University of Mines and Technology

Faculty of Engineering
Computer Science and Engineering Department
Lecture Notes
on
CE467 Control Systems

Second Semester

2022/2023 Academic Year

 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 3
Introduction to Control Systems 3
Classification of Control Systems 4
Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems 7
SISO and MIMO Control Systems 7
Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems 7
Open Loop Control System 7
Closed Loop Control System 8
Difference between Open loop and Close loop Control Systems 10
Types of Feedback 11
Positive Feedback 11
Negative Feedback 12
Effects of Feedback 12
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain 12
Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity 13
Effect of Feedback on Stability 14
Effect of Feedback on Noise 14
Chapter 2 18
Mathematical Models of Dynamic Systems 18
Differential Equation Model 18
Example 18
Transfer Function Model 19
Example 20

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 Chapter 1

Introduction to Control Systems

A system, whose output can be managed, controlled or regulated by varying its input is called
Control System. If we look around, we will find many control systems in our surroundings i.e.
Refrigerator, Air Conditions, Washing Machines etc.

A control system can also be a combination of smaller control systems and are normally used
to get desired/required output. Its block diagram is shown in below figure:

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a simple control system

The above figure represents a simple control system and we can think of this control system as
a mathematical equation i.e.
X+5=Y
where, X is the input, Y is the output and a Constant (5) is acting as a Control System.
So, by changing the value of input parameter (X), we can change our output value (Y).
Similarly, if we want a particular output value, we can achieve it by fixing input value. Here,
the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by varying
input, the control system got this name.

Real Life Example of a Control System are those devices that literally surround us, every day
e.g. Traffic lights control system, washing machine, smart fan etc.

Keeping this simple, let's have a look at the example of a smart fan, which regulates its spinning
speed with respect to atmospheric temperature. A pre-installed Temperature sensor reads the
temperature, which is then fed into Comparator. Comparator compares current temperature
with user-inputted temperature value and then regulates the Fan speed. Hence the input
parameter i.e. temperature helped us in changing the system's output i.e. Spinning Speed.

Below is the block diagram for representing the control system of a smart fan:
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 Figure 1.2 Real life example of Control System

1.1 Basic Terminologies in Control Systems

System: A combination or arrangement of a number of different physical components to form
a whole unit such that combining the different unit’s performance can achieve a certain goal.
Control: The action to command, direct or regulate a system.
Plant or process: The part or component of a system that is required to be controlled.
Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.
Output: It is the actual response obtained from the control system.
Controller: The part or component of a system that controls the plant.
Disturbances: The signal that has adverse effect on the performance of a control system.
Control system: A system that can command, direct or regulate itself or another system to
achieve a certain goal. An interconnection of components forming a system configuration that
will provide a desired response
Automation: The control of a process by automatic means

Actuator: It is the device that causes the process to provide the output. It is the device that
provides the motive power to the process.

Design: The process of conceiving or inventing the forms, parts, and details of system to
achieve a specified purpose.

Simulation: A model of a system that is used to investigate the behaviour of a system by

utilizing actual input signals.

Optimization: The adjustment of the parameters to achieve the most favourable or

advantageous design.

Feedback Signal: A measure of the output of the system used for feedback to control the
system.

Negative feedback: The output signal is feedback so that it subtracts from the input signal.

Block diagrams: Unidirectional, operational blocks that represent the transfer functions of the
elements of the system.
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Signal Flow Graph (SFG): A diagram that consists of nodes connected by several directed
branches and that is a graphical representation of a set of linear relations.

Specifications: Statements that explicitly state what the device or product is to be and to do.
It is also defined as a set of prescribed performance criteria.

Open-loop control system: A system that utilizes a device to control the process without using
feedback. Thus, the output has no effect upon the signal to the process.

Closed-loop feedback control system: A system that uses a measurement of the output and
compares it with the desired output.

Regulator: The control system where the desired values of the controlled outputs are more or
less fixed and the main problem is to reject disturbance effects.

Servo system: The control system where the outputs are mechanical quantities like
acceleration, velocity or position.

Stability: It is a notion that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input
command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be unstable if its output is out of control
or increases without bound.

Multivariable Control System: A system with more than one input variable or more than one
output variable.

Trade-off: The result of making a judgment about how much compromise must be made
between conflicting criteria

1.2 Classification of Control Systems

Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following:

1.2.1. Natural control system and Man-made control system:

 Natural control system: It is a control system that is created by nature, i.e. solar
system, digestive system of any animal, etc.
 Man-made control system: It is a control system that is created by humans, i.e.
automobile, power plants etc.
1.2.2. Automatic control system and Combinational control system:

 Automatic control system: It is a control system that is made by using basic theories
from mathematics and engineering. This system mainly has sensors, actuators and
responders.
 Combinational control system: It is a control system that is a combination of natural
and man-made control systems, i.e. driving a car etc.
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1.2.3. Time-variant control system and Time-invariant control system:

 Time-variant control system: It is a control system where any one or more parameters
of the control system vary with time i.e. driving a vehicle.
 Time-invariant control system: It is a control system where none of its parameters
vary with time i.e. control system made up of inductors, capacitors and resistors only.

1.2.4. Linear control system and Non-linear control system:

 Linear control system: It is a control system that satisfies properties of homogeneity and
additive.
Homogeneous property: f (x + y) = f(x) + f(y)
Additive property: f (x) = f (x)
 Non-linear control system: It is a control system that does not satisfy properties of
homogeneity and additive, i.e. f (x) = x3

1.2.5. Continuous-Time control system and Discrete-Time control system:

 Continuous-Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of

its parameters are function of time, i.e. armature type speed control of motor.
 Discrete -Time control system: It is a control system where performances of all of its
parameters are function of discrete time i.e. microprocessor type speed control of motor.

1.2.6. Deterministic control system and Stochastic control system:

 Deterministic control system: It is a control system where its output is predictable or

repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.
 Stochastic control system: It is a control system where its output is unpredictable or
non-repetitive for certain input signal or disturbance signal.

1.2.7. Lumped-parameter control system and Distributed-parameter control system:

 Lumped-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by ordinary differential equations.
 Distributed-parameter control system: It is a control system where its mathematical
model is represented by an electrical network that is a combination of resistors,
inductors and capacitors.
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1.2.8 Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems
 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete time
control systems based on the type of the signal used.
 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in
discrete time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.

1.2.9 SISO and MIMO Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems
based on the number of inputs and outputs present.
 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one output.
Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems have more
than one input and more than one output.

1.2.10 Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems

Control Systems are classified into two main categories, which are:
 Open Loop.
 Closed Loop.
Open Loop Control System

It is a control system where its control action only depends on input signal and does not
depend on its output response. In Open Loop Control Systems, we have three main
components i.e. Input, Controller & Output.
Input signal is directly fed to the controller, which utilizes it and generates the required output.
In Open Loop systems, generated output has no effect on the Input signal i.e. no feedback
provided.

Figure 1.3 Block diagram of an open loop control system

An input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal.
This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant
produces an output, which is controlled.

Two examples of open loop control systems are discussed, to get a better understanding of the
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process. Clothes Dryer is a very simple example of an open loop system. When damp clothes
are put in the dryer machine, the operator / user sets the time for drying the clothes. This time
acts as the input signal for the dryer. Correspondingly at the end of that time, the machine stops
and clothes can be taken out. Now the thing to be noted here is that no matter if the clothes are
dry enough or not, the machine will stop because of the time (input signal) fed to it. So the
output of the system does not affect the input in this case. For a better understanding the block
diagram of a cloth dryer control system is shown below:

Figure 1.4 Block diagram of a cloth dryer control system

Another example of an open loop control system is the traffic light system. The Traffic Light
system is easy to understand example of an open loop system. Certain input signals are fed to
the controller, which then displays one of the three lights at the output turn by turn. The direct
input signals can be altered to change the output light but the output has no effect on the input.
As we are not passing any feedback i.e. which light turned ON or OFF.

Advantages of Open loop Control Systems

1. The open loop systems are simple and economical
2. They are easier to construct
3. They are stable

Disadvantages of Open loop Control Systems

1. They are inaccurate and unreliable.
2. The changes in the output due to the external disturbances are not corrected
automatically.

Closed Loop Control System

Closed Loop Control System (Feedback control system) is an advanced automated system,
which generates the desired output by using inputs, Controllers and feedback elements. In
closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is dependent
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on the desired output.

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These systems use feedback element to fed the Output back to the controller. By doing that, we
can compare the current output with input to get errors.

Here's the block diagram of a closed Loop Control System:

Figure 1.5 Block diagram of a closed loop control system

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the
feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by
considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input,
the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination,
the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response.
Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic
lights control system having sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop control system.

Air conditioner is another typical example of a closed loop control system. The input signal in
the form of required room temperature is fed into the controller of the air conditioner. The
compressor along with its various electrical and mechanical components help in achieving the
required temperature. Now whenever the room temperature changes, the temperature sensor at
the output senses the change in the room temperature and the signal from the sensor is
calculated by the error detector and fed back to the controller through the feedback loop to
maintain the required room temperature. In this way the required output is always maintained
automatically without any manual interference. The block diagram illustration of this process
is shown below:
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 Figure 1.6 Block diagram of an air conditioner control system

Advantages of Closed loop Control Systems

1. They are accurate
2. They are accurate even in the presence of non-linearities
3. The sensitivity of the systems may be made small to make the system more stable
4. They are less affected by noise.

Disadvantages of Closed loop Control Systems

1. The closed loop systems are complex and costly.
2. The feedback in the closed loop system may lead to oscillatory response.
3. The feedback reduces the overall gain of the system
4. Stability is a major problem in closed loop system and more care is needed to design a stable
closed loop system.

1.3 Difference between Open loop and Close loop Control Systems
The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in
the following table 1.
Table 1: Differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems

Sl. Open-loop control systems Closed-loop control systems

No.
1 No feedback is given to the control A feedback is given to the control
system system
2 Cannot be intelligent Intelligent controlling action
Closed loop control introduces the
There is no possibility of undesirable
3 possibility of undesirable system
system oscillation(hunting)
oscillation(hunting)
The output will not very for a constant In the system the output may vary for a
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4 input, provided the system parameters constant input, depending upon the
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remain unaltered feedback

 System output variation due to variation
in parameters of the system is greater System output variation due to variation
5
and the output very in an uncontrolled in parameters of the system is less.
way
6 Error detection is not present Error detection is present
7 Small bandwidth Large bandwidth
8 More stable Less stable or prone to instability
9 Affected by non-linearities Not affected by non-linearities
10 Very sensitive in nature Less sensitive to disturbances
11 Simple design Complex design
12 Cheap Costly

1.4 Feedback
If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the input side and utilized as part
of the system input, then it is known as feedback. Feedback plays an important role in order
to improve the performance of the control systems.
1.4.1 Types of Feedback

There are two types of feedback −

 Positive feedback
 Negative feedback

Positive Feedback

The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback output. The following
figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system.

Figure 1.7 block diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being,
consider the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,
𝐺
T=1−𝐺𝐻 (1)
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Where,
  T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.
 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference inputs, R(s) and system output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.

Figure 1.8 block diagram of negative feedback control system

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

𝐺
T=1+𝐺𝐻 (2)

Where,

 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

The derivation of the above transfer function is present in later chapters.

1.4.2 Effects of Feedback

Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop
control system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or
decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).
 If the value of (1+ GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH'
value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case,
'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall
gain of the system in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.
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Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the
variation in open loop gain (G) is defined as
𝜕𝑇
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑇
𝑆𝐺𝑇 = 𝑇
𝜕𝐺 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 (3)
𝐺

Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

We can rewrite Equation 3 as

𝜕𝑇 𝐺
𝑆𝐺𝑇 = 𝜕𝐺 ⋅ 𝑇 (4)

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝐺 (1+𝐺𝐻)⋅1−𝐺(𝐻) 1
= 𝜕𝐺 (1+𝐺𝐻) = (1+𝐺𝐻)2
= (1+𝐺𝐻)2 (5)
𝜕𝐺

From Equation 2, you will get

𝐺
= 1 + 𝐺𝐻 (6)
𝑇

Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.

1 1
𝑆𝐺𝑇 = 2
(1 + 𝐺𝐻) =
(1 + 𝐺𝐻) 1 + 𝐺𝐻

So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the reciprocal
of (1 + GH). So, Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1 + GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH'
value is negative because the gain of feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case, 'GH'
value is positive because the gain of feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity of
the system gain in one frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range. Therefore,
we have to choose the values of 'GH' in such a way that the system is insensitive or less
sensitive to parameter variations.
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Effect of Feedback on Stability

 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be

unstable.
 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the
control system will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.

Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system
stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with
and without feedback due to noise signal alone.

Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

Figure 1.9 block diagram an open loop control system with noise signal

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

𝑐𝑠
= 𝐺𝑏 (7)
𝑁𝑠

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
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Figure 1.10 block diagram a closed loop control system with noise signal
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The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

𝑐(𝑠) 𝐺𝑏
=− (8)
𝑁(𝑠) 1+𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑏 𝐻

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,

In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor of
(1+GaGbH) provided that the term (1+GaGbH) is greater than one.

1.5. Servomechanism

It is the feedback unit used in a control system. In this system, the control variable is a
mechanical signal such as position, velocity or acceleration. Here, the output signal is directly
fed to the comparator as the feedback signal, b(t) of the closed-loop control system. This type
of system is used where both the command and output signals are mechanical in nature. A
position control system as shown in Fig.1.11 is a simple example of this type mechanism. The
block diagram of the servomechanism of an automatic steering system is shown in Fig.1.12.

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 Fig 1.11 Schematic diagram of a servomechanism

Fig 1.12 Block diagram of a servomechanism

Examples: Missile launcher, Machine tool position control, Power steering for an automobile,
Roll stabilization in ships, etc.

1.6. Regulators
It is also a feedback unit used in a control system like servomechanism. Except the output is
kept constant at its desired value. The schematic diagram of a regulating system is shown in
Fig.1.13. Its corresponding simplified block diagram model is shown in Fig.1.14.
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 Fig 1.13 Schematic diagram of a regulation system

Fig. 1.14 Block diagram of a regulating system

Examples: Temperature regulator, Speed governor, Frequency regulators, etc.

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 Chapter 2
Mathematical Models of Control Systems

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as
mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems. A
control system is a collection of physical objects (components) connected together to server an
objective. Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when
we know the input and the output.

The mathematical model of a system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and
homogeneity.

The following mathematical models are mostly used.

 Differential equation model

 Transfer function model
 State space model

Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. The input
output relations of various components of a system are governed by differential equations. The
mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equations. The response
of output of the system can be studied by solving the differential equations for the various input
conditions. Follow these steps for differential equation model.

 Apply basic laws to the given control system.

 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the
intermediate variable(s).

Example

Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The
input voltage applied to this circuit is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output
voltage vo.
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 Figure 2.1 Electrical System in Series

Mesh equation for this circuit is

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡̇
̅̅̅ + 𝑣0
𝑑𝜈0
Substitute, the current passing through capacitor ⅈ = 𝑐 in the above equation.
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣0 𝑑 2 𝑣0
⇒ 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑣0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑣0 𝑅 𝑑𝑣0 1 1
⇒ + (𝐿 ) + (𝐿𝐶) 𝑣0 = (𝐿𝐶) 𝜈𝑖
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

The above equation is a second order differential equation.

Transfer Function Model

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The Transfer
function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform
of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.

If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X(s) and Y(s).

Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s) and X(s).
𝑌(𝑠)
i.e., Transfer Function = 𝑋
(𝑠)

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Figure 2.2 transfer function model block diagram

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this
block has an input X(s) and output Y(s).
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Example

Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as

ⅆ 2 𝑣0 𝑅 ⅆ𝑣0 1 1
2
+( ) + ( ) 𝑣0 = ( ) 𝜈𝑖
ⅆ𝑡 𝐿 ⅆ𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶

Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

𝑠𝑅 1 1
𝑠 2 𝑣0 + ( ) 𝑣0 (𝑠) + ( ) 𝑣0(𝑠) = ( ) 𝑣𝑖(𝑠)
𝐿 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
𝑅 1 1
⇒{𝑠 2 + ( 𝐿 ) 𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶 } 𝑣0 (𝑠) = (𝐿𝐶) 𝑣𝑖 (s)
1
𝑣 (𝑠)
⇒ 0 (𝑠) = 𝐿𝐶
1
𝑣1 𝑠2 +(𝑅⁄𝐿)𝑠+
𝐿𝐶

Where,

 vi(s) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage vi

 vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vo

The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer
function model of this system is shown below.

Figure 2.3 transfer function of the 2nd order electrical system

Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function
inside it. And this block has an input Vi(s) and an output Vo(s).

Modelling of Mechanical Systems

In this section we discuss the differential equation modeling of mechanical systems. There
are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.

 Translational mechanical systems

 Rotational mechanical systems
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Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of
three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper. These three elements
represent three essential phenomena which occur in various ways in mechanical systems.

The weight of the mechanical system is represented by the element mass and it is assumed to
be concentrated at the center of the body. The elastic deformation of the body can be
represented by a spring. The friction existing in rotating mechanical system can be represented
by the dash-pot. The dashpot is a piston moving inside a cylinder filled with viscous fluid.

List of Symbols used in Mechanical Translational System

Symbol Meaning and Measurement

x= Displacement in meters
ⅆ𝒙 velocity in m/sec
v = ⅆ𝒕 =

a=
ⅆ𝒗
=
ⅆ𝟐 𝒙
= Acceleration in m/sec2
ⅆ𝒕 ⅆ𝒕𝟐

f= Applied force in N(Newtons)

fm = Opposing force offered by mass of the body in N
fk = Opposing force offered by the friction of the body (spring)in N
fb = Opposing force offered by the friction of the body(dash-pot) in N
M= Mass in kg
K= Stiffness of spring, in N/m
B= Viscous friction co-efficient, in N-sec/m

NB: Lower case letters are functions of time.

When a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing forces

due to mass, friction and elasticity of the system. The force acting on a mechanical body are
governed by Newton's second law of motion. For translational systems it states that the sum of
forces acting on a body is zero. (Or Newton's second law states that the sum of applied forces
is equal to the sum of opposing forces on a body). Let us now see the force opposed by these
three elements individually.
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Mass

Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a body
having mass M, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is
proportional to the acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

Figure 2.4 Force on a Mass

Fm ∝ a
𝑑2 𝑥
⇒Fm =Ma =𝑀 2
𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑 𝑥
F = Fm = 𝑀 2
𝑑𝑡

Where,

 F is the applied force

 Fm is the opposing force due to mass
 M is mass
 a is acceleration
 x is displacement

Spring

Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it
is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional
to the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are negligible.

Figure 2.5 Force on a spring

F∝x
⇒ Fk = Kx
F = Fk = Kx
22
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Where,
  F is the applied force
 Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
 K is spring constant
 x is displacement

Dashpot

If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of

the dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass
and elasticity are negligible.

Figure 2.5 Force on a dashpot

Fb ∝ ν
𝑑𝑥
⇒Fb=Bν= 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
F=Fb= 𝐵 𝑑𝑡

Where,

 Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot

 B is the frictional coefficient
 v is velocity
 x is displacement

23
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 SUMMARY OF FORCE BALANCE EQUATIONS OF IDEALIZED ELEMENTS

Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig I .9 which has negligible friction and elasticity.
Let a force be applied on it. The mass will offer an opposing force which is proportional to

acceleration of the body

24
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Guidelines to determine the Transfer Function of Mechanical Translational System
1. In mechanical translational system, the differential equations governing the system are
obtained by writing force balance equations at nodes in the system. The nodes are meeting
point of elements. Generally, the nodes are mass elements in the system. In some cases, the
nodes may be without mass element.
2. The linear displacement of the masses (nodes) are assumed as x1, x2 , x3 , etc., and assign a
displacement to each mass(node) . The first derivative of the displacement is velocity and
the second derivative of the displacement is acceleration
3. Draw the free body diagrams of the system. The free body diagram is obtained by drawing
each mass separately and then marking all the forces acting on that mass (node). Always
the opposing force acts in a direction opposite to applied force. The mass has to move in
the direction of the applied force. Hence the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the
system mass will be in the direction of the applied force. If there is no applied force then
the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass will be in a direction opposite to
that of opposing force.
4. For each free body diagram, write one differential equation by equating the sum of applied
forces to the sum of opposing forces.
5. Take Laplace transform of differential equations to convert them to algebraic equations.
Then rearrange the s-domain equations to eliminate the unwanted variables and obtain the
ratio between output variable and input variable. This ratio is the transfer function of the
system

Laplace transforms table

Worked Example 2.1

1. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown in the figure 2.6 and
determine the transfer function
25
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Figure 2.6 example question

Solution
In the given system, applied force f(t) is the input and displacement x is the output
Let, Laplace transform of f(t) = L{f(t)} = F(s)
Laplace transform of x = L{x} = X(s)
Laplace transform of x1 = L{x1} = X1(s)
𝑋(𝑠)
Hence the required transfer function is 𝐹(𝑠)

The system has two nodes and they are mass M1 and M2. The differential equations
governing the systems is given by force balance equation at these nodes.

Fig 2.7 Free body diagram of

Mass M1 (node 1)

The free body diagram of mass M2 is shown in fig 2.8. The opposing forces acting on M2 are
marked as fm2, fb2, fb, and fk

Fig 2.8 Free body diagram of

Mass M2 (node 2)
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……2
Substituting for X1(s) from equation 1 in equation (2) we get,

We can conclude that the results of Fig 2.6 are:

Worked Example 2.2

𝑌2 (𝑠)
Determine the transfer function of the systems shown in fig 2.9
𝐹(𝑠)

Fig 2.9
27
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Solution

28
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2.2 Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three
basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot. The model of
rotational mechanical system can be obtained by using three elements, moment of inertia, J of
mass, dash-pot with rotational frictional coefficient, B and torsional spring with stiffness, K

If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing torques

due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied torque and the
opposing torques are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system
is zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements individually.

Moment of Inertia

In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational

mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.

If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing

torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to angular
acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
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 Fig 2.11 Mechanical Rotational System
Tj ∝α
⇒Tj =Jα
2
 J𝑑𝑑𝑡𝜃2
2
 T=Tj= J𝑑𝑑𝑡𝜃2

Where,

 T is the applied torque

 Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of inertia
 J is moment of inertia
 α is angular acceleration
 θ is angular displacement

Torsional Spring
In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in rotational
mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.

If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacement
of the torsional spring. Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are negligible.

Fig 2.12 torsional Spring

Tk ∝ θ
⇒Tk = Kθ
T= Tk =Kθ

Where,

 T is the applied torque

 Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional spring
 K is the torsional spring constant
 θ is angular displacement

Dashpot
If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
30

rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity
Page

of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.
 Fig 2.13 Dashpot

Tb ∝ ω
𝑑𝜃
⇒Tb= Bω = B
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
T=Tb= B
𝑑𝑡

Where,

 Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot

 B is the rotational friction coefficient
 ω is the angular velocity
 θ is the angular displacement

List of Symbols Used in Mechanical Rotational System

Torque Balanced Equation Idealized Elements

Consider an ideal mas element shown in fig 2.14 which has negligible friction and elasticity.
The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is r to the angular acceleration.
31

Fig 2.14 Ideal rotational mass element

…..1
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Consider an ideal frictional element dashpot shown in fig 2.15 which has negligible moment
of inertia and elasticity. Let a torque be applied on it. the dash pot will offer an opposing
torque which is proportional to the angular velocity of the body.

Fig 2.15 Ideal rotational dashpot with

…..2
one fixed to reference

When the dashpot has angular displacement at both ends as shown in fig 2.16, the opposing
torque is proportional to the differential angular velocity.

Fig 2.16 Ideal dashpot with one angular

…..3
displacement at both ends

Consider an ideal elastic element, torsional spring as shown in figure 2.17 which has negligible
moment of inertia and friction. Let a torque be applied on it. The torsional spring will offer an
opposing torque which is proportional to angular displacement of the body.

Fig 2.17 Ideal Spring with on end fixed

…..4 to reference

2.18

…..5 Fig 2.18 Ideal Spring with angular

displacement at both ends

Guidelines to determine the Transfer Function of Mechanical Rotational System

1. In mechanical rotational system, the differential equations governing the system are
obtained by writing torque balance equations at nodes in the system. The nodes are meeting
point of elements. Generally, the nodes are mass elements with moment of inertia in the
32

system. In some cases, the nodes may be without mass element.

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2. The linear displacement of the masses (nodes) are assumed as θ1, θ2, θ3, etc., and assign a
displacement to each mass (node). The first derivative of the angular displacement is
angular and the second derivative of the angular displacement is angular acceleration
3. Draw the free body diagrams of the system. The free body diagram is obtained by drawing
each moment of inertia mass separately and then marking all the torque acting on that body
(node). Always the opposing torque acts in a direction opposite to applied torque.
4. The mass has to rotate in the direction of the applied torque. Hence the angular
displacement, velocity and acceleration of the system mass will be in the direction of the
applied torque. If there is no applied torque then the angular displacement, velocity and
acceleration of the mass will be in a direction opposite to that of opposing torque.
5. For each free body diagram, write one differential equation by equating the sum of applied
torques to the sum of opposing torques.
6. Take Laplace transform of differential equations to convert them to algebraic equations.
Then rearrange the s-domain equations to eliminate the unwanted variables and obtain the
ratio between output variable and input variable. This ratio is the transfer function of the
system.

Worked Example 2.3

Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system shown in fig 2.19.
Obtain the transfer function of the system.
33
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Solution

34
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 Try Example 2.4

Write the differential equation governing the mathematical rotational system shown in fig 1
and determine the transfer function θ(s)/T(s).

Fig 1

(Hint)
35
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 Chapter 3
3.1 Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems
Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the following two conditions are
satisfied.

 The two systems are physically different

 Differential equation modelling of these two systems are same
Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically different systems. There are two
types of electrical analogies of translational mechanical systems. Those are force voltage
analogy and force current analogy.
Force Voltage Analogy
In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations of translational mechanical system are
compared with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following translational mechanical system as shown in the following figure.

Fig 3.1 translational mechanical systems

The force balanced equation for this system is
F = Fm + Fb + Fk

Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in a series.
The input voltage applied to this circuit is V volts and the current flowing through the circuit
is i Amps.
36
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Fig 3.2 Electrical System

Mesh equation for this circuit is

2
Substitute, i in eqn (2) where

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. Table 3.1 shows these analogous
quantities.
Table 3.1 Analogous Quantities of Mechanical and Electrical Systems

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Voltage(V)

Mass(M) Inductance(L)

Frictional Coefficient(B) Resistance(R)

Spring Constant(K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1/c)

Displacement(x) Charge(q)

Velocity(v) Current(i)

Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss about this analogy.
Torque Voltage Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational mechanical system are compared
with mesh equations of the electrical system.
Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.
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Fig 3.3 Rotational Mechanical System

The torque balanced equation is

4
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. Table 3.2 shows these analogous quantities.
Table 3.2 Analogous Quantities of Rotational and Electrical Systems

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque (T) Voltage (V)

Moment of Inertia (J) Inductance (L)

Rotational friction coefficient (B) Resistance (R)

Torsional spring constant (K) Reciprocal of Capacitance (1/c)

Angular Displacement (θ) Charge (q)

Angular Velocity (ω) Current (i)

Force Current Analogy

In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of the translational mechanical
system are compared with the nodal equations of the electrical system.
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists
of current source, resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected
in parallel.

Fig 3.4 Electrical System

The nodal equation is

Substitute,
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 6

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of the
translational mechanical system and electrical system. Table 3.4 shows these analogous
quantities.
Table 3.3 Analogous Quantities of Translational Mechanical and Electrical Systems

Translational Mechanical System Electrical System

Force(F) Current(i)

Mass(M) Capacitance(C)

Frictional coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1/R)

Spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1/L)

Displacement(x) Magnetic Flux(ψ)

Velocity(v) Voltage(V)

Similarly, there is a torque current analogy for rotational mechanical systems. Let us now
discuss this analogy.
Torque Current Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational mechanical system are
compared with the nodal mesh equations of the electrical system.
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 6, we will get the analogous quantities of rotational
mechanical system and electrical system. The following table shows these analogous
quantities.

39
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 Table 3.4 Analogous Quantities of Rotational Mechanical and Electrical Systems

Rotational Mechanical System Electrical System

Torque(T) Current(i)

Moment of inertia(J) Capacitance(C)

Rotational friction coefficient(B) Reciprocal of Resistance(1/R)

Torsional spring constant(K) Reciprocal of Inductance(1/L)

Angular displacement(θ) Magnetic flux(ψ)

Angular velocity(ω) Voltage(V)

In this chapter, we discussed the electrical analogies of the mechanical systems. These
analogies are helpful to study and analyze the non-electrical system like mechanical system
from analogous electrical system.

Worked Example 2.1

Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system shown in fig 1.
Draw the torque-voltage and torque-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing
mesh and node equations

Solution

The given mechanical rotational system has two nodes (moment of inertia of masses). The
differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system are given by torque balance
equations at these nodes.

Let the angular displacement of J1 and J2 be θ1 and θ2 respectively. The corresponding angular
40

velocities be ω1 and ω2
Page
On replacing the angular displacements by angular velocity in the differential equations 1 and
2 governing the mechanical rotational system we have:

….3

….4
Torque-Voltage Analogous Circuit
The given mechanical system has two nodes (J1 and J2). Hence the torque-voltage analogous
electrical circuit will have two electrical mesh. The torque applied to J 1 is represented by a
voltage source in the first mesh. The Element J1, B1 and K1 are connected to first node. Hence
they are represented by analogous element in mesh 1 forming a closed path. The elements J2,
B2, K2 and K1 are connected to the second node. Hence they are represented by analogous
elements in mesh-2 forming a closed path.

The element K1 is common between node-1 and 2 and so it is represented by analogous element
as common element between two meshes. The torque-voltage electrical analogous circuit is
shown in fig 4.

The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical rotational system are given
below:
T = e(t) J1 = L1 B1 = R1 K1 = 1/C1
41

ω1 = i1 J2 = L2 B2 = R2 K2 = 1/C2
Page

ω2 = i2
The mesh basis equations using Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the circuit shown in fig 4 are
given below:

…..5

…..6

42
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Torque-Current Analogous Circuit
The given mechanical system has two nodes (J1 and J2). Hence the torque-current analogous
electrical circuit will have two electrical mesh. The torque applied to J 1 is represented by a
current source to node 1 in the analogous electrical circuit.

The Element J1, B1 and K1 are connected to first node. Hence they are represented by analogous
element in mesh 1 forming a closed path. The elements J2, B2, K2 and K1 are connected to the
second node. Hence they are represented by analogous elements in mesh-2 forming a closed
path.

The element K1 is common between node-1 and 2 and so it is represented by analogous element
as common element between two meshes. The torque-current electrical analogous circuit is
shown in fig 7.

The electrical analogous elements for the elements of mechanical rotational system are given
below:
T = i(t) J1 = C 1 B1 = 1/R1 K1 = 1/L1
ω1 = v1 J2 = C 2 B2 = 1/R2 K2 = 1/L2
ω2 = v2
43

The node basis equations using Kirchhoff’s current law for the circuit shown in fig 7 are
Page

given below:
 …..7

…..8

It is observed that the mesh basis equations 5, 6, 7 and 8 are similar to the differential
equation 3 and 4 governing the mechanical system.

Exercise 2.1
Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational system shown in fig 1.
Draw the torque-voltage and torque-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by writing
the mesh and node equations.

44
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 Chapter 4
Control Systems - Block Diagrams
A control system may consist of a number of components. In control engineering to show the
function performed by each component, we commonly use a diagram called block diagram.
It is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the flow
of signals. Such a diagram depicts the interrelationship that exist among the various
component. the elements of a block diagram are block, branch point and summing point.
Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to
represent the control systems in pictorial form.
Basic Elements of Block Diagram
The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off point.
Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the following
figure to identify these elements.

Fig 4.1 Parts of a block diagram

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is
also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the
flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.

Block

The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. A functional block or simply

block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input to the block that produced the
output. The transfer function of the components are usually entered in the corresponding
blocks which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of the flow of signals as shown
in fig 4.2.

Figure 4.2 shows a block diagram having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function
G(s). The arrows represents the flow of signals
45

Fig 4.2 a functional Block

Page
Transfer Function,
⇒Y(s) = G(s)X(s)
Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.

Summing Point

The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more
inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based
on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y
as sum of A and B.

i.e., Y = A + B.

Fig 4.3 Summing Point (sum of A and B)

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is
having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of A
and B.

Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

Fig 4.4 Summing Point (difference of A and B)

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the
46

summing point produces the output Y as

Page

Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
 Fig 4.5 Summing points of three points

Take-off Point
The take-off point or branch point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed
through more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the
same input to one or more blocks, summing points.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two more
blocks.

Fig 4.6 Take-off point

In fig 4.7, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the inputs to the
summing point.

Fig 4.7 Take-off Point used to connect the output as one inputs

Constructing Block diagram for Control Systems

A control system can be represented diagrammatically by block diagram. The differential
47

equations governing the system are used to construct the block diagram. By taking Laplace
Page
transform, the differential equations are converted to algebraic equations. The equations will
have variables and constants. From the working knowledge of the system, the input and output
variables are identified and the block diagram for equation can be drawn. Each equation gives
one section of block diagram. The output of one section be input for another section. The
various sections are interconnected to obtain the overall block of the system.

Worked Example 4.1:

Construct the block diagram of armature controlled DC motor.
Solution
The differential equations governing the armature controlled DC motor are:

Fig 4.8 Armature Controlled DC motor

On taking laplace transform of equation (1) we get:

Va(s) = Ia(s)Ra + La SIa(s) + Eb(s) (6)
In equation (6), Va(s) and Eb(s) are inputs and Ia(s) is the output. Hence the equation (6) is rearranged
48

and the block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 4.9
Page

Va(s) – Eb(s) = Ia(s)[Ra + sLa]

 Fig 4.9 block diagram of eqn (6)
On taking Laplace transform of equation (2) we get:
T(s) = Kt Ia(s) (7)
In equation (7) Ia(s) is the input and T(s) is the output. The output block diagram for this equation is
shown in fig 4.10

Fig 4.10 block diagram of eqn (2)

On taking the Laplace transform of equation (3) we get:
T(s) = J(s) ɷ(s) + B ɷ(s) (8)
T(s) = (J + B) ɷ(s)

In equation (8), T(s) is the input and ɷ(s)is the output. Hence the equation (8) is rearranged and the
block diagram for the equation is shown in fig 4.11

Fig 4.11
On taking Laplace transform of equation 4 we get,
Eb(s) = Kb ɷ(s) (9)
In equation (9) ɷ(s) is the input and Eb(s) is the output. The block diagram for this equation is shown
in fig 4.12

Fig 4.12
On taking Laplace transform of equation (5) we get
ɷ(s) = s θ(s) (10)
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In equation (10) ɷ(s) is the input and θ(s) is the output. Hence equation (10) is rearrange and the block
diagram for the equation is shown in fig 4.13

Fig 4.13
The overall block diagram of an armature controlled DC motor is obtained by connecting the various
sections (fig 4.9 – fig 4.13). This gives rise to fig 4.14 shown below:

Fig 4.14 block diagram of armature controlled DC motor

Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems

In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram. Electrical systems
contain mainly three basic elements — resistor, inductor and capacitor.

Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in figure 4.15. Where, Vi(t) and Vo(t) are the input
and output voltages. Let i(t) be the current passing through the circuit. This circuit is in time
domain.

Fig 4.8 Electrical System circuit

By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The circuit
is as shown in figure 4.16.
50
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 Fig 4.9 circuit in s-domain

From the above circuit, we can write

….1

…….2
Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And then combine
those block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of series of RLC
Circuit (s-domain).

Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, . The input
and output of this block are {Vi(s) − Vo(s)} and I(s). We require a summing point to
get {Vi(s) − Vo(s)}. The block diagram of Equation 1 is shown in figure 4.17.

Fig 4.10 block diagram of Equation 1

Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, . The input and
output of this block are I(s) and Vo(s). The block diagram of Equation 2 is shown in figure
4.18.

Fig 4.11 Block diagram of Equation 2

The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in figure 4.19.
51
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 Fig 4.12 Block diagram of RLC (Equation 1 and 2)

Similarly, you can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system just by
following this simple procedure.

 Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical circuit by
applying Laplace transform.

 Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch elements
and voltage across all shunt branches.

 Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.

 Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of
the electrical circuit (s-domain).

Constructing Block Diagram for Control System

A control system can be represented diagrammatically by a block diagram. The differential

equations governing the system are used to construct the block diagram. By taking Laplace
transform the differential equations are converted to algebraic equations. The equations will
have variables and constants. From the working knowledge of the system, the input and output
variables are identified and the block diagram for each equation can be drawn. Each equation
gives one section of block diagram. The output of one section will be input for another section.
The various sections are interconnected to obtain the overall block diagram of the system.

Worked Example 4.1

Construct the block diagram of armature-controlled DC motor.
Solution The differential equations governing the
armature-controlled DC motor are:
52
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…1
 …2

…3

…4

…5

Fig 1 Schematic diagram of Armature-Controlled DC motor

Fig 2 Armature-Controlled DC motor

On taking Laplace transform of equation 1 we have:

…6

In equation 6, Va(s) and Eb(s) are inputs and Ia(s) is output. Hence equation 6 can be
rearranged and the block diagram for this equation is given as shown in fig 3

Fig 3 Block diagram

On taking Laplace transform of equation 2, we have

…7
In equation 7, Ia(s) is the input and T(s) is the output. The block diagram for this equation is
shown in fig 4
53 Page
 Fig 4 Block diagram

On taking Laplace transform of equation 3 we have:

…..8

In equation 8, T(s) is the input and ω(s) is the output. Hence equation 8 is rearranged and the
block diagram from the equation is shown in fig 5

Fig 5 block diagram

On taking Laplace transform of equation 4, we have

…9

In equation 9, ω(s) is the input and Eb(s) is the output. The block diagram for this equation is
shown in fig 6

Fig 6 block diagram

On taking Laplace transform of equation 5, we have

10

In equation 10, is the input and θb(s) is the output. Hence equation 10 is rearranged and the
block diagram for this equation is shown in fig 7

Fig 7 Block diagram

The overall block diagram of armature-controlled DC motor is obtained by connecting the
various sections shown in fig 3 to fig 7. Th overall block diagram is shown in fig 8
54
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 Fig 8 Block Diagram of an armature-controlled DC Motor

Exercise 4.1
Construct the block diagram of field-controlled DC motor
Solution Hint

55
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 4.2 Control Systems - Block Diagram Algebra
Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of the block
diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.
Basic Connections for Blocks
There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.
Series Connection
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In figure 4.12, two blocks having
transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in series.

Fig 4.12 Cascaded block Diagram in Series

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

Y(s) = G2(s)Z(s)
Where, Z(s) = G1(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s) = G2(s)[G1(s)X(s)] = G1(s)G2(s)X(s)
⇒Y(s) = {G1(s)G2(s)}X(s)
Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, Y(s) = G(s)X(s)
Where, G(s)=G1(s)G2(s).
That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Fig 4.12 Equivalent block Diagram of series connection

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’ blocks.
Parallel Connection
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following figure,
two blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are connected in parallel. The
outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.
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Fig 4.13 block Diagram of parallel connection

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

Y(s) =Y1(s) + Y2(s)

Where, Y1(s) = G1(s)X(s) and Y2(s) = G2(s)X(s)

⇒Y(s) = G1(s)X(s) + G2(s)X(s) = {G1(s) + G2(s)}X(s)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, Y(s) = G(s)X(s).
Where, G(s) = G1(s) + G2(s).

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two blocks.
The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Fig 4.14 Equivalent block Diagram of parallel connection

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’
blocks.

Feedback Connection
As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive feedback
and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here,
two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s) form a closed loop.

Fig 4.15 block Diagram of Negative and Positive feedback

The output of the summing point is -

E(s) = X(s) − H(s)Y(s)
The output Y(s) is -
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Y(s) = E(s)G(s)
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Substitute E(s) value in the above equation.
Y(s) = {X(s) − H(s)Y(s)} G(s)}
Y(s){1+G(s)H(s)} = X(s)G(s)}

Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Fig 4.16 Block Diagram of Negative feedback

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
positive feedback, i.e.,

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting summing point after the block

 Shifting summing point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases one by one.
Shifting Summing Point After the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is present
before the block.

Fig 4.17 Block Diagram of Shifting Summing Point

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Summing point has two inputs R(s) and X(s). The output of it is {R(s) + X(s)}.
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So, the input to the block G(s) is {R(s) + X(s)} and the output of it is –

Y(s) = G(s){R(s) + X(s)}

⇒Y(s) = G(s)R(s) + G(s)X(s) 1

Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Fig 4.17 Block Diagram of Shifting Summing Point after block

Output of the block G(s) is G(s)R(s).
The output of the summing point is
Y(s) = G(s)R(s)+X(s) 2
Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the second
term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block G(s). It is having
the input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of X(s).
This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Fig 4.18 Block Diagram of Shifting Summing Point

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Shifting Summing Point Before the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is present
after the block.

Fig 4.19 Summing Point after block

Output of this block diagram is -

Y(s) = G(s)R(s) + X(s)Y(s) 3
Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Fig 4.20 Summing Point before block

Output of this block diagram is -

Y(S) = G(s)R(s) + G(s)X(s)Y(S) 4
Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the second term.
In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block . It is having the
input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead of X(s). This
block diagram is shown in figure 4.21.
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Fig 4.21 Summing Point

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Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points
There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks :

 Shifting take-off point after the block

 Shifting take-off point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements are to be done in the above two cases, one by one.
Shifting Take-off Point After the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off point is
present before the block.

Fig 4.22 Take-off Point after block

Here, X(s) = R(s) and Y(s) = G(s)R(s)
When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there is
difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s) value, we require one more

block . It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown
figure 4.23.

Fig 4.23 Take-off Point before block

Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in figure 4.24. Here, the take-off point is present after the
block.
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Fig 4.24 Take-off Point after block

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Here, X(s) = R(s) and Y(s) = G(s)R(s)
When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there is
difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require one more block G(s).
It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown in figure 4.25.

Fig 4.25 Take-off Point before block

4.3 Control Systems - Block Diagram Reduction
The concepts discussed in the previous section are helpful for reducing (simplifying) the block
diagrams. The block diagram can be reduced to find the overall transfer function of the system.
The following rules can be used in block diagram reduction.
Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many blocks,
summing points and take-off points.
 Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
 Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
 Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards
right.
 Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards
left.
 Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the overall
block diagram.
Example
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this block
diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.
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 Fig 4.26 Complex block diagram

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4. The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Fig 4.27 After applying Rule 1

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the
block G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Fig 4.28 After applying Rule 2

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3 + G4) and G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.
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Fig 4.29 After applying Rule 1 for blocks G3, G4 and G5

Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4) G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Fig 4.30 After applying Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4) G5

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Fig 4.31 After applying Rule 1

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

Fig 4.32 After applying Rule 3

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram
having multiple inputs.
 Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a time
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and make the remaining inputs as zero.

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 Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.

  Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because, we
have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome this
drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).
Worked Example 4.1
The block diagram of a closed loop system in fig 1. Using the block diagram reduction
technique determine the reduced loop transfer function C(s)/R(s)

Solution

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 Chapter 5
Signal Flow Graphs
Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter, let us
discuss the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw signal flow
graphs
5.1 Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph
Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.
Node
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of nodes
— input node, output node and mixed node.
 Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
 Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.
 Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example
Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

Fig 5.1 Signal flow Graph

 The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2, y3 and y4.
 y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.
 y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.
Branch
Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For example,
there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches have gains of a, b,
c and -d.
5.2 Properties of Signal Flow Graph
The basic properties of signal flow graph are the following:
1. The algebraic equations which are used to construct signal flow graph must be in the
form of cause and effect relationship.
2. Signal flow graph is applicable to linear systems only
3. A node in the signal flow graph represents the variable or signal
4. A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits the sum to all outgoing
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branches
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 5. A mixed node which has both incoming and outgoing signals can be treated as an
output node by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance.
6. A branch indicates functional dependence of one signal on the other.
7. The signals travel along branches only in the marked direction and when it travels it
gets multiplied by the gain or transmittance of the branch
8. The signal flow graph of a system is not unique. By rearranging the system equations
different types of signal flow graph can be drawn for a given system.
5.3 Construction of Signal Flow Graph
Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations −
y2 = a12y1 + a42y4
y3 = a23y2 + a53y5
y4 = a34y3
y5 = a45y4 +a35y3
y6 = a56y5
There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and eight branches in this signal flow graph.
The gains of the branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.
To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow graph for each equation, then
combine all these signal flow graphs and then follow the steps given below −
Step 1 − Signal flow graph for y2 = a13y1 + a42y4 is shown in figure 2 below.

Fig 2 y2 = a12y1 + a42y4

Step 2 − Signal flow graph for y3=a23y2+a53y5 is shown in figure 3 below.

Fig 3 y3 = a23y2+a53y5
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Step 3 − Signal flow graph for y4 = a34y3 is shown in figure 4 below.

Fig 4 y4 = a34y3

Step 4 − Signal flow graph for y5 = a45y4 + a35y3 is shown in figure 5 below.

Fig 5 a45y4 + a35y3

Step 5 − Signal flow graph for y6=a56y5 is shown in figure 6 below.

Fig 6 y6=a56y5

Step 6 − Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in figure 7 below.

Fig 7 Overall SFG

5.4 Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs
Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block
diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
 Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.
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 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the
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branches in signal flow graph.

  Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between two nodes
(but there is no block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as one. For
example, between summing points, between summing point and takeoff point,
between input and summing point, between take-off point and output.
Example
Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

Fig 5.2 block diagram

Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block diagram as input node R(s) and
output node C(s) of signal flow graph.
Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labelled in the block diagram. There are
nine nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four summing points, four
nodes for four take-off points and one node for the variable between blocks G1 and G2.
The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

Fig 5.3 SFG of above block diagram

Worked Example 5.1

Convert the given block diagram in fig 1 to signal flow diagram and determine the C(s)/R(s).
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II

III

IV

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With the help of Mason’s gain formula (discussed in the next section), you can calculate the
transfer function of this signal flow graph. This is the advantage of signal flow graphs. Here,
we no need to simplify (reduce) the signal flow graphs for calculating the transfer function.

5.2 Mason's Gain Formula

Let us now discuss the Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a signal
flow graph. The gain between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow graph is nothing
but the transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by using Mason’s gain formula.

Mason’s gain formula is

(5.1)
Where,
 C(s) is the output node
 R(s) is the input node
 T is the transfer function or gain between R(s) and C(s)
 Pi is the ith forward path gain
Δ = 1− (sum of all individual loop gains) Δ = 1 − (sum of all individual loop gains)
+ (sum of gain products of all possible two non-touching loops) + (sum of gain products of all
possible two non-touching loops)
− (sum of gain products of all possible three non-touching loops) + ...− (sum of gain products
of all possible three non-touching loops) +...
Δi is obtained from Δ by removing the loops which are touching the ith forward path.
Consider figure 5.4 signal flow graph in order to understand the basic terminology involved
here.

Fig 5.4

Path
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It is a traversal of branches from one node to any other node in the direction of branch arrows.
It should not traverse any node more than once.
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Examples − y2→ y3 → y4 → y5 and y5 → y3→ y2

Forward Path
The path that exists from the input node to the output node is known as forward path.
Examples − y1→ y2 → y3 → y4 → y5 → y6 and y1 → y2 → y3 → y5 → y6.

Forward Path Gain

It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of the forward path.
Examples – abcde is the forward path gain of y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6 and abge is the
forward path gain of y1 → y2 → y3→ y5 → y6.

Loop
The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known as loop. Hence, it is a
closed path.
Examples − y2 → y3 → y2 and y3 → y5 → y3.

Loop Gain
It is obtained by calculating the product of all branch gains of a loop.
Examples − bj is the loop gain of y2→y3→y2 and gh is the loop gain of y3→y5→y3.
Non-touching Loops
These are the loops, which should not have any common node.
Examples − The loops, y2→ y3 → y2 and y4→y5→y4 are non-touching.

5.5 Calculation of Transfer Function using Mason’s Gain Formula

Let us consider the same signal flow graph for finding transfer function.

Fig 5.5

 Number of forward paths, N = 2.

 First forward path is - y1 → y2 → y3 → y4 → y5 → y6.
 First forward path gain, p1=abcde
 Second forward path is - y1 → y2 → y3 → y5 → y6.
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 Second forward path gain, p2 = abge.

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 Number of individual loops, L = 5.

  Loops are - y2→y3→y2, y3→y5→y3, y3→y4→y5→y3, y4→y5→y4
and y5→y5.
 Loop gains are - l1 = bj, l2 = gh, l3 = cd, l4 = di and l5 = f.

 Number of two non-touching loops = 2.

 First non-touching loops pair is - y2→y3→y2, y4→y5→y4.
 Gain product of first non-touching loops pair, l1l4= bjdi
 Second non-touching loops pair is - y2 → y3 → y2, y5 → y5.
 Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is - l1l5 = bjf

Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in this signal flow
graph.
We know,
Δ = 1− (sum of all individual loop gains)Δ = 1 − (sum of all individual loop gains)
+ (sum of gain products of all possible two non-touching loops) + (sum of gain products of all
possible two non-touching loops)
− (sum of gain products of all possible three non-touching loops) + ...− ( sum of gain
products of all possible three non-touching loops) + ...
Substitute the values in the above equation,
Δ=1 − (bj + gh + cdh +di + f) + (bjdi + bjf) − (0)
⇒Δ=1 − (bj + gh + cdh + di + f) + bjdi + bjf
There is no loop which is non-touching to the first forward path.
So, Δ1 =1.
Similarly, Δ2 =1. Since, no loop which is non-touching to the second forward path.
Substitute, N = 2 in Mason’s gain formula

Substitute all the necessary values in the above equation.

Therefore, the transfer function is -

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 5. 1 Worked Example 5.2
Find the overall gain C(s)/R(s) for the signal flow graph shown in fig 1

Solution

III Gain Products of Two Non-touching loops

There is no possible combination of two non-touching loops, three non-touching loops, etc

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Reference
1. Nise, N. S. (2019), Control Systems Engineering, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Hoboken, U.S.A., 944 pp.
2. Distefano, J., Stubberud, A. R. and Williams, I. J. (2013), Schaum’s Outline of Feedback
and Control Systems, McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition, New York City, 496 pp.
3. Clark, R. N. (2012), Control System Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, 10thedition,
Cambridge, U.S.A., 567 pp.
4. Dorf, R. C. and Bishop, R. H., (2010), Modern Control Systems,12th edition, Prentice Hall,
Hoboken, U.S.A.,1104 pp.

Online Reference
https://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Systems/MechTranslating/TransMechSysElem.html

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