig. 4.12

Figure 4.12 Block diagram of field controlled DC motor

Example 4.1
Construct the block diagram for the electrical circuit shown in Fig. 4.13.
26
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.13 Electrical circuit

Solution
The current equation of the circuit is given by
e -e
i= i o
R
Taking Laplace transform, the equation becomes
E (s) - E o (s)
I(s) = i . This represented as block in Fig. 4.14
R

Figure 4.14 Block diagram representation of current equation

The output voltage is given by
1
eo =  idt
c
Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the above equation
I(s)
Eo(s) = , This is represented by block as shown in Fig. 4.15.
Cs

Figure 4.15 Block diagram representation of current and voltage equation

The completed block diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig. 4.16.

Figure 4.16 Complete block diagram of the circuit

4.7 Block Diagram Reduction
The block diagram can be reduced to find the overall transfer function of the system. The
following rules can be used for block diagram reduction. The rules are framed such that any
modification made on the diagram does not alter the input-out relation.

Rules of block diagram algebra:

1. Combining the blocks in cascade:

27
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

2. Combining Parallel blocks (or combining feed forward paths):

3. Moving the branch point ahead of the block:

4. Moving the branch point before the block:

5. Moving the summing point ahead of the block:

6. Moving the summing point before the block:

7. Interchanging summing point:

8. Splitting summing points:

9. Combining summing points:

28
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
10. Elimination of feedback loop:

Proof:
C = (R – CH)G = RG – CHG
C + CHG = RG
C(1 + HG) = RG
C G
=
R 1+ GH
Also

Example 4.2
Find C(s)/R(s) of the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.17.

Figure 4.17 Block diagram

Solution
Step 1: Figure is redrawn by shifting the summer and is shown in Fig. 4.18.

Figure 4.18
Step 2: The two parallel feed back loops are combined as shown in Fig. 4.19.

Figure 4.19
Step 3: The feedback loop is replaced by its equivalent block as shown in Fig. 4.20.

Figure 4.20
Step 4: The series connected blocks are combined to give the over all transfer function
C(s)/R(s):
29
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
C(s) G1G 2
=
R(s) 1+ G1 (H1 + H 2 )
Example 4.3
Find the single block equivalent of Fig. 4.21.

Figure 4.21
Solution
Step 1: The cascade and parallel blocks of Fig. 4.21 are reduced as shown in Fig. 4.22

Figure 4.22
Step 2: The internal feedback loop of Fig. 4.22 is reduced by its equivalent block as shown in
Fig. 4.23

Figure 4.23
Step 3: The cascade blocks of Fig. 4.23 are replaced by its equivalent block as shown in Fig.
4.24.

Figure 4.24
Step 4: The feedback loop of fig. 4.24 is replaced by its equivalent block as shown in Fig.
4.25.

Figure 4.25
Step 5: The two cascade blocks in fig. 4.25 are replaced by equivalent block as shown in Fig.
4.26.

30
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.26
Example 4.4
Find the output of the system shown in Fig. 4.27

Figure 4.27
Solution
Step 1: Putting x = 0, Fig. 4.27 becomes as shown in Fig. 4.28.

Figure 4.28
Step 2: Removing the cascade blocks and internal feedback loop of Fig. 4.28, we get as
shown in Fig. 4.29.

Figure 4.29
Step 3: Removing the cascade blocks of Fig. 4.29, we get as shown in Fig. 4.30.

Figure 4.30
Step 4: The equivalent of Fig. 4.30 is shown in Fig. 4.31.

31
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.31
Step 5: The transfer function is given by

C G1G 2G 3
=
R 1 + G 3H1 + G1G 2G 3H 2

Example 4.5
Find the closed loop transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.32.

Figure 4.32
Solution
Step 1: Moving the take-off point between G2 and G3 in Fig. 4.32 to before G2 as shown in
Fig. 4.33.

Figure 4.33
Step 2: Combining the blocks in series and parallel, Fig. 4.33 becomes as shown in Fig. 4.34.

Figure 4.34
Step 3: The summer after the block G1 in Fig. 4.34 is shifted before G1 as shown Fig. 4.35.

32
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.35
Step 4: Inter change the summers in Fig. 4.35 as shown in Fig. 4.36.

Figure 4.36
Step 5: Eliminating the feed back path and blocks in series in Fig. 4.36, it becomes as shown
in Fig. 4.37.

Figure 4.37
Step 6: Eliminating the inner loop in Fig. 4.37, We get Fig. 4.38.

Figure 4.38
Step 7: Fig. 4.38 can be redrawn as Fig. 4.39.

33
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.39
Step 7 The transfer function is given by
G1G2G3 + G1G4
C 1 + G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2 + G4 H 2
=
R 1+ G1G2G3 + G1G4
1 + G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2 + G4 H
C G1G2G3 + G1G4
=
R 1 + G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2 + G4 H + G1G2G3 + G1G4
Example 4.6
Obtain the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) of the system shown in Fig. 4.40.

Figure 4.40
Step 1: Splitting the summer and the take-off point in Fig. 4.40, we get Fig. 4.41.

Figure 4.41
Step 2: Eliminating the inner loop of G2 and H1 and shifting the take-off point between G2
and G3 to after the block G3 in Fig. 4.41, we get Fig. 4.42.

34
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.42
Step 3: Combining the blocks and eliminating the feed back loop in Fig. 4.42, we get Fig.
4.43.

Figure 4.43
Step 4: Combining the blocks and eliminating the feed back loop in Fig. 4.43, we get Fig.
4.44

Figure 4.44
Step 5:Combining the forward path he transfer function is given by
C G1G2G3
= + G4 .
R 1 + G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2 − G1G2 H1
Example 4.7
Obtain the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) of the system shown in Fig. 4.45.

35
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.45
Step 1: Rearranging the take-off points in Fig. 4.45, we get Fig. 4.46.

Figure 4.46
Step 2: Combining the blocks in series and eliminating the loop in Fig. 4.46, we get Fig. 4.47.

Figure 4.47
Step 3: Moving the take-off point Between G2 and G3 to after G3 in Fig. 4.47, we get Fig.
4.48.

Figure 4.48
Step 4: Moving the take-off point to output side and combining the blocks in cascade in Fig.
4.48, we get Fig. 4.49.

36
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.49
Step 5: Combining the cascade blocks in Fig. 4.50, we get Fig. 4.51.

Figure 4.51
Step 6: Eliminating the loop and interchanging the summer in Fig. 126, we get Fig. 127.

Figure 4.52
Step 7: Eliminating the inner loop in Fig. 4.52, we get Fig. 4.53

Figure 4.53
Step 8: Eliminating the unity feed back loop, the transfer function is given by
G1G2G3G4
C 1 + G4 H1 H 2 − G2G3G4 H 3 + G1G2 H 4 (1 + G4 H1H 2 )
=
R 1+ G1G2G3G4
1 + G4 H1 H 2 − G2G3G4 H 3 + G1G2 H 4 (1 + G4 H1H 2 )

37
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

C G1G2G3G4
=
R 1 + G4 H1 H 2 − G2G3G4 H 3 + G1G2 H 4 (1 + G4 H1H 2 ) + G1G2G3G4

4.8 Block diagram reduction for multiple input systems

Sometimes the system is given more than one input. The output response is found for each
input separately assuming other inputs are absent. Then the total output response is found by
adding the responses due to individual inputs. This is illustrated by the following examples.
Example 4.8
For the system represented by the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.54, find C(s).

Figure 4.54 Block diagram of multiple input system

Solution
Step 1: If we assume R2 = 0, Fig. 4.54 reduces to Fig. 4.55.

Figure 4.55
Step 2: From fig. 4.55.
G1G 2
C1= R1
1+ HG1G 2
Step 3: If we assume R1 = 0. Fig. 4.54 reduces to fig. 4.56.

Figure 4.56
Step 4: From fig. 4.56,
R 2G 2
C1 =
1+ G1HG 2
Step 5: Hence, the total response when both the input is given

38
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
C = C1 + C2
R1G1G 2 R 2G 2
= +
1+ HG1G 2 1+ HG1G 2
G2
C= [R1G1 + R 2 ]
(1+ G1G 2 H)
Step 6: The above equation is represented in Fig. 4.57.

Figure 4.57

Example 4.9
For the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.58, determine the output due to the input R and
disturbance D.

Figure 4.58
Solution
Step 1: Assuming the disturbance D = 0, the block diagram with input R is represented in
Fig. 4.59.

Figure 4.59
Step 2: Eliminating G3 in Fig. 4.59, results as shown in Fig. 4.60.

39
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.60
Step 3: Reducing the feedback loop in Fig. 4.60, we get as shown in Fig. 4.61.

Figure 4.61
Step 4: The resultant transfer function is given by
C1 (1- G 3H1 )G1G 2
=
R (1+ G1G 2 H1H 2 )
Step 5: Assuming R = 0, the block diagram of Fig. 4.58, represented due to input D is shown
in Fig. 4.62.

Figure 4.62
Step 6: The block diagram of Fig. 4.62, now can be reduced as shown in Fig. 4.63.

Figure 4.63
Step 7: Eliminating the feedback loop in Fig, 4.63, we get as shown in Fig. 4.64.

Figure 4.64
Step 8: The transfer function between C2 and D is given by:
40
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
C2 G2
=
D (1+ G1G 2 H1H 2 )
Step 9: When both R and D are simultaneously applied, using superposition theorem,
combining the results obtained in step 4 and step 8, the following equation for the output C is
obtained.
[R(1- G 3H1 )G1G 2 + DG 2 ]
C = C 1 + C2 =
(1+ G1G 2 H1H 2 )
Example 4.10
For the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.65, find the output C due to R and disturbance D.

Figure 4.65
Solution
Step 1: Assuming D=0, the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.65, becomes as shown in Fig.
4.66.

Figure 4.66
Step 2: The feedback loops in Fig. 4.66 is reduced as shown in Fig. 4.67.

Figure 4.67
Step 3: The three forward path blocks and the feedback block in Fig. 4.67 is combined to give
the transfer function as shown in fig. 4.68.

41
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Figure 4.68
Step 4: Assuming R=0, the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.65, becomes as shown in Fig. 4.69.

Figure 4.69
Step 5: The two feedback loops in Fig. 4.69 are combined as shown in Fig. 4.70.

Figure 4.70
Step 6: The block diagram shown in Fig. 4.70, can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.71.

Figure 4.71
Step 7: The block diagram shown in Fig. 4.71, can be reduced to give the transfer function as
shown in Fig. 4.72.

Figure 4.72
Step 8: When D = 0, the output is C1 and is given by:
RG1G 2G 3
C1 =
[(1+ G1 )(1+ G 3H1) + G1G 2G 3H 2 ]
When R = 0, the output is C2 and is given by:
DG 3 (1+ G1)
C2 =
[(1+ G1 )(1+ G 3H1) + G1G 2G 3H 2 ]
When R and D are simultaneously present, the output is C = C1 + C2.

42
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
G 3[RG1G 2 + D(1+ G1)]
C=
[(1+ G1 )(1+ G 3H1) + G1G 2G 3H 2 ]

Example 4.11
For the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.73, find C.

Figure 4.73
Solution
Step 1: Assuming D=0, the summer in Fig. 4.73, can be splitted as shown in Fig. 4.74.

Figure 4.74
Step 2: The forward path and the feedback path in Fig. 4.74 can be modified as shown in Fig.
4.75.

Figure 4.75
Step 3: The inner feedback loop in Fig. 4.75 is reduced as shown in Fig. 4.76.

Figure 4.76
Step 3: The value of C1 is given as shown in Fig. 4.77.

Figure 4.77

43
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
RG 2 (G1 + G 3 )
C1 =
[1+ G 2 (G1 + H1 )]

Step 4: Now assume R=0. The block diagram shown in Fig. 4.73 is redrawn as shown in Fig.
4.78.

Figure 4.78
Step 5: The block diagram shown in Fig. 4.78 is redrawn as shown in Fig. 4.79.

Figure 4.79
Step 6: The block diagram shown in Fig. 4.79 is now reduced as shown in Fig. 4.80 to give
the value of C2

Figure 4.80
D
C2 =
(1+ G 2 (G1 + H1 )
Step 7: If both R and D are simultaneously present, the superposition theorem is used and the
output C due to R and D is obtained as
RG 2 (G1 + G 3 ) + D
C = C 1 + C2 =
[1+ G 2 (G1 + H1)]
Example 4.12
For the block diagram shown in Fig. 4.81, when there are two inputs R1 and R2, determine the
outputs C1 and C2.

44
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.81
Solution
Step 1: Assuming R2 = 0, and ignoring C2 the input / output relationship C1/R1 is represented
as shown in Fig. 4.82.

Figure 4.82
Step 2: The transfer function C1/R1 is given by:
C1 G4 G 4 R1
= and C1 = (4.2)
R1 (1- G1G 2G 3G 4 ) (1- G1G 2G 3G 4 )

Step 3: Assuming R1 = 0 in the block diagram shown in fig. 4.81, and ignoring C1, the input /
output relationship at C2/R2, is obtained as shown in Fig. 4.83.

Figure 4.83
Step 4: The transfer function C2/R2 is given by:
C2 G1 G1R 2
= and C2 = (4.3)
R 2 (1- G1G 2G 3G 4 ) (1- G1G 2G 3G 4 )
Step 5: Assuming R2=0 and neglecting C1, from Fig. 4.81, the transfer function C2/R1 is given
as shown in fig. 4.84.

Figure 4.84
C2 -G1G 3G 4 -G1G 3G 4 R1
= and C2 = (4.4)
R1 (1- G1G 2G 3G 4 ) (1- G1G 2G 3G 4 )

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Step 6: Assuming R1=0 and neglecting C2, from Fig. 4.81, the transfer function C1/R2 is given
in fig. 4.85.

Figure 4.85
C1 -G1G 2G 4 -G1G 2G 4 R 2
= and C1 = (4.5)
R 2 1- G1G 2G 3G 4 1- G1G 2G 3G 4

Step 7: When R1 and R2 are simultaneously present, the output C1 due to R1 and R2 is given
by combining Eqn. (4.2) and (4.5):
[G 4 (R1 - G1G 2 R 2 )]
Combined response C1 = (4.6)
(1- G1G 2G 3G 4 )
Step 8: When R1 and R2 are simultaneously present the output C2 due to R1 and R2 is given
by combining Eqn. (4.3) and (4.4):
[G (R - G G R )]
Combined response C2 = 1 2 3 4 1 (4.7)
(1- G1G 2G 3G 4 )

Example 4.13
Using block diagram reduction techniques find the T.F. from each input to the output C for
the system shown in Fig. 4.86.

Figure 4.86
Solution
Step 1: Assume X(s) = 0 and R(s) is present. Let C1(s) be the output now. Eliminating the
inner feedback loop of fig. 4.86 block diagram reduced to as shown in Fig. 4.87

Figure 4.87
Step 2: The forward path block of Fig. 4.87 is combined to give the block diagram as shown
in Fig. 4.88.

Figure 4.88
46
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Step 3: The feedback loop of Fig. 4.88 is combined to give the block diagram as shown in
Fig. 4.89

Figure 4.89
Step 4: From fig. 4.89, the output C1, when input R only present is given by fig. 4.90.

Figure 4.90
R(s)G1G 2G 3G 5
C1(s) =
{(1+ G 2 )(1+ G 5H 5 ) + G 2G 3G 5}
Step 5: Assume R(s) = 0 and X(s) is present. Let C2(s) be the output now. Fig. 4.86 block
diagram reduced to as shown in Fig. 4.91.

Figure 4.91
Step 6: The inner loop of Fig. 4.91is reduced to give as shown in Fig. 4.92.

Figure 4.92
Step 7: From Fig. 4.92, the output C2 is given by:
X(s)G 4G 5 (1+ G 2 )
C2 =
{(1+ G 2 )(1+ G 5H 5 ) + G 2G 3G 5}
Step 8: When both R(s) and X(s) are simultaneously present, the output C(s) = C 1(s) + C2(s)
as per superposition theorem. Hence,
G {R(s)G1G 2G 3 + G 4 (1+ G 2 )X(s)}
C= 5
{(1+ G 2 )(1+ G 5H5 ) + G 2G 3G 5}
Note: The denominators of C1 and C2 are the same. This is due to the property that the
characteristic equation is same for a given system irrespective of the input given.

Example 4.14
For the system represented by the block diagram shown in the Fig. 4.93, determine C1/R1and
C2/R1.

47
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.93
Solution
C1
Case (i) To find
R1
Step 1: In this case set R2 = 0 and consider only one output C1. Hence we can remove the
summing point which adds R2 and need not consider G6, since G6 is on the open path. The
resulting block diagram is shown in Fig. 4.94.

Figure 4.94
Step 2: Eliminating the feedback path in Fig. 4.94, it becomes as shown in Fig. 4.95.

Figure 4.95
Step 3: Combining the blocks in cascade and splitting the summing point in Fig. 4.95. We get
Fig. 4.96.

48
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.96
Step 4: Eliminating the loop in Fig. 4.96, we get as shown in fig. 4.97.

Figure 4.97

Step 5: Combining the blocks in cascade of Fig. 4.97, we get Fig. 4.98.

Figure 4.98
Step 6: Eliminating the loop in Fig. 4.98, we get Fig. 4.99.

Figure 4.99

Step 6: Simplifying and combining the blocks shown in Fig. 151, we get:
C1 G1G 2G 3 (1+ G 4 )
=
R1 (1+ G 4 ) + G1G 2 (1+ G 4 ) - G1G 4G 5H1H 2
C
Case (ii): To find 2
R1
Step 7: In fig. 4.93 assume R2 = 0 and consider only one output C2. Hence we can remove
the summing point which adds R2 and need not consider G3, since G3 is on the open path.
The resulting block diagram is shown in fig. 4.100.

49
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.100

Step 2: Eliminating the feedback path of fig. 4.100, we get as shown in fig. 4.101.

Figure 4.101
Step 3: Combining blocks in cascade and splitting the summing point in Fig. 4.101, we get as
shown in Fig. 4.102.

Figure 4.102
Step 4: Eliminating feedback path in Fig. 4.102, we get Fig. 4.103

Figure 4.103

50
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Step 5: Combining the blocks in Fig. 4.103, we get fig. 4.104.

Figure 4.104
Step 6: Eliminating feedback path in Fig. 4.104, we get fig. 4.105

Figure 4.105
Step 6: Simplifying and Combining the blocks in cascade of Fig. 4.105, we get the transfer
function as:
C2 G1G 4G 5G 6 H 2
=
R 1 (1+ G 4 )(1+ G1G 2 ) - G1G 4G 5H1H 2

4.9 Signal Flow Graph

The signal flow graph is used to represent the control system graphically and it was
developed by S.J. Mason.
A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations. By taking Laplace transform, the time domain differential equations governing a
control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic equation in s-domain. The signal flow
graph of the system can be constructed using these equations.
It should be noted that the signal flow graph approach and the block diagram approach
yield the same information. The advantage in signal flow graph method is that, using
Mason’s gain formula the overall gain of the system can be computed easily. This method is
simpler than the tedious block diagram reduction techniques.
The signal flow graph depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another
and gives the relationships among the signals. A signal flow graph consists of a network in
which nodes are connected by directed branches. Each node represents a system variable and
each branch connected between two nodes acts as a signal multiplier. Each branch has a gain
or transmittance. When the signals pass through a branch, it gets multiplied by the gain of
the branch. Note that the signal flows in only one direction. The direction of signal flow is
indicated by an arrow placed on the branch and the multiplication factor is indicated along
the branch.
4.9.1 Terms used in signal flow graph:
1 Node A node is a point representing a variable or signal.

2 Branch A branch is directed line segment joining two nodes.

The arrow on the branch indicates the direction of
signal flow and the gain of a branch is the
transmittance.
3 Transmittance The gain acquired by the signal when it travels from
one node to another is called transmittance. The
transmittance can be real or complex.
4 Input node (or) It is a node that has only outgoing branches.

51
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Source
5 Output node (or) It is a node that has only incoming branches.
Sink
6 Mixed node It is a node that has both incoming and outgoing
branches.
7 Path A path is a traversal of connected branches in the
direction of the branch arrows. The path should not
cross a node more than once.
8 Open path An open path starts at a node and ends at another
node.
9 Closed path Closed path starts and ends at same node.
10 Forward path It is a path from an input node to an output node that
does not cross any node more than once.
11 Forward path It is the product of the branch transmittances (gains)
gain of a forward path.
12 Individual loop It is a closed path starting from a node and after
passing through a certain part of a graph arrives at the
same node without crossing any node more than once.
13 Loop gain It is the product of the branch transmittances (gains)
of a loop
Non-touching If the loops do not have a common node then they are
loops said to be non-touching loops.

4.9.2 Properties of signal flow graph:

i. The algebraic equations which are used to construct signal flow graph must be in
the form of cause and effect relationship.
ii. Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems only.
iii. A node in the signal flow graph represents the variable or signal.
iv. A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits the sum to all
outgoing branches.
v. A mixed node which has both incoming and outgoing signals can be treated as
output node by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance.
vi. A branch indicates functional dependence of one signal on the other.
vii. The signals travel along branches only in the marked direction and when it travels
it gets multiplied by the gain or transmittance of the branch.
viii. The signal flow graph of system is not unique. By rearranging the system
equations different types of signal flow graphs can be drawn for a given system.

4.10 Signal Flow Graph Algebra:

Signal flow graph for a system can be reduced to obtain the transfer function of the system
using the following rules. The guideline in developing the rules for signal flow graph algebra
is that the signal at a node is given by sum of all incoming signals.
Rule 1: Incoming signal to a node through a branch is given by the product of a signal
at previous node and the gain of the branch. This is shown in Fig. 4.116.

52
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Figure 4.116
Rule 2: Cascaded branches can be combined to give a single branch whose
transmittance is equal to the product of individual branch transmittance. This
is shown in Fig. 4.117.

Figure 4.117

Rule 3: Parallel branches may be represented by single branch whose transmittance is

the sum of individual branch transmittances. This is shown in Fig. 4.118.

Figure 4.118

Rule 4: A mixed node can be eliminated by multiplying the transmittance of outgoing

branch (from the mixed node) to the transmittance of all incoming branches to
the mixed node. This is shown in Fig. 4.119.

Figure 4.119

Rule 5: A loop may be eliminated by writing equations at the input and output node
and rearranging the equations to find the ratio of output to input. This ratio
gives the gain of resultant branch. This is shown in Fig. 4.120.

Figure 4.120

Proof:
x2 = ax1 + cx3
x3= bx2
Put x2 = ax1 + cx3 in the equation for x3
x3 = b(ax1 + cx3) = ab x1 + bc x3
(or) x3 – bc x3 = ab x1
x3(1 – bc) = ab x1
x3 ab
=
x1 1- bc

53
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

4.11 Signal Flow Graph Reduction:

The signal flow graph of a system can be reduced either by using the rules of a signal flow
graph algebra (i.e.) by writing equations at every node and then rearranging these equations
to get the ratio of output and input (transfer function).
The signal flow graph reduction by above method will be time consuming and
tedious. S.J. Mason has developed a simple procedure to determine the transfer function of
the system represented by a signal flow graph. He has developed a formula called by his
name Mason’s gain formula which can be directly used to find the transfer function of the
system.
4.12 Mason’s Gain Formula:
The Mason’s gain formula is used to determine the transfer function of the system from the
signal flow graph of the system.
Let R(s) = Input to the system
And C(s) = Output of the system
C(s)
Transfer function of the system, T(s) = (4.8)
R(s)
Mason’s gain formula states that the overall gain of the system [transfer function] as follows:
1
Overall gain, T =  PK Δ K
Δ K=1
(4.9)

Where, T = Transfer function of the system,

PK = Forward path gain of Kth forward path.
=1 – (Sum of individual loop gains)

+ Sum of gain products of all possible

combinations of two non-touching loops

– Sum of gain products of all possible

combinations of three non-touching loops

+ ……………………………………

K =  for that part of the graph which is not touching Kth forward path.

4.13.1 Constructing Signal Flow Graph for Control Systems:

A control system can be represented diagrammatically by signal flow graph. The differential
equations governing the system are used to construct the signal flow graph. By taking
Laplace transform, the differential equations can be converted to algebraic equations. The
constants and variables of the equations are identified. From the working knowledge of the
system, the variables are identified as input, output and intermediate variables. For each
variable a node is assigned in signal flow graph and constants are the gain or transmittance of
the branches connecting the nodes. For each equation a signal flow graph is drawn and then
they are interconnected to give overall flow graph of the system.

4.13.2 Procedure for converting block diagram to signal flow graph:

The signal flow graph and block diagram of a system provides the same information but there
is no standard procedure for reducing the block diagram to find the transfer function of the
system. Also the block diagram reduction technique will be tedious and it is difficult to
54
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
choose the rule to be applied for simplification. Hence, it will be easier if the block diagram
is converted to signal flow graph and Mason’s gain formula is applied to find the transfer
function. The following procedure can be used to convert block diagram to signal flow graph.
1. Assume nodes at input, output, at every summing point, at every branch point and in
between cascaded blocks.
2. Draw the nodes separately as a small circles and number the circles in the order 1, 2,
3, 4, …, etc.
3. From the block diagram find the gain between each node in the main forward path
and connect all the corresponding circles by straight line and mark the gain between
the nodes.
4. Draw the feed forward paths between various nodes and mark the gain of feed
forward path along with sign.
5. Draw the feedback paths between various nodes and mark the gain of feedback paths
along with sign.

Example 4.18
Construct a signal flow graph for armature controlled dc motor.
Solution
The differential equations governing the armature controlled dc motor are (refer section
2.6.7).
di
Va = iaRa + La a + eb
dt
(4.10)
T = Ktia
(4.11)
dω
T= J + Bω
dt
(4.12)
eb = Kb
(4.13)
dθ
=
dt
(4.14)
On taking Laplace transform of Eqns. (4.10) to (4.14) we get,
Va(s) = Ia(s)Ra + Las Ia(s) + Eb(s)
(4.15)
T(s) = KtIa(s)
(4.16)
T(s) = Js(s) + B (s)
(4.17)
Eb(s) = Kb(s)
(4.18)
(s) = s (s)
(4.19)
In armature controlled dc motor armature voltage Va(s) is the input variable and angular
displacement (s) is the output variable. Ia(s), T(s), Eb(s) and (s) are intermediate variables.

From Eqn. (4.15) Va(s) – Eb(s) = Ia(s) [Ra + sLa]

55
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
1
 Ia(s) = [Va (s) - E b (s)] . This is shown in Fig.
R a + sLa
4.121.

Figure 4.121
From Eqn. (4.16), T(s) = KtIa(s). The signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 4.122.

Figure 4.122
From Eqn. (4.17), T(s) = (s) [Js + B]
1
 (s) = T(s) . This is shown in Fig. 4.123.
Js + B

Figure 4.123

From Eqn. (4.18), Eb(s) = Kb (s). This is shown in fig. 4.124.

Figure 4.124
From Eqn. (4.19), (s) = s(s)
1
 (s) = ω(s) , This is shown in Fig. 4.125.
s

Figure 4.125

The complete signal flow graph of armature controlled DC motor is shown in Fig. 4.126.

Figure 4.126 Signal flow graph of armature controlled DC motor

Example 4.19
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.127 using Mason’s gain formula.

56
 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.127
Solution
Step 1: There are two forward paths as shown in Fig. 4.128.

Figure 4.128 Forward paths of fig. 4.127

Gain of first forward path (P1) = G1G2G3G4G5
Gain of second forward path (P2) = G6
Step 2: There are four loops as shown in fig. 4.129.

Figure 4.129
Loop gain (L1) of the loop shown in fig. 171(a) = -G2H1
Loop gain (L2) of the loop shown in fig. 171(b) = -G4H2
Loop gain (L3) of the loop shown in fig. 171(c) = -G1G2G3G4G5H3
Loop gain (L4) of the loop shown in fig. 171(d) = -G6H3
Step 3: The combinations of two non-touching loops are:
(i) Loop 1 and Loop 2 is non-touching: Loop gain L12 = G2G4H1H2
(ii) Loop 1 and Loop 4 is non-touching: Loop gain L22 = G2G6H1H3
(iii) Loop 2 and Loop 4 is non-touching: Loop gain L32 = G4G6H2H3
Step 4: Out of these four loops, Loop 1, Loop 2 and Loop 4 are possible combinations of
three non-touching loops:
 L13 = -G2G4G6H1H2H3
Step 5: There is no higher order non-touching loops.
Step 6:  = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4) + (L12 + L22 + L32) – L13
= 1 + (G2H1 + G4H2 + G1G2G3G4G5H3 + G6H3)
+ (G2G4H1H2 + G2G6H1H3 + G4G6 H2H3) + G2G4G6H1H2H3
Step 7:
(i) Considering the first forward path P1, all Loops 1, 2, 3, 4 touch it.
 1 = 1 – (0) = 1
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
(ii) Considering the second forward path P2, Loops 1, 2 do not touch it.
 2 = 1– (Sum of gain of individual non-touching loops)
+ (Sum of gain product of two non-touching loops)
 2 = 1 – (-G2H1 – G4H2) + G2G4H1H2
= 1 + G2H1 + G4H2 + G2G4H1H2
PΔ +P Δ
Step 8: T= 1 1 2 2
Δ
G1G 2G3G 4G5 + G6 (1+ G 2H1 + G 4H2 + G 2G 4H1H2 )
=
1+ (G 2H1 + G 4H2 + G1G 2G3G 4G5H3 + G6H3 ) + ( G 2G 4H1H2 + G 2G6H1H3 + G 4G 6H2H3 ) + G 2G 4G6H1H2H3
Example 4.20
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.130 using Mason’s gain formula.

Figure 4.130
Solution
Step 1: The two forward paths of the given SFG of Fig. 4.130 are shown in Fig. 4.131

Figure 4.131 Two forward paths of Fig. 4.130

P1 = G1G2G3
and P2 = G4
Step 2: The three individual loops of Fig. 4.130 are shown in Fig. 4.132.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.132
L1 = -G1G2H1; L2 = -G2G3H2 and L3 =G2G4H1H2
Step 3: There are no higher order non-touching loops.
Step 4:  = 1 – (L1 + L2 +L3) = 1 + G1G2H1 + G2G3H2 - G2G4H1H2
Step 5: For P1: Loop 1, Loop 2 and Loop 3 touch the first forward path
 1 = 1
For P2: Loop 1, Loop 2 and Loop 3 touches P2
 2 = 1
PΔ +P Δ G1G 2G 3 + G 4
Step 6: Transfer function = 1 1 2 2 =
Δ 1+ G1G 2 H1 + G 2G 3H 2
Example 4.21
The SFG of a system is shown in Fig. 4.133. Find the transfer function of the system.

Figure 4.133
Solution
Step 1: The two forward paths of the system in Fig. 4.133 are shown in Fig. 4.134.

Figure 4.134 Forward paths of Fig. 4.133

P1 = G1G2G3G4 and P2 = G1G4G5
Step 2: The loops of Fig. 4.133 are shown in Fig. 4.135.
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.135 Individual loops of Fig. 4.133

 L1 = -G1H1, L2 = -G1G2H2, L3 = -G2G3H3, L4 = -G4H4 and L5 = -G5H3
Step 3: Loop 1 and Loop 4, Loop 2 and Loop 4 are non-touching.
 L12 = Loop 1  Loop 4 = G1G4H1H4 and L22 = Loop 2  Loop 4 = G1G2G4H2H4
Step 4: There are no higher order non-touching loops.
Step 5: 1 = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5) + (L12 + L22)
= 1 + (G1H1 + G1G2H2 + G2G3H3 + G4H4 + G5H3)
+ G1G4H1H4 + G1G2G4H2H4
Step 6: For P1, 1 = 1
For P2, 2 = 1
Step 7:
C(s) P1Δ1 + P2Δ 2
Transfer function = =
R(s) Δ
C(s) G1G 2G 3G 4 + G1G 4G 5
=
R(s) 1+ (G1H1 + G1G 2H 2 + G 2G 3H3 + G 4H 4 + G 5H 3 ) + G1G 4H1H 4 + G1G 2G 4H 2H 4
Example 4.22
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.136 using Mason’s gain formula.

Figure 4.136
Solution
Step 1: The SFG of Fig. 4.136 has the following forward paths as shown in fig. 4.137.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.137 Two forward paths of Fig. 4.136

 P1 = G1G2G3G4G5G6G7G8
 P2 = G7G8G9
Step 2: The SFG of fig. 4.136 has six loops as shown in fig. 4.138:

Figure 4.138 Individual loops of Fig. 4.136

 L1 = -G1H1, L2 = -G2G3G4G5G6H4, L3 = -G4H2
 L4 = -G5H3, L5 = -G7H5, and L6 = G9H1H4
Step 3: Gain of two non-touching loops is given below:
L12 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 3 = G1G4H1H2
L22 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 4 = G1G5H1H3
L32 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 5 = G1G7H1H5
L42 = Gain of Loop 3  Gain of Loop 5 = G4G7H2H5
L52 = Gain of Loop 4  Gain of Loop 5 = G5G7H3H5
L62 = Gain of Loop 3  Gain of Loop 6 = -G4G9H1H2H4
L72 = Gain of Loop 4  Gain of Loop 6 = -G5G9H1H3H4
Step 4: Loop 1, Loop 3, Loop 5 and Loop 1, Loop 4, Loop 5 are three non-touching loops.
L13 = -G1G4G7H1H2H5 and L23 = -G1G5G7H1H3H5
Step 5: There are no higher order non-touching loops.
Step 6:  = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6)
+ (L12 + L22 + L32 + L52 + L42 + L62 + L72)
– (L13 + L23)
= 1 + (G1H1 + G2G3G4G5G6H4 + G4H2 + G5H3 + G7H5 – G9H1H4)
+ (G1G4H1H2 + G1G5H1H3 + G1G7H1H5 + G4G7H2H5 + G5G7H3H5
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
– G4G9H1H2H4–G5G9H1H3H4)
– (-G1G4G7H1H2H5 - G1G5G7H1H3H5)

Step 7: For P1, 1 = 1

For P2, 2 = 1 + (G4H2 + G5H3)
Step 8:
PΔ +P Δ
Transfer function = 1 1 2 2
Δ
G1G 2G 3G 4G 5G 6G 7 G8 + G 7G8G 9 (1+ G 4 H 2 + G 5H3 )
=
1+ G1H1 + G 2G 3G 4G 5G 6H 4 + G 4H 2 + G 5H3 + G 7 H5 - G 9H1H 4
+ G1G4H1H2 + G1G5H1H3 + G1G7H1H5 + G4G7H2H5
+ G5G7H3H5 – G4G9H1H2H4 + G1G4G7H1H2H5
+ G1G5G7H1H3
Example 4.23
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.139 using Mason’s gain formula.

Figure 4.139
Solution
Step 1: The two forward path of Fig. 4.139 is shown in Fig. 4.140.

Figure 4.140 Two forward paths of fig. 4.139

 P1 = G1G2G3G4G5
and P2 = G5G6
Step 2: The individual loops of fig. 4.139 are shown in Fig. 4.141.

Figure 4.141 Loops of Fig. 4.139

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
 L1 = -G2H1, L2 = -G4H2, L3 = -G3G4G5H3
Step 3: Loop 1 and Loop 2 are non-touching. Therefore,
 L12 = G2G4H1H2
Step 4: There are no higher order non-touching loops.
Step 5:  = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3) + L12 = 1 + (G2H1 + G4H2 + G3G4G5H3) + G2G4H1H2
Step 6: For P1, 1 = 1
For P2, 2 = 1 – (-G2H1) = 1 + G2H1
Step 7:
G(s) P1Δ1 + P2Δ 2
Transfer function = =
R(s) Δ
G1G 2G 3G 5 + G 5G 6 (1+ G 2 H1)
=
1+ (G 2 H1 + G 4 H 2 + G 3G 4G 5H3 ) + G 2G 4H1H 2
Example 4.24
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.142 using Mason’s gain formula.

Figure 4.142
Solution
Step 1: The three forward paths of Fig. 4.142 are shown in Fig. 4.143.

Figure 4.143 Forward paths of Fig. 4.142

 P1 = G1G2G3G4G5G10
 P2 = G1G6G9G10
 P3 = G1G6G7G8G10
Step 2: The loops of Fig. 4.142 are shown in Fig. 4.144.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.144 Loops of Fig. 4.142

Therefore, L1 = -G3H2
and L2 = -G8H1
Step 3: Loop 1 and Loop 2 are non-touching. Therefore,
L12 = G3G8H1H2
Step 4: There are no higher non-touching loops.
Step 6:  = 1–(-G3H2–G8H1)+G3G8H1H2 = 1 + G3H2 + G8H1 + G3G8H1H2
Step 7: For P1, 1 = 1
For P2, 2 = 1 – (-G3H2) = 1 + G3H2
For P3, 3 = 1 – (-G3H2) = 1 + G3H2
Step 8:
C(s) P1Δ1 + P2Δ 2 + P3Δ3
Transfer function = =
R(s) Δ
G G G G G G + G1G 6G 9G10 (1+ G 3H 2 ) + G1G 6G 7G8G10 (1+ G 2H 2 )
= 1 2 3 4 5 10
1+ G 3H 2 + G8H1 + G 3H8H1H 2
Example 4.25
Find transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.145 using Mason’s gain formula.

Figure 4.145
Solution
Step 1: The forward paths of Fig. 4.145 are as shown in Fig. 4.146.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.146 Forward paths of Fig. 4.145

Therefore,
P1 = G1G2G3G11
P2 = G1G7G10G3G11
P3 = G1G6G7G8G11
P4 = G4G5G6G11
P5 = G4G6G8G9G11
P6 = G3G4G9G10G11
Step 2: The loops of Fig. 4.145 are shown in Fig. 4.147:

Figure 4.147 Loops of fig. 4.145

 L1 = -G2H1, L2 = -G5H2, L3 = -G7G10H1 L4 = -G8G9H2, and L5 = -G11H3
Step 3: Two non-touching loops are given by:
L12 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 2 = G2G5H1H2
L22 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 4 = G2G8G9H1H2
L32 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 5 = G2G11H1H3
L42 = Gain of Loop 2  Gain of Loop 5 = G5G11H2H3
L52 = Gain of Loop 3  Gain of Loop 5 = G7G10G11H1H3

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
L62 = Gain of Loop 4  Gain of Loop 5 = G8G9G11H2H3
L72 = Gain of Loop 2 and Gain of Loop 3 = G5G7G8H1H2
Step 4: Three non-touching loops are given by:
L13 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 2  Gain of Loop 5 = -G2G5G11H1H2H3
L23 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 4  Gain of Loop 5 = -G2G8G9G11H1H2H3
L33 = Gain of Loop 2  Gain of Loop 3  Gain of Loop 5 = -G5G7G10G11H1H2H3
Step 5: There are no higher order non-touching loops
Step 6:
 = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5) + (L12 + L22 + L32 + L42 + L52 + L62+L72) - (L13 + L23 + L33)
= 1 + (G2H1 + G5H2 + G7G10H1 + G8G9H2 + G11H3)
+ (G2G5H1H2 + G2G8G9H1H2 + G2G11H1H3 + G5G11H2H3 + G7G10G11H1H3
+ G8G9G11H2H3 + G5G7G10H1H2)
+ (G2G5G11H1H2H3 + G2G8G9G11H1H2H3 + G5G7G10G11H1H2H3)
Step 7:
For P1, 1 = 1 – (-G5H2 – C8C9H2) = 1 + (G5H2 + G8G9H2)
For P2, 2 = 1 – (-G5H2) = 1 + G5H2
For P3, 3 = 1
For P4, 4 = 1 – (-G2H1 – G7G10H1) = 1 + (G2H1 + G7G10H1)
For P5, 5 = 1 – (-G2H1) = 1 + G2H1
For P6, 6 = 1
Step 8:
PΔ +P Δ +P Δ +P Δ +P Δ +P Δ
Transfer function = 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
Δ

G1G 2 G 3 G11 (1+G 5 H 2 +G 8 G 9 H 2 )+G1G 7 G10 G 3G11 (1+G 5 H 2 )+G1G 6 G 7 G 8G 11

+G 4 G 5 G 6 G11 (1+G 2 H1 +G 7 G10 H1 )+G 4 G 6 G 8 G 9 G11 (1+ G 2 H1 ) + G 3G 4 G 9 G10 G 11
=
1+G 2 H1 +G 5 H 2 +G 7 G10 H1 +G 8 G 9 H 2 +G11H 3 +G 2 G 5 H1H 2 +G 2 G 8 G 9 H1H 2 +G 2 G 11H1H 3 +G 5G 11H 2 H 3 +G 8 G 9 G11 H 2 H 3
+G 5 G 7 G10 H1 H 2 +G 7 G10 G11H1H 3 +G 2 G 5 G11H1H 2 H 3 +G 2 G 8 G 9 G11H1H 2 H 3 +G 5G 7 G 10G 11H1H 2 H 3

Example 4.26
Find transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.148 using Mason’s gain formula.

Figure 4.148
Solution
Step 1: The two forward paths of the given SFG in Fig. 4.148 are shown in Fig. 4.149:

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.149 The two forward paths of Fig. 4.148

Therefore, P1 = G1G2G3G4G5 and P2 = G6G7G8G9G10
Step 2: The four individual loops of Fig. 4.148 are shown in Fig. 4.150

Figure 4.150 The four individual loops of Fig. 4.148

 L1 = -G1H, L2 = -G3H2, L3 = -G4H3 and L4 = -G8H4
Step 3: Two non-touching loops are given by:
L12 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 2 = G1G3H1H2
L22 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 3 = G1G4H1H3
L32 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 4 = G1G8H2H4
L42 = Gain of Loop 2  Gain of Loop 4 = G3G8H2H4
L52 = Gain of Loop 3  Gain of Loop 4 = G4G8H3H4
Step 4: Three non-touching loops are given by:
L13 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 2  Gain of Loop 4 = -G1G3G8H1H2H4
L23 = Gain of Loop 1 Gain of Loop 3  Gain of Loop 4 = -G1G4G8H1H3H4
Step 5: There are no higher order non-touching loops.
Step 6:
 = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4) + (L12 + L22 + L32 + L42 + L52) – (L13 + L23)
= 1 + (G1H1 + G3H2 + G4H3 + G8H4) + (G1G3H1H2 + G1G4H1H3 + G1G8H1H4
+ G3G8H2H4 + G4G8H3H4) + (G1G3G8H1H2H4 + G1G4G8H1H3H4)
Step 8: For P1, 1 = 1 + G8H4
For P2, 2 = 1 + G3H2 + G4H3
Step 9:
C(s) PΔ +P Δ
Transfer function = = 1 1 2 2
R(s) Δ
G1G 2G3G 4G5 (1+ G8H4 ) + G 6G 7G8G9G10 (1+ G3H 2 + G 4H3 )
=
1+G1H1 +G 3 H 2 +G 8 H 4 +G1G 3 H1H 2 +G1G 4 H1H 3 +G1G 8 H1H 4 +G 3G 8 H 2 H 4 +G 4G 8H 3H 4
+G1G 3 G8 H1H 2 H 4 +G1G 4 G 8 H1H3 H 4 +G 3G 8 H 2 H 4 +G 4 G 8 H 3 H 4 +G1G 3G 8 H1H 2 H 4 +G1G 4G 8 H1H 3H 4

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Example 4.27
Find transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.151 using Mason’s gain formula.

Figure 4.151
Solution
Step 1: The two forward paths of Fig. 4.151 are shown in Fig. 4.152:

Figure 4.152 The two forward paths of Fig. 4.151

P1 = G1G2G3G4G5 and P2 = G1G4G5G6
Step 2: The SPG shown in Fig. 4.151 has the following two loops as shown in Fig. 4.153.

Figure 4.153 The two Loops of Fig. 4.151

 L1 = G3G4H1 and L2 = H2
Step 3: Loop 1 and Loop 2 are non-touching.
 L12 = Gain of Loop 1  Gain of Loop 2 = G3G4H1H2
Step 4: There are no higher order non-touching loops.
Step 5:  = 1 – (L1 + L2) + L12 = 1 – (G3G4H1 + H2) + G3G4H1H2
= 1 – G3G4H1 – H2 + G3G4H1H2
Step 4: For P1, 1 = 1
For P2, 2 = 1
Step 7:
C(s) P1Δ1 + P2Δ 2 G G G G G + G1G 4G 5G 6
Transfer function = = = 1 2 3 4 5
R(s) Δ 1- G 3G 4 H1 - H 2 + G 3G 4 H1H 2
Example 4.28
Find transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.154 using Mason’s gain formula.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.154
Solution
Step 1: The SFG shown in Fig. 4.154 has the following three forward paths as shown in Fig.
4.155.

Figure 4.155 The three forward paths of Fig. 4.154

P1 = G1G2G3 P2 = G3G4 and P3 = G5
Step 2: The SPG shown in fig. 4.154 has the following loops as shown in fig. 4.156.

Figure 4.156 Individual loops of fig. 4.154

L1 = G1H1 and L2 = H2
Step 3: Loop 1 and loop 2 are non-touching loops. Therefore,
L12 = G1H1H2
Step 4: There are no three or more non-touching loops.
Step 5:  = 1 – (L1 + L2) + L12 = 1 – G1H1 – H2 + G1H1H2
Step 7: For P1, 1 = 1, For P2, 2 = 1 and For P3, 3 = 1
Step 8:
C(s) P1Δ1 + P2Δ 2 + P3Δ3 G1G 2G 3 + G 3G 4 + G 5
Transfer function = = =
R(s) Δ 1- G1H1 - H 2 + G1H1H 2
Example 4.29
Find transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.157 using Mason’s gain formula.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.157
Solution
Step 1: The two forward paths of Fig. 4.157 are shown in Fig. 4.158.

Figure 4.158 The two forward paths of Fig. 4.157

 P1 = G1G2G3 and P2 = G4G6
Step 2: The four loops of fig. 4.157 are shown in fig. 4.159.

Figure 4.159 Loops of Fig. 4.157

 L1 = -G1H1, L2 = -G2H2, L3 = -G3H3 and L4 = G5
Step 3: There are four non-touching loops
Loop 1 and loop 3 are not touching L12 = L1L3 = G1G3H1H3,
Loop 1 and loop 4 are not touching L22 = L1L4 = -G1G5H1,
Loop 2 and loop 4 are not touching L32 = -G2G5H2,
Loop 3 and loop 4 are not touching L42 = -G3G5H3
Step 4: Three non-touching loops are
L13 = L1  L3  L4 = G1G3G5H1H3
Step 5: There are no higher order non-touching loops.
Step 6:
 = 1 – (L + L2 + L3 + L4) + (L21 + L22 + L32 + L42) – L13
= 1 – (-G1H1 – G2H2 – G3H3 + G5)
+ (G1G3H1H3 – G1G5H1 – G2G5H2 – G3G5H3) – G1G3G5H1H3
Step 7: For P1, 1 = 1 – G5
For P2, 2 = 1 – (– G2H2) = 1 + G2H2
Step 8:
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
C(s) P1Δ1 + P2Δ 2
Transfer function = =
R(s) Δ
G1G 2G 3 (1- G 5 ) + G 4G 6 (1+ G 2H 2 )
=
1+ G1H1 + G 2H 2 + G 3H3 - G 5 + G1G 3H1H 3 - G1G 5H1 - G 2G 5H 2 - G 3G 5H 3 - G1G 3G 5H1H 3

Example 4.30
Construct the signal-flow graphs for the following set of equations:
Y2 = G1Y1 – G2Y4
Y3 = G3Y2 + G4Y3
Y4 = G5Y1 + G6Y3
Where Y4 is the output. Using Mason’s gain formula, find the transfer function of the system.
Solution
From equation Y2 = G1Y1 – G2Y3, Fig. 4.160 is drawn.

Figure 4.160
Using equation Y3 = G3Y2 + G4Y3, fig. 4.160 is modified as shown in Fig. 4.161:

Figure 4.161
Using equation Y4 = G5Y1G6Y3, fig. 4.161 is modified as shown in Fig. 4.162:

Figure 4.162
Using dummy nodes for input and output, Fig. 4.162 becomes as shown in fig. 4.163

Figure 4.163
Fig. 4.164 shows the signal–flow graph of the given equation of the system. To get the
transfer function of the system, the following steps are followed.
Step 1: The forward paths of the system shown in Fig. 4.163 are shown in Fig. 4.164.
 P1 = G1G3G6
and P2 = G5

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.164 Forward paths of Fig. 4.163

Step 2: Loops of Fig. 4.163 are shown in Fig. 4.165

Figure 4.165 Loops of Fig. 4.163

 L1 = -G2G3G6 and L2 = G4
Step 3: There are no non-touching loops.
Step 4:  = 1 – (L1 + L2) = 1 – (-G2G3G6 + G4) = 1 + G2G3G6 – G4
Step 5: For P1, 1 = 1 and For P2, 2 = 1 – G4
Step 6:
Y PΔ +P Δ G G G + G 5 (1- G 4 )
Transfer function = 1 = 1 1 2 2 = 1 3 6
Y4 Δ 1+ G 2G 3G 6 - G 4
Example 4.31
Draw the SFG and find out the transfer function of the electric network shown in Fig. 4.166,
using Mason’s gain formula.

Figure 4.166 An electrical network

Solution
The circuit shown in Fig. 4.166 is drawn in s-domain as shown in Fig. 4.167:

Figure 4.167 S-domain values of Fig. 4.166

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
 Vi(s) = Vo(s) + (R1 + sL) I(s)
V (s)-Vo (s)
I(s) = i (4.20)
R1 +sL
Using Eqn. (4.20), the SFG as shown in Fig. 4.168 can be drawn:

Figure 4.168 SFG of equation (4.20)

 1 
Again, Vo(s) =  R 2 +  I(s) (4.21)
 sC 
Using Eqn. (4.21), Fig. 4.168 is modified as shown in Fig. 4.169

Figure 4.169
The SFG of figure has only one forward path.
 1  1 1+ sR 2C
 Path gain (P1) =  R 2 +  =
 sC  (R1 + sL) sC(R1 + sL)
The SFG has only one loop.
1+ sR 2C
 Loop gain (L) = -
sC(R1 + sL)
1+ sR 2C
 =1–L=1+
sC(R1 + sL)
 1 = 1 (Since loop is touching the only forward path).
1+ sR 2C
×1
P1Δ1 sC(R1 + sL) 1+ sR 2C
 Transfer function = = =
Δ 1+ sR 2C s 2 LC + sC(R1 + R 2 ) +1
1+
sC(R1 + sL)
Example 4.32
Find the transfer function of an electrical network shown in Fig. 4.170 using Mason’s gain
formula.

Figure 4.170 an electrical network

Solution
Fig. 4.171 shows Laplace transform of the network shown in Fig. 4.170.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.171 Laplace transform of the network shown in Fig. 4.170.

From Fig. 4.171, we can write
Vi (s) - Vo (s) Vi (s) Vo (s)
I(s) = = −
R R R
(4.22)
 1  s 2 LC +1 
Also Vo(s) = I(s) sL +  = I(s)  
 sC   sC 
(4.23)
From Eqns. (4.22) and (4.23), we can draw the signal-flow graph as shown in Fig. 4.172:

Figure 4.172 SFG of Eqn. 4.22 and Eqn. 4.23

Step 1: One forward path of Fig. 4.172 is shown in Fig. 4.173:

Figure 4.173 Forward path of Fig. 4.172

s2LC +1
Forward path gain (P1) =
sRC
Step 2: One individual loop of Fig. 4.172 is shown in Fig. 4.174:

Figure 4.174 Loop of fig. 4.172

2
s LC +1
Loop gain (L1) = −
sRC
Step 3: No non-touching loop exists.
Step 4:
s2 LC +1
 = 1 – L1 = 1+
sRC
Step 5: This loop touches the forward path, hence 1 = 1.
Step 6:

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
2
PΔ s LC +1
Transfer function = 1 1 =
Δ s 2 LC + sRC +1

Example 4.33
Determine the transfer function of an electrical network shown in Fig. 4.175

Figure 4.175 An electrical network

Solution
Fig. 4.176 shows the Laplace transform of Fig. 4.175

Figure 4.176 Laplace transform of Fig. 4.175

From Fig. 4.176, we can write
V (s) - V1 (s)
I1(s) = i (4.24)
R1
I1 (s) - I 2 (s)
V1(s) =
sC
(4.25)
V1 (s) - Vo (s)
I2(s) = (4.26)
R2
Vo(s) = I2(s)sL (4.27)
From Eqns. (4.24) to (4.27), we get the signal-flow graph as shown in Fig. 4.177:

Figure 4.177 SFG of Eqn. 4.24 to Eqn. 4.27

Step 1:
In Fig. 4.177, there is only one forward path as shown in Fig. 4.178.

Figure 4.178 Forward path of Fig. 4.177

The gain of the forward path is given by:

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
L
P1 =
R1R 2 C
Step 2:
Individual feedback loops are shown in Fig. 4.179.

Figure 4.179
1 1 sL
L1 = - , L2 = - and L3 = -
sR1C sR 2 C R2
Step 3:
L
The loops L1 and L3 are non-touching. Therefore, L12 = L1L3 =
R1R 2 C
Step 4: There are no higher–order non-touching loops.
Step 5: Since all the loops touch the forward path, 1 = 1.
Step 6:
 1 1 sL  L
 = 1-  - - - +
 sR1C sR 2C R 2  R1R 2C
1 1 sL L
= 1+ + + +
sR1C sR 2C R 2 R1R 2C
Step 7:
L
P1Δ1 R1R 2C sL
T.F. = = =
Δ 1 1 sL L 2
s R1LC + s(L + R1R 2C) + (R1 + R 2 )
1+ + + +
sR1C sR 2C R 2 R1R 2C
Example 4.34
Obtain the block diagram for the signal-flow graph shown in Fig. 4.180

Figure 4.180
Solution
Y1 = G1X – H1Y2 (4.28)
Y2 = G2Y1 – H2Y4 (4.29)
Y3 = G3Y2 – H3Y4 (4.30)
Y4 = G4Y3 + G5Y2 (4.31)
Y = G6Y4 (4.32)
From Eqn. (4.28), Fig. 4.181 can be obtained.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4.181
Using Eqn. (4.29), Fig. 4.181 is modified as shown in Fig. 4.182:

Figure 4.182
Using equation (4.30), Fig. 4.182 is modified as shown in Fig. 4.183:

Figure 4.183
Using equations (4.31) and (4.32), Fig. 4.183 is modified as shown in Fig. 4.184:

Figure 4.184 Shows the block diagram of the SFG referred in Fig. 4.180

Short Questions

4.1 What is block diagram? What are the basic components of block diagram?
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed
by each component of the system and shows the flow of signals. The basic elements
of block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.
4.2 What is the basis for framing the rules of block diagram reduction technique?
The rules for block diagram reduction technique are framed such that any
modification made on the diagram does not alter the input output relation.
4.3 Write the rule for moving the summing point ahead of a block.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

4.4 Write the rule for eliminating negative feedback loop.

Proof C = (R – CH) G
C = RG – CHG
C + CHG = RG
C(1 + HG) = RG
C G
=
R 1+ GH
4.5 What is a signal flow graph?
A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations. By taking Laplace transform, the time domain differential equations
governing a control system can be transferred to a set of algebraic equations in s-
domain. The signal flow graph of the system can be constructed using these
equations.
4.6 What is transmittance?
The transmittance is the gain acquired by the signal when it travels from one node to
another node in signal flow graph.
4.7 What is sink and source?
Source is the input node in the signal flow graph and it has only outgoing branches.
Sink is an output node in the signal flow graph and it has only incoming branches.
4.8 Define non-touching loop.
The loops are said to be non-touching if they do not have common nodes.
4.9 What are the basic properties of signal flow graph?
The basic properties of signal flow graph are
a. Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems.
b.It consists of nodes and branches. A node is a point representing a variable or
signal. A branch indicates functional dependence of one signal on the other.
c. A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all
outgoing branches.
d.Signals travel along branches only in the marked direction and is multiplied by
the gain of the branch.
e. The algebraic equations must be in the form of cause and effect relationship.
4.10 Write the Mason’s gain formula.
Mason’s gain formula states that the overall gain of the system [transfer function] as
follows,
1
Overall gain, T = Σ k Pk Δ k
Δ
T = T(s) = Transfer function of the system
K = Number of forward paths in the signal flow graph
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Pk = Forward path gain of Kth forward path.
 = 1 – (Sum of individual loop gains)

+ Sum of gain products of all possible

combinations of two non-touching loops

– Sum of gain products of all possible

combinations of three non-touching loops

+ ……………………………………

K =  for that part of the graph which is not touching Kth forward
path.

STATE SPACE ANALYSIS

1. Introduction
Analysis of systems in the differential equation model and in the transfer function model will
not give any information about the behavior of the internal variables for different operating
conditions. For a better understanding of the system behavior, its mathematical model should
include the internal variables also. The state variable techniques of system representation and
analysis make the internal variables an integral part of the system model, and thus provide
more complete information about the system behavior.
State space techniques can be applied to linear, non-linear, time-variant, time-
invariant, multiple input and multiple output systems.

2. Concept of state, state vector, state space, state trajectory and state space structure
The definitions of some common terms used in state space modeling are:
State: The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables (called state variables)
such that the knowledge of these variable at t=t0, together with the knowledge of the input for
t  t0 completely, determines the behavior of the system for any time t  t0.
State Vector: If n state variable x1, x2, x3, ..., xn are needed to completely describe the
behavior of a given system, then these n state variable can be considered as the n-components
of a vector X. Such a vector is called a state vector.
State space: The n-dimensional space whose co-ordinate axes consist of the x1-axis, x2-axis
... xn-axis is called a state space.
State trajectory: At any time t, the state of the system defines a point in state space. As time
progresses and the system state changes, a set of points will be defined. This set of points,
the locus of the tip of the state vector as time progresses, is called the state trajectory of the
system.
State Space Structure: In state variable formulation of a system, the state variables are
usually represented by x1(t), x2(t), ..., xn(t), the inputs by u1(t), u2(t), u3(t), ..., um(t) and the
outputs by y1(t), y2(t), ..., yp(t). The state space structure may be visualized in block diagram
form as shown in Fig. 1. The different variables may be represented as the input vector u(t),
output vector y9t) and state vector x(t).

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 1 State Space Structure

where
 u1 (t)   y1 (t)   x1 (t) 
     
     
     
U(t) =  u 2 (t)  , Y(t) =  y 2 (t)  , X(t) =  x 2 (t) 
     
     
     
     
     
     
     

 u m (t) 
 
 y p (t) 
 
 x n (t) 


3. State Space model of a Linear System

3.1. State Equation
The state space model of a system consists of the state equation and output equation. For
linear time-invariant systems the first derivative of state variables can be expressed a a linear
cmbination of state variables and input variable, which is called as state equation as shown
below:

x1 = a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn + b11u1 + b12u2 + ... + b1mum

x 2 = a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn + b21u1 + b22u2 + ... + b2mum

x n = an1x1 + an2x2 + ... + annxn + bn1u1 + bn2u2 + ... + bnmum (1)

The equation (1) can be expressed in matrix form as:

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
   a11 a12 a1n   x1   b11 b12 b1m   u1 
 x1         
         
         
   a 21 a 22 a 2n  x2   b 21 b 22 b 2m   u2 
x2         
  =     +     (2)
         
   a 31 a 32 a 3n   x3   b31 b32 b3m   u3 
 3
x
       
         
         
         
         
         
         
   a n1 an2 a nn   x n   b n1 bn 2 b nm   u m 
 n 
x

Equation (2) can also be written as:

X(t) = AX(t) + BU(t) (3)

where X(t) = state vector (n  1)
U(t) = input vector (m  1)
A= system matrix (n  n)
B= input matrix (n  m)

3.2. Output Equation

The output equation can be expressed as a linear combination of state variables and input
variable as:

y1 = c11x1 + c12x2 + ... + c1nxn + d11u1 + d12u2 + ... + d1mum

y2 = c21x1 + c22x2 + ... + c2nxn + d21u1 + d22u2 + ... + d2mum

yp = cp1x1 + cp2x2 + ... + cpnxn + dp1u1 + dp2u2 + ... + dpmum (4)

The equation (4) can be expressed in matrix form as:

 y1   c11 c12 c1n   x1   d11 d12 d1m   u1 
         
         
         
 y2   c 21 c 22 c 2n  x2   d 21 d 22 d 2m   u2 
  =     +     (5)
         
         
 y3   c31 c32 c3n   x3   d 31 d 32 d 3m   u3 
         
         
         
         
         
         
         
 y p  
 c p1 c p2 c pn 
  x n  
 d p1 d p2 d pm 
  u m 

Equation (5) can be expressed as:

Y(t) = CX(t) + DU(t) (6)
where Y(t) = output vector (p  1)
C = output matrix (p  n)
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
D = transmission matrix (p  m)
Equation (3) is called as state equation and equation (6) is called as output equation.
Equation (3) and equation (6) together is called as state space model of the system.

3.3. State diagram of state model

The state model of linear time invariant system is given by

X(t) = AX(t) + BU(t) ... state equation

Y(t) = CX(t) + DU(t) ... output equation
The block diagram representation of the state model is shown in fig. 2 and the signal flow
graph representation is shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 2 Block diagram of state model

Figure 3 Signal flow graph of state model

4. State-space model using physical variables
The choice of state variables is arbitrary in state-space modeling of a system. One of the
choices of state variables is the physical variables. Voltage or current are physical variable in
electrical system and displacement or velocity or acceleration are the physical variable in
mechanical system. Similarly temperature is a variable in thermal system and flow is a
variable in fluid system. Modeling a system using physical variables has the following
advantage.
1. The physical state variables are much useful for feedback purpose.
2. It gives a direct control over the system.
3. The solution gives actual movement of the physical system variables, which is useful
for studying the performance of the system.
Using the fundamental principle of the system, differential equation of the system were
developed and from the differential equation state-space models were formulated.
Example 1
Derive the state model of a RLC network shown in fig. 4.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 4 RLC Network

Solution
Let the state variables are
x1 = i1-current through L1
x2 = i2-Current through L2
x3 = V-Voltage across Capacitor C
and u = e-input voltage
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at note 2
dv
i1 + i2 + C =0
dt
Substituting the variables in the above equation

x1 + x2 + C x 3 = 0
1 1
or x3 = - x1 - x 2 (7)
C C
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in R1-side loop
di1
e + i1R1 + L1 =V
dt
Substituting the variables in the above equation

u + x1R1 + L1 x1 = x3
R1 1 1
x1 = - x1 + x 3 - u (8)
L1 L1 L1
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in R2-side loop
di 2
L2 + i2 R 2 = V
dt
Substituting the variables in the above equation

L2 x 2 + x2R2 = x3
R2 1
x2 = - x2 + x3 (9)
L2 L2
Equations (7), (8) and (9) are the state equations of the RLC network. Combining the
equation in the matrix form we get,

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
 
 x1   - R 1 1   x1   1 
0   - L 
   L1 L1 
       1
  =  1 
   + 

 [u]

(10)
x2   0 -
R2 x2 
L2     0 
   L2
  
    
    
   1 1   
 x3   - - 0   x 3   0 
   C C   
If the voltage across the resistance R1 and R2 and the voltage across the capacitor C are the
outputs, then;
y1 = i1R1; y2 = i2R2; y3 = V
Substituting the variables
y1 = x1R1; y2 = x2R2 and y3 = x3
In the matrix form,

 y1   R1 0 0  x1 
     
     
  =     (11)
 y2   0 R2 0 x2 
     
     
     
 y 3   0 0 1   x 3 

Example 2
Obtain the state model of the parallel RLC network shown in fig. 5.

Figure 5 Parallel RLC network

Solution
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at note x, we get
Imsinωt = iR + iL + iC
V 1 dV
Imsinωt = +  v.dt + C
R L dt
On differentiating both sides with respect to ‘t’
1 dV 1 d 2V
ωImcosωt = . + .V + C
R dt L dt 2
Let
x1 = V

x1 = V = x2
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

x2 = V
and u = cos ωt
Substituting the variables in the above equation
1 1
ωImu = x 2 + x1 + C x 2
R L
1 1 I
or x2 = - x1 - x2 + m u
LC RC C
In matrix form, the state equation is
   0 1  x1   0 
 x1  =     +   [u] (12)
       
   1 1     I 
  - -   x 2   m

x2   LC RC   C 
The output equation is
 x1 
 
Y = 1 0   (13)
 
 x 2 
Example 3
Obtain the state model of the electrical network shown in fig. 6, by choosing v1(t) and v2(t) as
state variables. Assume R = 1 K  and C = 0.5 mF.

Figure 6 Electrical Network

Figure 6a Voltage source converted into current source

Solution
The voltage source is converted into current source as shown in fig. 6a.
At note 1, applying Kirchhoff’s current law
V1 - V2 dV
+C 1 = 0 (14)
R dt
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at note 2,
V2 - V1 V2 dV V
+ +C 2 = (15)
R R dt R
Let the state variables are
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
x1 = V1
x2 = V2
and Input V = u
Substituting the state variable, equation (14) becomes
x1 - x 2
+ C x1 = 0
R
1 1
C x1 = - x1 + x 2
R R
1 1
x1 = - x1 + x2 (16)
RC RC
Substituting in equation (15)
x 2 - x1 x 2 u
+ + C x2 =
R R R
1 2 1
or x2 = x1 - x2 + u (17)
RC RC RC
The state equation (16) and (17) in matrix form is given by
   1 1   0 
 
x 1  RC RC   x1  
-

  =     u
    + (18)
   
   1 2    1 
x2   RC - RC   x 2   RC 

The Output Y = V1 = x1
In matrix form
 x1 
 
y = 1 0   (19)
 
 x 2 
Subsuming the value R = 1 K  and C = 0.5 mF in equation (18)

  -2 2   x1   0 
 x1      
  =     +   u (20)
      
  
 2 -4   x 2   2 
x2 
 x1 
 
y = 1 0   (21)
 
 x 2 
Example 4
For the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 7, obtain the state-space model.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 7 RLC Network

Solution
Applying Kirchhoff’s law
di
L + Ri + Vc = Vi (22)
dt
dV
C C =i (23)
dt
Let the physical state variables are
x1 = i and x2 = VC

x1 = di/dt x 2 = dvc/dt Input u = Vi

Substituting in equation (22) and (23), the equation becomes

L x1 + Rx1 + x2 = u
R 1 1
x1 = - x1 - x 2 + u
L L L
dV
C C =i
dt

C x 2 = x1 output y = VC = x2
x
x2 = 1
C
In matrix form
   R 1
- L -  x1   1 
 x1  L   L
 =  
   +   u
  (24)
  
   1  
 C 0   x 2   0 
x2    
 x1 
 
y =  0 1   (25)
 
 x 2 

Example 5
Find the state space model of the electrical network shown in Fig. 8.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Figure 8 Electrical network

Solution
Kirchhoff’s current law at note 1,
iC + iR = iL
dVC VC
C + = iL (26)
dt R
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
VL + VC = V
di L
L + VC = V (27)
dt
Let the physical state variables are
VC = x1 and iL = x2

V C = x1 and diL/dt = x 2
and input V = u
Substituting the state variables in equation (26) and (27)
x1
C x1 + = x2
R
1 1
(or) x1 = - x1 + x 2 (25)
RC C
Similarly

L x 2 + x1 = u
1 1
x 2 = - x1 + u (26)
L L
The output is given by the voltage across the capacitor
Y = VC = x1 (27)
In matrix form, the state equation and output equation are
 1 1 x 0
 
 x1  - RC C   1   
  +  u
     
 = (28)
  
   1   1
x2 
-
 L 0   x 2   L 

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
 x1 
 
Y = 1 0   (29)
 
 x 2 

Example 11
Derive the state model for the circuit shown in fig. 14.

Figure 14 An electrical network

Solution
di
In loop 1 Li- VC1 + VC2 – V1 = 0
dt
di
In loop 2 Ri2 + L 2 2 + V2 – VC2 = 0
dt
dV
current through C1 i1 = C1 C1
dt
dV
current through C2 i1 – i2 = C2 C2
dt
Define the state variables as
i1 = x1 inputs V1 = u1
i2 = x2 V2 = u2
VC1 = x3
VC2 = x4
Substituting the variables in the differential equations

L1 x1 - x3 + x4 – u1 = 0
1 1 1
(or) x1 = x 3 - x 4 + u1
L1 L1 L1

Rx2 + L2 x 2 + u2 – x4 = 0
R 1 1
(or) x2 = - x2 + x4 - u2
L2 L2 L2
1
C1 x 3 = x 1 (or) x3 = x1
C1
1 1
C2 x 4 = x 1 – x2 (or) x4 = x1 - x2
C2 C2

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
In matrix form

   1 1 
 x1   0 0 - x 
  L1 L1   1 
 
    
   R 1    1 
x2  =  0 - 0 x  0   u1 
L2 L 2   2   L1 (61)
      
    +  
   1    1  
0 0 0   x3   0 - u 
 x3  C L 2   2 
   1   
    
   1 1  
C - 0 0   x 4 
x4   1 C2 

If the voltage across the capacitor is the output, then

y = VC2 = x4
 x1 
 
 
 
x2 
 
or y =  0 0 0 1   (62)
 
 x3 
 
 
 
 x 4 
Example 12
Obtain the state space model for the circuit shown in fig. 15.

Figure 15 An electrical circuit

Solution
di 2
At Loop 1 Vi = Ri1 + L + Ri 2 (63)
dt
At Loop 2 Vi = Ri1 + VC (64)
dVC
C = i3 (65)
dt
Current i1 – i2 = i3 (66)
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Let the state variable are
x1 = i2 and x2 = VC and u = Vi
Substituting the variables in the equation (63), (64), (65) and (66)
Vi = Ri1 + L x1 + Rx1 (67)
Vi = Ri1 + x2 (68)
C x 2 = i3 = i1 – x1 (69)
i1 – x1 = i3 (70)
Combining equations (67) and (68)

Ri1 + x2 = Ri1 + L x1 + Rx1

R 1
or x1 = - x1 + x 2 (71)
L L
From equation (68)
1 1
i1 = Vi - x 2 (72)
R R
Substituting equation (72) in equation (69)
1 1
C x2 = Vi - x 2 - x1
R R
1 1 1
or x 2 = - x1 - x2 + u (73)
C RC RC
In matrix form
 R 1 
 
 -   x1   0 
 
x1 L L    
  =   u
    + 
(74)
   1 1    1 
x2   - C - R   x 2   R C 
 C
If VC is the output y = VC = x2
 x1 
 
y =  0 1   (75)
 
 x 2 
Example 13
Obtain the state space model for the electrical circuit shown in fig.15. Define the voltage
across the capacitor, the current through the inductor as state variables and the current
through the capacitor as output variables.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Figure 15 An electrical circuit
Solution
The circuit is redrawn by converting the current source into a voltage source.

The differential equations are

At Loop 1 R1i1 + VC – V1 = 0
1 1
i=- VC + V1 (76)
R1 R1
di 2
At Loop 2 L + R2i2 + V2 – VC = 0 (77)
dt
dV
Capacitor Voltage C C = i1 – i2 (78)
dt
Substituting the current i, from equation (76) in equation (78), the equation becomes
dVC 1 1
C = - VC + V1 - i 2
dt R1 R1
dVC 1 1 1
=- VC + V1 - i 2 (79)
dt R1C R1C C
Define the state variables as
x1 = i2
x2 = VC and input variable V1 = u1
and output y = i1-i2 V2 = u2
Substituting the state variables in equations (77) and (79)

L1 x1 + R2x1 + u2 – x2 = 0
R2 1 u
x1 = - x1 + x 2 - 2 (80)
L L L
1 1 1
x 2 = - x1 - x2 + u1 (81)
C R1C R1C
In matrix form
   R2 1   1
 x1  - L   0 -   u1 
L L  
 =    
 
(82)
   +
   1 1   1  
x2   -C -
R1C   R1C
0   u 2 
 

The output is given by

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
1 1
y = i1-i2 = - x1 + u1 -X2
R1 R1
1 1
=- x1 - X 2 + u1
R1 R1
 x1   u1 
 1    1  
y = − -X 2    +  0   (83)
 R1     R1   
 x 2   u 2 
Example 14
Obtain the state model for the circuit shown in Fig. 16.

Figure 16 An electrical circuit

Solution
1 1
From Loop 1 R1i1 + VC1 – V1 = 0 or i1 = - VC1 + V1
R1 R1
1 1
From Loop 2 R2i2 + VC2 – VC1 = 0 or i2 = VC1 - VC2
R2 R2
1 1
From Loop 3 R3i3 + V2 – VC2 = 0 or i3 = VC2 - V2
R3 R3
dVC1
Current through the capacitor C1 C1 = i 1 – i2
dt
Substituting for i1 and i2
dVC1 1 1 1 1
=- VC1 - VC1 + VC2 + V1 (84)
dt R1C1 R 2C1 R 2C1 R1C1
dVC2
Current through the capacitor C2 C 2 = i 2 – i3
dt
Substituting for i2 and i3
dVC2 1 1 1 1
= VC1 - VC2 - VC2 + V2 (85)
dt R 2C 2 R 2C 2 R 3C 2 R 3C 2
Define the state variables and input variable
x1 = VC1 input V1 = u1
x2 = VC2 V2 = u2
Substituting the variables in equations (84) and (85)
 1 1  1 1
x1 = -  +  x1 + x2 + u1
 1 1
R C R 2 1
C R C
2 1 R C
1 1

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
1  1 1  1
x2 = x1 -  +  x2 + u2
R 2C2  R 2C2 R 3C2  R 3C2
In matrix form
    1 1  1   1 
 x1  -  +    x1   0   u1 
 =   R1C1 R 2C1  R 2C1     R1C1  
    +   (86)
   1  1 1     1  
x2   -  +    x 2   0 u 
R 3C2   2 
 R 2 C 2  R 2 C 2 R 3C 2  

If the voltage across the capacitor VC1 and VC2 are output

y1 = VC1 = x1 and y2 = VC2 = x2

 y1  1 0   x1 
    
  =   (87)
    
 y 2  0 1   x 2 

Example 15
Determine the state model of an armature controlled d.c. motor and draw the bock diagram of
the model
Solution

Armature equivalent circuit

Figure 18 Armature controlled d.c motor

From the equivalent circuit of armature shown in fig. 18.
di a
iaRa + La + E b = Va (88)
dt
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Since the back emf is proportional to speed.
dθ dθ
Eb  or Eb = K b (89)
dt dt
Substituting equation (89) in equation (88), the equation becomes
dia dθ
iaRa + La + Kb = Va (90)
dt dt

Figure 19 Mechanical system of armature controlled d.c motor

The differential equation governing the mechanical systems of the motor shown in Fig. 19, is
d 2θ dθ
J 2
+B =T (91)
dt dt
Also Torque is proportional to armature current, i.e.,
T  ia or T = Ktia (92)
Substituting equation (91) in equation (89), the equation becomes
d 2θ dθ
J +B = Ktia (93)
dt 2 dt
Define the state variables as
dθ
x1 = ia; x2 = and x3 =  and input Va = u
dt
Substituting the variable in equation (90)
dx1
x1Ra + La + Kbx2 = u
dt
or x1Ra + La x1 + Kbx2 = u
Ra K 1
or x1 = - x1 - b x 2 + u
La La La
Substituting the variables in equation (91)

J x 2 + Bx2 = Ktx1
K B
or x 2 = t x1 - x 2
J J

and x 3 = x2

In matrix form

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
 
 x1   Ra Kb   1 
- L - 0   x1   
   a La
   a
L

      
  =  K B    
(93)
x2  0  x 2  +  0  u 
t -
 J
  
J
   
      
      
 x3   0 1 0   x 3   0 
    
If the armature circuit, speed and displacement are the output variables, then
dθ
y1 = ia = x1 ; y2 = = x2 and y3 =  = x3
dt
In matrix form
 y1  1 0 0   x1 
    
    
  =    (94)
 y2  0 1 0   x 2 
    
    
    
 y 3   0 0 1   x 3 

Fig. 20 represents the block diagram of d.c motor state model

Figure 20 Block diagram of armature controlled d.c motor state model

Example 16
Derive the state model of a Field controlled dc motor.
Solution

Figure 21 Field controlled d.c motor

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
Equivalent circuit

Figure 22 Equivalent circuit of field

From the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 22.

dif
Rfif + Lf = Vf (95)
dt

Figure 23 The mechanical system of motor

From the mechanical system of the motor as shown in Fig. 23.

d 2θ dθ
J +B =T (96)
dt 2 dt
Since the torque of the motor is proportional to field current.
T  if or T = Ktfif
Substituting for torque in equation (96)
d 2θ dθ
J +B = Ktfif (97)
dt 2 dt
Define the state variable as
dθ
x1 = if ; x2 = and x3 = 
dt
Substituting the state variable in equation (95) and in equation (97)
Rf 1
Rfx1 + Lf x1 = u (or) x1 = - x1 + u (98)
Lf Lf
K tf B
J x 2 + Bx2 = Ktfx1 (or) x2 = x1 - x 2 (99)
J J

and x 3 = x2
In matrix form
   Rf   1 
- L 0 0   x1   
 x1 
   f
L
   f 
 
  =     (100)
   K tf B    
x2   J - 0  x 2  +  0  u 
  
J
   
      
      
 x3   0 1 0   x 3   0 
   

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

If the speed and displacement are output variables, this

dθ
y1 = = ω = x2 and y2 =  = x3
dt
The output equation in matrix form

 x1 
 
 1
y  0 1 0  
    
  =  x2  (101)
    
 y 2   0 0 1   
 
 x 3 
Fig. 24 shows the block diagram representation of the state model of field controlled dc
motor.

SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What are the advantages of state space analysis?

1. The state space analysis is applicable to any type of systems. They can be used
for modelling and analysis of linear & non-linear systems, time invariant & time
variant systems and multiple input & multiple output system.
2. The state space analysis can be performed with initial conditions.
3. The variables used to represent the system can be any variables in the system.
4. Using this analysis the internal states of the system at any time instant can be
predicted.
2. What are the drawbacks in transfer function model analysis?
1. Transfer function is defined under zero initial conditions.
2. Transfer function is applicable to linear time invariant systems.
3. Transfer function analysis is restricted to single input and output system.
4. Does not provide information regarding the internal state of the system.
3. What is state and state variable?
The state is the condition of a system at any time instant, t. A set of variable
which describes the state of the system at any time instant are called state
variables.
4. What is a state vector?
The state vector is a (n  1) column matrix (or vector) whose elements are state
variables of the system, (where n is the order of the system). It is denoted by X(t).
5. Write the state model of nth order system?
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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
The state model of a system consists of state equation and output equation.
The state model of a nth order system with m-inputs and p-outputs are:
X(t) = AX(t) + BU(t) ... state equation
Y(t) = CX(t) + DU(t) ... output equation
where X(t) = state vector of order (n  1);
U(t) = input vector of order (m  1)
A = system matrix of order (n  n)
B = input matrix of order (n  m)
Y(t) = output vector of order (p  1)
C = output matrix of order (p  n)
D = transmission matrix of order (p  m)
6. What is state space?
The set of all possible values which the state vector X(t) can have (or assume) at time
t forms the state space of the system.
7. What is input and output space?
The set of all possible values which the input vector U(t) can have (or assume) at time
t forms the input space of the system.
The set of all possible values which the output vector Y(t) can have (or assume) at
time t forms the output space.
8. The state model of a linear time invariant system is given by
X(t) = AX(t) + BU(t)
Y(t) = CX(t) + DU(t)
Obtain the expression for transfer function of the system.
Solution: Given that X(t) = AX(t) + BU(t) ... (1)
and Y(t) = CX(t) + DU(t) ... (2)
On taking laplace transform of equ(1) with zero initial conditions we get,
s X(s) = A X(s) + B U(s)
s X(x) = A X(s) + B U(s) ... (3)
(sI – A) X(s) = BU(s)
On premultiplying equ(3) by (sI – A)-1 we get,
X(s) = (sI – A)-1 B U(s) ... (4)
On taking laplace transform of equ (2) we get,
Y(s) = C X(s) + D U(s) ... (5)
Substitute for X(s) from equ(4) in equ(5) we get,
Y(s) = C [(sI – A)-1 B U(s) + D U(s)
= [C (sI – A)-1 B U(s) + D] U(s)
Y(s)
 = C(sI – A)-1 B U(s) + D ... (6)
U(s)
The equation (6) is the transfer function of the system.
9. What is state diagram?
The pictorial representation of the state model of the system is called state diagram.
The state diagram of the system can be either in block diagram or in signal flow graph
form.
10. Draw the block diagram representation of state model?

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems

Block diagram of state model

11. Draw the signal flow graph representation of state model?

Signal flow graph of state model

12. What are the basic elements used to construct the state diagram?
The basic elements used to construct the state diagram are Scalar, Adder and
Integrator.

13. Sketch the basic elements used to construct the block diagram of a state model.
The basic elements used to construct block diagram of a state model are shown in the
following table.

14. Sketch the basic elements used to construct the signal flow graph of a state
model.
The basic elements used to construct the signal flow graph of a state model are shown
in the following table.

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 2. Mathematical modeling of systems
15. Draw the block diagram of the system described by the state model.
0 1 0   x1  0 
      
 x1      
      
 
  =  0 0 1   x 2  + 0  u and y = x1
x2      
      
      
 
 x3  0 a 2 a 3   x 3  1 
 

Solution

16. Draw the signal flow graph of the system described by the state model.
 X1  a1 a 2 0   x1  1 
      
      
      
 X 2  =  1 0 1   x 2  + 0  u and y = x3
      
      
      
 X 3   0 1 0   x 3  0 
Solution

17. Determine the state model of the system represented by the block diagram of .

Solution

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 X1  0 1 0   x1  1 
      
      
      
 X 2  = 1 0 0   x 2  + 0  u and y = x3
      
      
      
 X 3  0 1 0   x 3  0 

18. Determine the state model of the system represented by the signal flow graph of Fig. .

Solution
 X1   0 1 0   x1  0 
      
      
      
 X 2  = -2 0 1   x 2  + 0  u and y = x1
      
      
      
 X 3   0 0 0   x 3  1 

19. A system is characterized by the differential equation.

d2 y dy
+10 + 7y - u = 0 … (1)
dt 2 dt
Determine the transfer function.

Solution
d2 y dy
Given that,
2
+10 + 7y - u = 0
dt dt
On taking laplace transform of equ(1) without zero initial conditions we get,
s2Y(s) + 10s Y(s) + 7 Y(s) – U(s) = 0
(s2 + 10 s + 7) Y(s) = U(s)
Y(s) 1
 = 2 … (2)
U(s) s +10s + 7
The equ(2) is the transfer function of the system.

Y(s) 1
20. The transfer function of a system is given by = 2 . Determine the
U(s) s + 10s + 7
differential equation governing the system.
Solution

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Y(s) 1
Given that = 2
U(s) s +10s + 7
 [4s|2|+2s+1]Y(s)=10U(s)
4s2Y(s)+2sY(s)+Y(s)=10U(s) .....(1)
On taking inverse laplace transform of equ(1) we get
d2 y
dy
4 +2
+ y = 10u
dt 2 dt
d2 y dy
4 2 + 2 + y -10u = 0 ....... (2)
dt dt
The equ(2) is the differential equation governing the system.
21. What are the advantages of state space modelling using physical variable?
The advantages of choosing the physical variable are the following,
1. The state variable can be utilized for the purpose of feedback.
2. The implementation of design with state variable feedback becomes straight
forward.
3. The solution of state equation gives time variation of variables which have direct
relevance to the physical system.

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