Contents

•Basic Elements of Control

System
•Open loop and Closed loop
systems.
• Differential equations and
Transfer function
• Modeling of Electric systems,
•Translational and rotational
mechanical systems
•Block diagram reduction
 Mapping of Course CO1: Determine and use models of physical systems in forms suitable for use in
Outcomes for Unit I the analysis and design of control systems.

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 Introduction and Basic Elements of Control Systems
• In modern era, control system plays a vital role in human life.

• The question is arises that: What is a control system?

To answer the question, a system or mechanism which directs the

input to other system and regulates their output.

• For example, in the domestic purpose, we need to control the

temperature and humidity of homes, offices and buildings for
comfortable living.

• Another example for transportation we need to control the

automobile vehicle an airplane to go from one place to another place
accurately and safely.
• A System is a combination of components that act together
to perform a specific goal.
• The basic part of control system can be described by:

1. Input or objective of control

2. Control action or control system

3. Response or output

Basic control system

Requirements of a Good Control System
• Accuracy: Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the instrument and
defines the limits of the errors made when the instrument is used in normal
operating conditions. Accuracy can be improved by using feedback
elements. To increase the accuracy of any control system error detector
should be present in the control system.

• Sensitivity: The parameters of a control system are always changing with

the change in surrounding conditions, internal disturbance or any other
parameters. This change can be expressed in terms of sensitivity. Any
control system should be insensitive to such parameters but sensitive to
input signals only.
• Noise: An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control system
should be able to reduce the noise effect for better performance.

• Stability: It is an important characteristic of the control system. For the

bounded input signal, the output must be bounded and if the input is zero
then output must be zero then such a control system is said to be a stable
system.
• Bandwidth: An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of the
control system. Bandwidth should be as large as possible for the frequency
response of good control system.
Speed: It is the time taken by the control system to achieve its stable output. A
good control system possesses high speed. The transient period for such
system is very small.

• Oscillation: A small numbers of oscillation or constant oscillation of output

tend to indicate the system to be stable.
 Terminology
• Plant:
 A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts
functioning together, the purpose of which is to perform a particular
operation. We shall call any physical object to be controlled (such as a
mechanical device, a heating furnace, a chemical reactor, or a spacecraft) a
plant.

• Process:
 A process is any operation to be controlled. Processes can be chemical,
economic, biological, etc.
• System:
 A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a
certain objective.
Disturbances:
 A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the
output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is
called internal, while an external disturbance is generated outside the system
and is an input.
• Feedback Control:
 feedback control is an operation in which the difference between the output
of the system and the reference input by comparing these using the
difference as a means of control. .

• Controlled Variable:
 The controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is measured
and controlled.

• Manipulated Variable or Control Signal:

 The manipulated variable or control signal is the quantity or condition
that is varied by the
controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.
 Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the system.
• Control:
 Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the
system and applying the control signal to the system to correct or
limit deviation of the measured value from a desired value.
Block diagram of basic
control system
• Room temperature
control system
1.Proportional control
2.On-off control

Room temperature Block diagram of room

control system temperature control
system
• Aircraft elevator
control

Elevator control system for

a high-
speed jet

Block diagram of elevator

control
system
• Computer Numerically Controlled
(CNC) machine tool

Computer
Numerically
Controlled (CNC)
machine tool

Block diagram of
(CNC)
machine tool
Classifications of control
systems
1. Open loop control systems
•Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action are
called open-loop control systems.

•In other words, in an open loop control system the output is neither
measured nor feedback for comparison with the input.

• The practical examples are washing machine, light switches, gas ovens,
automatic coffee server, electric lift, traffic signals, theater lamp dimmer,
etc.
• In any open-loop control system the output is not compared with the reference
input.

• Open-loop control can be used, in practice, only if the relationship between

the input and output is known and if there are neither internal nor external
disturbances
 Advantages

I. They are simple in construction and design.

II. They are economic.
III. Easy for maintenance.
IV. Not much problems of stability.
V. Convenient to use when output is difficult to measure
 Disadvantages

I. Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is dependent on

calibration.
II. Error in results due to parameter variations, internal disturbances.
III. To maintain quality and accuracy, recalibration of controller is
necessary in regular time interval.
2. Closed loop
control systems
• A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output
and the reference input by comparing them and using the difference as
a means of control is called a closed loop control systems.

• Sometimes, we may use the output of the control system to adjust the
input signal. This is called feedback.

• Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed-loop control

systems.
• The practical examples are air conditioner, automatic electric iron, missile launched
and auto tracked by radar, servo voltage stabilizer, sun-seeker solar system, water
level controller, etc.

• The term closed-loop control always implies the use of feedback control action in
order to reduce system error.

 Advantages:

I. Accuracy is very high as errors are corrected.

II. It senses changes in output due to parametric changes, internal disturbances,

etc. and corrects them.

III. Reduced effect of non-linearties.

IV. High bandwidth means large operating frequency range.

V. Facilitates and supports automation.

 Disadvantages:

I. Complicated in design and costlier maintenance.

II. This system is generally higher in cost and power.

III. Stability is a major problem in this system.

Comparison between open loop and
closed loop control systems
Open loop system Closed loop system
 No feedback and elements of  Feedback and elements of
feedback. feedback exists.
 No error detector.  Error detector is present.

 Inaccurate.  Accurate.

 Highly sensitive to parameter  Less sensitive to parameter

changes. changes.
 Small bandwidth.  Large bandwidth.

 No issue of stability.  Issue of stability.

 Lower in cost and power.  Higher in cost and power.

 Examples: washing machine, light  Examples: air conditioner,

switches, gas ovens, automatic automatic electric iron, missile
coffee server, electric lift, traffic launched and auto tracked by
signals, theater lamp dimmer, radar, servo voltage stabilizer,
etc. sun-seeker solar system, water
level controller, etc.
 Concept of superposition for linear systems
• Before understanding concept of superposition for linear systems, we have to
understand concept of linearity.
• Linearity:
• Basically, a mathematical equation is said to be linear if the following properties
hold

• homogeneity

• additivity

• Homogeneity requires that if the input (excitation) of a system (equation) is

multiplied by a constant, then the output should be obtained by multiplying by
the same constant to obtain the correct solution. Does homogeneity hold for the
following equation?

y = 4x

If x = 1, y = 4. If we double x to x = 2 and substitute this value into above equation,

we get y = 8.
• Now for homogenity to hold, scaling should hold for y. That is, y has a value of 4
when x = 1. If we increase x by a factor of 2, when we should be able to multiply
y by the same factor and get the same answer and when we substitute into the right
side of the equation for x = 2.

• Additivity property is equivalent to the statement that the response of a system to a

sum of inputs is the same as the responses of the system when each input is
applied separately and the individual responses summed (added together). This
can be explained by considering the following illustrations.
Given, y = 4x

Let x = x1, then y1 =4x1 Let

x = x2, then y2 = 4x2 Then y = y1 + y2 = 4x1 + 4x2 …. Eq 1.1 Also, we note,

y = f(x1 + x2) = 4(x1 + x2) = 4x1 + 4x2 …. Eq 1.2

Since Equations (1.1) and (1.2) are identical, the additivity property holds.
 Superposition
• The mathematical model of a system is linear if it obeys principle of superposition.
The concept of superposition implies that if y1 = f(x1) and y2 = f(x2) then f(x1+x2) =
y1+y2.

• This is called the Superposition principle. What does that mean? It means that if we
know that our system responds to a certain input (x1) with a certain output (y1), and
we also know that it responds to another input (x2) with some other output (y2),
then it response to the sum of these inputs should be the sum of the two outputs.

• Usually your inputs, and consequently your output vary over time (or over space),
so a better way to write the above is:
if y1 (t) = f(x1(t)) and y2(t) = f(x2(t))

then f(x1(t)+x2(t)) = y1(t)+y2(t)

• Which is exactly what we wrote above, but with x replaced by x(t), and y replaced
by y(t).